Construction Technology 1

By
MR S. MBEKI
 Recommended Text Book
Building Construction Handbook
Authors: Roy Chudley and Roger Greeno 12th Edition-
Routledge (2013). (0isbn97800080970615)
Building Construction and Graphics standards
Authors: Andre Grobbelaar Anglo Rand Publicians (2013).
(ISBN9780620077873)
The Structure of Built environment in South Africa
Authors: Hauptfleisch and Sigle
National Building Regulations SANS 10400 codes
 Recommended Text Book

Construction Technology Illustrated, 5th Ed. – FDK

Ching
Construction Technology 3rd Ed. – Roy Chudley
Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings 2nd
Ed. – Stephen Emmitt; Christopher Gorse
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials
&Methods – Edward Allen, Joseph Iano
 Module 4

Cementitious materials
 INTRODUCTION

▪Cement is a substance used for binding and hardening other materials.

▪Water and cement set and harden through a chemical reaction known as
'hydration'.
▪The process of hardening is described as 'curing', which requires
particular conditions of temperature and humidity.
▪Cement can be mixed with a fine aggregate and water to produce mortar,
used in masonry construction as a bedding and adhesive to bind and fill the
gaps between adjacent blocks of brick, concrete or stone.
▪It can be also be mixed with water, aggregates (such
as gravel, sand or rock), and sometimes admixtures, to form concrete, and
can be used to make renders, screeds and so on.
▪The ratio of water and cement will determine the overall strength
and quality of the mix.
 INTRODUCTION

The exact properties of the cement paste are very important:

▪It must be fluid enough for some time after mixing to allow the mix to be
formed into its final shape.

▪It must then set and gain strength so that it binds the aggregates together to
produce a strong material.
 Manufacturing and
composition of cement
▪Cement is manufactured by crushing, milling and proportioning the
following materials:
Lime or calcium oxide, CaO: from limestone, chalk, shells, shale or
calcareous rock
Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock
Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
Iron, Fe2O3: from from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone
▪The materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to produce a mixture
with the desired chemical composition and then ground and blended by one
of two processes - dry process or wet process.
▪The materials are then fed through a kiln at 2,600º F to produce grayish-
black pellets known as clinker.
▪The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which lower the melting point
of silica from 3,000 to 2600º F. After this stage, the clinker is cooled,
pulverized and gypsum added to regulate setting time.
▪It is then ground extremely fine to produce cement.
 Manufacturing and
composition of cement
Because of the complex chemical nature of cement, a shorthand form is
used to denote the chemical compounds. The shorthand for the basic
compounds is:
 Physical & Chemical properties of
cement
▪ Cement, a popular binding material, is a very important construction
material. This section concerns the physical and chemical properties
of cement, as well as the methods to test cement properties:
 Physical properties of cement
▪Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their
physical properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement.
The physical properties of good cement are based on:
✓Fineness of cement
✓Soundness
✓Consistency
✓Strength
✓Setting time
✓Heat of hydration
✓Loss of ignition
✓Bulk density
✓Specific gravity (Relative density)
▪ These physical properties are discussed in details in the following
segment. Also, you will find the test names associated with these physical
properties.
 Physical properties of cement
Fineness of Cement
▪The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness.

▪The required fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the

clinker in the last step of cement production process.

▪As hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size,
fineness of cement is very important.
Soundness of Cement
▪Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening.

▪Good quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed
expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.

▪Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for

ensuring soundness must be able to determine that potential
 Physical properties of cement
▪Le-Chatelier Test: This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus,
tests the expansion of cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal
consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in water for 24
hours at 20+1°C.
▪It is taken out to measure the distance between the indicators and then
returned under water, brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour.
After cooling the device, the distance between indicator points is measured
again. In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.
Autoclave Test: Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an
autoclave (high-pressure steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa,
and then kept there for 3 hours.
The change in length of the specimen (after gradually bringing the
autoclave to room temperature and pressure) is measured and expressed in
percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of
0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave
Expansion of Portland Cement
 Physical properties of cement
Consistency of Cement
▪The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by Vicat
Test.
▪In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat
Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top
surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up to a certain
depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to have a normal
consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.
Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and
flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio,
cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a
specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age.
While testing the strength, the following should be considered:
▪Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly
related. Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
▪The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement
paste.
▪Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the
 Physical properties of cement
Compressive Strength
▪It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and
subjected to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be
within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.
Standard tests:
i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)
Tensile strength
▪Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement
production, now it does not offer any useful information about the
properties of cement.
Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is
performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at
its center point until failure. Standard test:
ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
 Physical properties of cement
Setting Time of Cement
▪Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water
ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction
should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time
not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:
Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs
within 30-45 minutes)
Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load
(occurs below 10 hours)
Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.
Standard Tests:
AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement
by Vicat Needle
AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore
Needles
ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore
Needles
 Physical properties of cement
Heat of Hydration
▪When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called
hydration.
▪Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and
also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather.
▪On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large
structures, it may cause undesired stress.
▪The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement,
and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature.
▪The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the
difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by
comparing these at 7th and 28th days).
Standard Test:
ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
 Physical properties of cement
Loss of Ignition
▪Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight
is obtained) causes weight loss.
▪This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition.
▪Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer
may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be
indicated by increased loss of ignition.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic
Cement
 Physical properties of cement
Bulk density
▪When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there
would normally be air.
▪Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement
has a varying range of density depending on the cement composition
percentage.
▪The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic
foot.
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
▪Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations.
▪Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement
(for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement)
may have specific gravities of about 2.90.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement
 Chemical properties of cement
▪The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or
clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells,
chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of
cement raw materials provides insight into the chemical properties of
cement.
1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Low content of C3A makes the cement
sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of C3A, which liberates
a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration.
C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than
8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8%
C3A)
2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): C3S causes rapid hydration as well as
hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early strength gain an initial
setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps
early strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement helps the strength gain
after one week
 Chemical properties of cement
4. Ferrite (C4AF): Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting
temperature of the raw materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F.
Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the strength of
the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO): The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses
magnesia as a raw material in dry process plants. An excess amount of
magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount
of it can add strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also
causes less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.
6.Sulphur trioxide: Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement
unsound.
7.Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide: Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron
oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
8. Alumina: Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand
frigid temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the
setting but weakens the cement.
 Chemical properties of cement
9. Alkalis: The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide
(Na2O) determine the alkali content of the cement.
▪Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in
regulating the setting time of cement.
▪Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can
cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace
slag is not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis.
▪There is an optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the
equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
10. Free lime: Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause
expansion.
11. Silica fumes: Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to
improve a variety of properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion
resistance and bond strength.
▪Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can
grant exceptionally high strength.
▪Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced
for Portland cement projects that require high strength.
 Types of cement
▪Cement is a binding material which makes a bond between aggregates and
reinforcing materials together.
▪With the development of technology, quality and types of cement have
also developed.
▪So there are different types of cement for different construction works.
Followings are the types of cement:
▪Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
▪Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
▪Rapid Hardening Cement
▪Quick setting cement
▪Low Heat Cement
▪Sulphates resisting cement
▪High Alumina Cement
▪White Cement
▪Colored cement
▪Air Entraining Cement
▪Expansive cement
▪Hydrophobic cement
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The
composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:
Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)
Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement
▪It is used for general construction purposes.
▪It is also used in most of the masonry works
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive
forms. It reacts with calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to
form additional cementations materials when it is finely divided. The
composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:
OPC clinker
Gypsum
Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica
fumes.)
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement
▪PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction
near the seashore, dam construction etc.
▪It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
▪As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art
structures.
▪It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with
higher content, it gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC
is called Rapid Hardening Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and
Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement
▪Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed
like the construction of pavement.
▪It also gives high strength.
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Quick Setting Cement
Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The
initial setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The
composition of Quick Setting Cement:
▪Clinker
▪Aluminium sulphate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
▪The aluminium sulphte increase the hydration rate of silicate.
Uses of Quick Setting Cement
▪It is used in underwater construction.
▪It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
▪It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
▪Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Low Heat Cement
It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during
setting. Some chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is
modified to reduce the heat of hydration. The chemical composition of low
heat cement:
▪A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
▪A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).
Uses of Low Heat Cement
▪It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and
wind turbine plinths.
▪It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
Sulphate resisting cement
Sulphate resisting cement is used to resist Sulphate attacks in concrete.
Due to the lower percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of
calcium sulpho-aluminates gets reduced.
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Uses of Sulphate resisting Cement
▪Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2%
or 0.3 % g/l sulphate salts respectively.
▪Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge
piers, concrete surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
▪Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage,
sumps, drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as
sea walls, breakwaters, tetrapods etc
High Alumina Cement
High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an
aluminium ore) and ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of
OPC. In which the total amount of alumina content should not be lesser
than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to the lime
between 0.85 to 1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
▪It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like
workshop, refractory, foundries etc
▪It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color.
Amounts of iron oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is
expensive then OPC so not economical for ordinary work.
Uses of White Cement
▪It is usually used in decorative work.
▪It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles
patching materials and terrazzo surfaces.
Colored Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types
of pigments are selected according to the desired color.
Uses of Colored Cement
Colored cement is used for different decorative work
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
Air Entraining Cement
Air-entraining cement is a spatial type of cement which entrains tinny air
bubbles in concrete. When water in concrete get frizzed due to low
temperature, it expands. When air-entraining cement, the air voids in
concrete provides space for water to expand without cracking concrete. But
this type cement does not provide high strength in concrete.
Uses of Air-Entraining Cement
▪Spatially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
▪It also resists Sulphate attack.
▪It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.
Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can
be possible to overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:
•K Type expansive cement
•M Type expansive cement
•S Type expansive cement
 Brief descriptions of these cement types
with their uses is given below.
K Type expansive cement
•Raw materials of these types of cement; Portland cement, Anhydrous
tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S), Calcium sulfate (CaSO4), Lime
(CaO).
M Type Expansive Cement
Raw materials of these types of cement; Portland cement clinkers, Calcium
sulfate.
S Type Expansive Cement
Raw materials of these types of cement; Portland cement clinkers, Calcium
sulfate (High amount), Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)
Uses of Expansive cement
▪It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
▪It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
▪In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is
used
 Storage of cement
▪Storage of cement is predominate for constructional works. For economy
and proper flow of work, it is a very common practice to buy a bulk amount
of cement at a time.
▪Hence, it is essential to ensure correct arrangements to store properly this
amount of cements. Properly maintained storage facilities preserve the
quality and fitness of cement to be used.
▪Cement may be an absorbent construction material. It reacts with wetness
either in liquid or in vapor forms quickly.
▪In the presence of wetness, cement undergoes a chemical process termed
as hydration.
▪Cement becomes useless once the hydration method has taken place.
Cement will stay in shape as long because it encounters wetness.
▪Moisture may be a huge enemy of cement and thus cements luggage never
keep for an extended amount.
 Why it is Important to Properly Store the
Cement
▪Storing cement is very important because of its own quality and usage.
Moisture Effect on Cement Strength
▪If cement is not stored properly, it will absorb moisture from the region air
or the other supply, inflicting the cement to react with it with chemicals.
▪The binding property and strength of cement depend upon its capability
for the chemical process. For this, the strength of cement is going to be
affected.
Storage Duration Effect on Cement Quality
▪Prolonged storage of cement, wherever dampish air could gain access,
decreases the strength of the cement and makes it seem to be coarser, the
quantity of water needed to create up a neat cement paste of normal
consistency will increase, and setting time is additionally accrued.
▪In worst cases, lump formation even renders the cement unusable.
▪For hindrance of cement against deterioration and retentive its freshness,
its storage ought to be specified no damp or moisture is allowed to succeed
in cement either from the bottom, walls or from the setting.
▪This becomes necessary throughout the wet season and in coastal regions
once region air contains the next quantity of moisture in it.
 Procedures of Cement Storage
Following are some basic points that one ought to be considering
whereas storing cement:
▪Cement baggage ought to be held on wherever no wet or moistness is
allowed to succeed in cement either from the bottom, walls or from the
surroundings, etc.
▪Do not enable hooks to facilitate the storage of cement. Exploitation hooks
have been marked as a harmful follow for the handling of baggage because
it exposes the cement to the open atmosphere, which can be damp and
misty.
▪Never store the cement bags with fertilizers or a different product, as any
contamination will have an effect on the standard and performance of the
screen.
▪Avoid storage of cement within the basement; ideally, the storage ought to
be drained the primary or higher floors.
▪The little windows are provided at sill level and commonly unbroken
tightly shut. Because of this, the wet or rainwater is prevented from
stepping into the shed.
 Protection Steps for Proper Storage of
Cement
▪Cement should be taken care of rigorously and seriously. There are some
steps to be considered as precautions of storing cement. Below steps are for
storing cement:
✓Climatic moisture comfortable
✓Endurance of cement storage
✓Place, site or zone of storage
✓Organizing cement bags
✓Disengagement of cement bags
▪A brief description of these cement protection steps is given below. In all
cement storage facilities, these precautions must be considered
 Protection Steps for Proper Storage of
Cement
Climatic Moisture Comfort
▪Climatic or atmospheric moisture comfortable is most bizarre and
important for storing cement.
▪The presence of moisture in the climate would be damaged cement and it
becomes useless material. Storing cement must be kept in airtight
workplace.
▪The intake of moisture from climate also depends on the quality and
quantity of cement. For this, extra care must be taken in order to keep the
cement fresh and well.
▪If there, any chance to exposed of air tightness, then cement tests must be
taken for verification. If the result shows, more than 5% moisture then it is
not used for construction work.
Endurance of Cement Storage
▪While storing cement, time is the most important factor for the better
easement. Longtime storing could be damaged cement.
▪It would be a great use if cement not stored for more than 3 months.
Hence, long timing stored cement can be reduced the strength of cement.
 Protection Steps for Proper Storage of
Cement
Place, Site or Zone of Storage
▪Special and customized places like- warehouse or warehouse at worksites
are good for cement storage. Open places are damaged for cement usage.
The design of warehouses or warehouses should be well-structured.
▪The main purposes of making special typed storage place for cement are
‘climate adjustment’ and ‘time state’.
▪warehouses should be well drained, waterproof room and attached with
small windows in the storerooms.
Organizing Cement Bags
▪For designing a storeroom for cement, like warehouses, should be
preferably made in wooden stuff.
▪The wooden storeroom is perfect for atmospheric adjustment for collecting
and storing cement for longer periods.
▪Hence, organizing and gathering cement bags are depends on the condition
and situation of the storeroom. Cement should be placed at a wooden
platform above 150 mm to 200 mm from floor ground.
 Protection Steps for Proper Storage of
Cement
▪Each bundle of cement bags should be connected together tightly so that
air cannot pass through or enter it. of course, manufacture dates and places
should be mentioned on the bags, so that workers can understand the
condition of cement.
Disengagement of Cement Bags
▪While the time of using the cement bags, there should be considered to use
the very first bag and then second, then third and so on.
▪Removing cement from bags should be done carefully according to
climatic comfort.
▪In the end, the usage of cement and storing cement bags at worksites like-
warehouses is incredibly necessary for constructional work.
▪Therefore, cement bags collection, organizing, time, and placing the
cement, planning warehouse; all at once are counted as parts and
instrumentation to create the cement storeroom or the steps of storage of
cement.
 REMARKS

QUESTION!