📘 UNIT 1: Temperature Sensors (07 Hours)

1. Scope of Sensors and Transducers

●​ Sensor: A device that detects and responds to physical stimuli (like heat, light, pressure)
and converts it into a readable output (e.g., electrical signal).​

●​ Transducer: Any device that converts one form of energy into another. All sensors are
transducers, but not all transducers are sensors.​

Example: A thermocouple is both a sensor and a transducer because it senses

temperature and converts it to voltage.

2. Concepts and Terminology of Measurement Systems

●​ Measurement system: An arrangement that includes:​

○​ Sensor/Transducer​

○​ Signal Conditioning Unit (amplifier, filter, etc.)​

○​ Display/Recording system​

●​ Terms:​

○​ Accuracy: Closeness to true value.​

○​ Precision: Repeatability of measurements.​

○​ Resolution: Smallest measurable change.​

○​ Sensitivity: Output change per unit input.​

○​ Linearity: Proportionality of input vs output.​

○​ Hysteresis: Difference in output between increasing and decreasing input.​

○​ Drift: Slow change in output over time.​

 ○​ Span: Range of measurable values (Max - Min).​

3. Classification and Selection Criteria of Transducers

●​ Classification by Output Signal:​

○​ Analog (continuous): Thermocouple​

○​ Digital (discrete): Digital temp sensors like DS18B20​

●​ Classification by Energy Type:​

○​ Active transducers: Generate output without external power (e.g.,

thermocouple)​

○​ Passive transducers: Need external power (e.g., RTD)​

●​ Selection Criteria:​

○​ Range and accuracy needed​

○​ Response time​

○​ Operating environment​

○​ Cost and durability​

○​ Calibration needs​

4. Temperature Scales, Units, and Relations

●​ Scales:​

○​ Celsius (°C)​

○​ Fahrenheit (°F)​

○​ Kelvin (K) – Absolute scale​

 ○​ Rankine (°R)​

Conversions:

●​ °C = (°F – 32) × 5/9​

●​ °F = (°C × 9/5) + 32​

●​ K = °C + 273.15​

●​ °R = °F + 459.67​

5. Classification of Temperature Sensors

A. Contact Type Sensors (require physical contact)

●​ Mechanical: Mercury thermometer, Bimetallic strips​

●​ Electrical: RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple​

B. Non-Contact Type Sensors (based on radiation or light)

●​ Infrared (IR) sensors​

●​ Optical pyrometers​

●​ Radiation thermometers​

6. Mechanical Temperature Sensors

1.​ Liquid-in-glass thermometer: Mercury/alcohol expands with temperature​

2.​ Bimetallic strip:​

○​ Two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients​

○​ Bends when heated​

 3.​ Gas thermometer: Uses pressure-volume relation of gases​

7. Electrical Temperature Sensors

Sensor Principle Pros Cons

RTD (Resistance Resistance of metal (usually platinum) High Expensive,

Temperature increases with temperature accuracy, slow
Detector) stable

Thermistor Resistance of semiconductor material Cheap, Non-linear,

changes rapidly with temperature sensitive limited range

Thermocouple Voltage generated at junction of two Wide range, Needs

dissimilar metals due to temperature rugged reference
difference (Seebeck effect) junction

8. Non-Contact Temperature Sensors

1.​ Radiation Pyrometer:​

○​ Measures thermal radiation emitted​

○​ For very high temps or moving objects​

2.​ Optical Pyrometer:​

○​ Compares brightness of target with filament​

○​ Suitable for high-temperature metals, furnaces​

✅ Summary Chart
Type Example Contact Range Notes
?

RTD Pt100 Yes -200°C to 600°C Accurate

Thermistor NTC Yes -100°C to 300°C Very sensitive

 Thermocouple K-type Yes -200°C to 1700°C Wide range

Radiation pyrometer IR gun No -50°C to 3000°C Non-contact

Optical pyrometer Filament No 700°C to 4000°C High temp only

Would you like me to now continue with Unit 2: Pressure and Level Sensors, or would you
prefer example questions, diagrams, or quiz-style practice for Unit 1 first?

📘 UNIT 2: Pressure and Level Sensors (08 Hours)

🔹 PART A: PRESSURE SENSORS
1. Pressure Scales, Units, and Relations

●​ Pressure = Force / Area​

SI Unit: Pascal (Pa)​
Common Units: bar, atm, mmHg (Torr), psi​

Unit Equivalent in Pa

1 atm 101325 Pa

1 bar 100000 Pa

1 mmHg (Torr) 133.322 Pa

1 psi 6894.76 Pa

🔸 Types of Pressure:
Type Definition
 Absolute Pressure Measured from vacuum (zero reference)

Gauge Pressure Measured relative to atmospheric pressure

Differential Pressure Difference between two pressure values

Atmospheric Pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere at sea level (~101.3

Pressure kPa)

Relation:​
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

2. Types of Manometers (Primary Pressure Sensors)

Use liquid columns to measure pressure.

●​ U-Tube Manometer: Measures gauge pressure​

●​ Inclined Manometer: More sensitive for small pressure differences​

●​ Differential Manometer: Measures pressure difference between two points​

●​ Well-type Manometer: Used in industrial systems​

Pros: Accurate, simple​

Cons: Bulky, not suitable for dynamic or high-pressure readings

3. Elastic Type Pressure Sensors (Secondary Sensors)

These use deformation of elastic elements under pressure.

a) Bourdon Tube

●​ C-shaped tube that straightens with internal pressure​

●​ Converts pressure into pointer motion​

b) Bellows
 ●​ Collapsible metal accordion-shaped capsule​

●​ Used for low-pressure measurement​

c) Diaphragm

●​ Thin flexible membrane​

●​ Used in both mechanical and electrical transducers​

d) Capsules

●​ Two diaphragms joined at edges, useful for low-pressure differential​

4. Calibrating Instruments

●​ Dead Weight Tester: Standard instrument to calibrate pressure gauges. Uses known
weights on a piston.​

●​ Vacuum Calibrator: For low/negative pressures​

●​ Digital Calibrators: Provide reference pressure values​

5. Various Types of Pressure Gauges

Type Principle Application

Bourdon Tube Gauge Elastic deformation General purpose

Diaphragm Gauge Deflection of diaphragm Low pressure

Digital Pressure Gauge Strain gauge or piezo sensor Modern, precise

Differential Pressure Measures difference between two Flow, filter monitoring

Gauge inputs

6. Direct and Indirect Pressure Measurement

 Type Examples Description

Direct Manometer, Bourdon Measures pressure directly by mechanical movement

tube

Indirect Strain gauge, piezo Measures other parameters like strain, voltage related to
sensor pressure

🔹 PART B: LEVEL SENSORS

1. Level Measurement Techniques

Used in tanks, vessels to determine fluid height.​

Two main types:

Type Description

Direct Contact with fluid

Indirect Uses external parameters like pressure,

capacitance

2. Direct Methods

a) Float Type

●​ A float rises/falls with fluid level​

●​ Linked to a pointer or transmitter​

b) Displacer (Torque Tube)

●​ Heavy object displaces liquid; buoyancy force changes with level​

●​ Torque tube converts force into rotation for measurement​

3. Indirect Electrical Methods

a) Ultrasonic Level Sensor

●​ Emits sound pulses; time of echo gives distance​

●​ Non-contact​

b) Radioactive Level Sensor

●​ Gamma rays pass through tank; attenuation depends on level​

●​ Used for toxic or corrosive materials​

c) Radar Level Sensor

●​ Similar to ultrasonic but uses microwaves​

●​ Works well with vapors, pressure, temperature changes​

d) Thermal Level Sensor

●​ Measures heat dissipation changes when immersed​

●​ Detects liquid presence​

4. Other Electrical Methods

Type Principle Notes

Capacitive Fluid level changes dielectric constant → For insulating/non-conductive

Capacitance changes fluids

Resistive Resistance of column changes with level Simple, direct

Optical Light beam is reflected/diffracted by liquid Clean fluids only

interface

Inductive Level of conductive fluid alters magnetic field Industrial fluids

5. Level Switches
 ●​ Point level detectors (On/Off)​

○​ Float switches​

○​ Capacitive/optical switches​

○​ Vibrating fork switches​

●​ Used for alarms, safety interlocks, pump control​

✅ Summary Chart
Sensor Type Contact Application

Float Direct Yes Simple tanks

Displacer Direct Yes Viscous liquids

Ultrasonic Indirect No Water, chemicals

Radar Indirect No Harsh environments

Capacitive Indirect Yes Non-conductive liquids

Optical Indirect Yes Transparent fluids

Thermal Indirect Yes Low-conductivity liquids

Level Switch Direct Yes Level alarms

📘 UNIT 3: Flow Sensors

🔹 1. Introduction to Flow Measurement
Flow refers to the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) from one point to another.​
Flow can be measured in:

●​ Volumetric flow rate: e.g., liters per second (L/s), m³/s​

●​ Mass flow rate: e.g., kg/s​

●​ Velocity: how fast the fluid moves, e.g., m/s​

🔹 2. Classification of Flow Transducers

Classification Types

Based on Working Principle Mechanical, Electrical, Ultrasonic, Magnetic

Based on Fluid Type Gas, Liquid, Steam

Based on Flow Type Laminar, Turbulent, Compressible, Incompressible

Based on Contact Contact, Non-contact

🔹 3. Types of Flow
●​ Laminar Flow: Smooth, orderly layers (Re < 2000)​

●​ Turbulent Flow: Chaotic movement (Re > 4000)​

●​ Compressible: Gas flow changes with pressure/temp​

●​ Incompressible: Liquids, density remains constant​

🔹 4. Bernoulli’s Equation (For Incompressible Flow)

Bernoulli’s Equation relates pressure, velocity, and height:

P+12ρv2+ρgh=constantP + \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho g h = \text{constant}

Where:
 ●​ PP: Pressure energy​

●​ 12ρv2\frac{1}{2} \rho v^2: Kinetic energy​

●​ ρgh\rho g h: Potential energy​

●​ ρ\rho: Fluid density​

Used to design Head-type Flow Meters

🔹 5. Head-Type Flow Meters

Use pressure difference to calculate flow (based on Bernoulli).

a) Orifice Plate

●​ Restriction in pipe causes pressure drop​

●​ Cheap, but causes energy loss​

b) Venturi Tube

●​ Gradual narrowing → less energy loss than orifice​

●​ High accuracy​

c) Flow Nozzle

●​ Between orifice and venturi​

●​ Good for steam flow​

🔹 6. Variable Area Flow Meters

a) Rotameter

●​ Float rises/falls in a tapered tube​

 ●​ Float position gives flow rate​

●​ Simple, visible, gravity-dependent​

🔹 7. Other Types of Flow Meters

a) Turbine Flow Meter

●​ Flow spins a rotor; rotation speed ∝ flow​

●​ Good for clean liquids​

b) Target Flow Meter

●​ Flow hits a plate (target), and deflection is measured​

●​ Used in slurry or dirty fluids​

c) Electromagnetic Flow Meter

●​ Based on Faraday’s law of induction​

●​ Only works for conductive fluids​

●​ No moving parts​

d) Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Type Principle Application

Doppler Measures frequency shift in reflected waves For dirty, bubbly

liquids

Transit Measures time difference of sound upstream vs For clean liquids

Time downstream

e) Vortex Shedding Flow Meter

●​ Bluff body creates vortexes; frequency ∝ flow rate​

 ●​ Suitable for steam, gas, liquid​

f) Positive Displacement Flow Meter

●​ Measures actual volume by trapping pockets of fluid​

●​ Very accurate for viscous fluids like oil​

✅ Summary Table
Flow Meter Principle Medium Notes

Orifice Pressure drop Liquid/Gas Cheap, energy loss

Venturi Pressure drop Liquid Accurate

Rotameter Float position Liquid Gravity-based

Turbine Rotor speed Liquid Precise, clean

fluids

Electromagnetic Induced voltage Conductive liquid No moving parts

Ultrasonic (Doppler) Frequency shift Dirty liquid Non-contact

Ultrasonic (Transit) Time difference Clean liquid High accuracy

Vortex Vortex frequency Liquid/Gas/Steam Robust

PD Meter Volumetric displacement Viscous liquid Very accurate

🔹 Applications of Flow Sensors

●​ Water treatment plants​

●​ Oil & gas pipelines​

●​ HVAC systems​

●​ Chemical processing​
 ●​ Medical devices (e.g., oxygen flow)​

📘 UNIT 4: Force and Torque Measurement

🔹 1. Basic Concepts of Force and Torque
●​ Force (F): A push or pull on an object​
→ Measured in Newtons (N)​
→ F=m⋅aF = m \cdot a (mass × acceleration)​

●​ Torque (T): Rotational equivalent of force​

→ Measured in Newton-meters (Nm)​
→ T=F⋅rT = F \cdot r (Force × distance from axis)​

🔹 2. Basic Methods of Force Measurement

Method Principle

Mechanical Springs Force causes deformation

Lever Balance Comparison with known weights

Hydraulic Load Cell Pressure of fluid under force

Electrical Change in electrical property under load (resistance, capacitance,

Transducers etc.)

🔹 3. Elastic Force Transducers

●​ Use Hooke’s Law:​
F=k⋅xF = k \cdot x​
Where kk = spring constant, xx = displacement​

●​ Converts mechanical deformation into readable output (mechanical or electrical)​

Examples:

●​ Springs​

●​ Bellows​

●​ Bourdon tubes​

🔹 4. Strain Gauge (Core Concept in Electrical Measurement)

A strain gauge changes resistance when stretched or compressed.

ΔRR=G⋅ε\frac{\Delta R}{R} = G \cdot \varepsilon

Where:

●​ ΔR\Delta R = change in resistance​

●​ RR = original resistance​

●​ GG = gauge factor​

●​ ε\varepsilon = strain (change in length/original length)​

Bridge Circuit Used: Wheatstone Bridge to detect small changes in resistance.

🔹 5. Load Cells
Definition: Devices that convert force into an electrical signal.

a) Types of Load Cells

Type Principle Application

Hydraulic Force → Pressure of fluid Heavy loads

Pneumatic Force → Air pressure Clean, safe zones

change
Strain Force → Electrical signal Most common, high accuracy
gauge-based

Strain gauge load cells often include a bridge circuit + amplifier + ADC for digital
output.

🔹 6. Shear Web Load Cell

●​ Uses strain gauges in a thin web structure.​

●​ Measures shear strain (combination of forces) instead of normal strain.​

●​ Compact and durable; common in industrial weighing systems.​

🔹 7. Piezoelectric Force Transducers

●​ Based on piezoelectric effect: Crystals generate voltage when stressed.​

Advantages:

●​ High-frequency response​

●​ Ideal for dynamic (changing) forces​

Disadvantages:

●​ Not good for static force​

●​ Needs special signal conditioning​

🔹 8. Vibrating Wire Force Transducer

●​ A wire vibrates at a natural frequency​
 ●​ Applied force → changes tension → changes vibration frequency​

●​ Used in structural monitoring (e.g., bridges, dams)​

🔹 9. Torque Measurement Techniques

a) Strain Gauge Torque Meter

●​ Measures torque via strain in a rotating shaft.​

●​ Strain gauges are mounted on the shaft in a diagonal pattern.​

b) Inductive Torque Meter

●​ Uses change in inductance caused by shaft twist.​

●​ No contact required — uses electromagnetic coupling.​

c) Magnetostrictive Transducer

●​ Uses the change in magnetic properties of a material under torque.​

●​ High durability, no moving parts.​

d) Torsion Bar Dynamometer

●​ Long bar twists under torque​

●​ Measures angle of twist → proportional to torque​

●​ Used in automotive engine testing​

✅ Summary Table
Sensor Type Measures Principle Use
 Strain Gauge Force/Torque Resistance change Load cells, torque
sensors

Load Cell Force Strain/hydraulic/pneumatic Industrial weighing

Shear Web Force Shear strain Robust industrial

use

Piezoelectric Force Voltage generation Impact, vibration

(dynamic)

Vibrating Wire Force Frequency change Structural health

Torsion Bar Torque Twist angle Engine torque

testing

Inductive/Magnetostrictive Torque Inductance/magnetic Contactless torque

change sensing

🔹 Applications of Force and Torque Sensors

●​ Robotics (force feedback)​

●​ Industrial machinery​

●​ Weighing systems​

●​ Automotive testing (engine torque)​

●​ Aerospace and structural testing​

📘 UNIT 5: Allied Sensors

🔹 1. pH Sensors
pH measures hydrogen ion concentration in a solution → Indicates acidity/basicity.
 ●​ Scale: 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline), 7 is neutral.​

●​ Measured using: Electrochemical sensors​

📌 Working Principle:
●​ Glass electrode reacts with H⁺ ions → generates voltage proportional to pH​

●​ Paired with reference electrode (usually Ag/AgCl)​

🧪 Common Types:
Type Description

Glass Electrode Most common, sensitive to H⁺

ISFET (Ion Sensitive FET) Solid-state, rugged

Combination Electrode Includes both measuring and reference

electrodes

🔹 2. Conductivity Sensors
Measures the ability of a solution to conduct electricity → depends on ion concentration.

📌 Working Principle:
●​ Two electrodes placed in solution → apply AC voltage​

●​ Current measured → proportional to conductivity​

🧪 Types:
Type Description

Contacting Type Direct contact with liquid

Inductive (Toroidal) Type Non-contact, magnetic field based, ideal for dirty/viscous fluids

🔹 3. Leak Detectors
Purpose: Detect unwanted fluid (liquid or gas) leakage.
🔧 Types:
Type Principle Us
e

Electronic Detects change in conductivity or capacitance

Gas Leak Detects flammable gases (e.g., methane, LPG) using MQ

sensors

Ultrasonic Detects sound of leaking gases

Dye/Tracer Visual detection using UV-reactive dye

🔹 4. Flame Detectors
Used to detect presence of flame/fire — crucial in combustion and fire safety.

🔥 Types:
Type Working Detects

UV Sensor Detects UV light from flame Hydrocarbon/metal fires

IR Sensor Detects infrared radiation Smokeless fires

UV/IR Combined Reduces false positives Reliable detection

Flame Ionization Measures ionized particles Lab/industrial burners

🔹 5. Smoke Detectors
Detects smoke — early fire detection system.

🚨 Types:
Type Principle Use

Ionization Detects ionized air from smoke Fast flame fires

Photoelectric Detects light scattering from smoke particles Smoldering fires

Dual Sensor Combines both for higher reliability

🔹 6. Humidity Sensors
Measure moisture content in the air.

💧 Types:
Type Principle Output

Capacitive Change in dielectric constant Analog/Voltage

Resistive Change in resistance of Voltage

polymer

Thermal Measures heat loss difference Less common

Output Units:

●​ Relative Humidity (%)​

●​ Absolute Humidity (g/m³)​

🔹 7. Density Sensors
Measure mass per unit volume of a fluid or solid.

📌 Techniques:
Method Description

Oscillating Tube Fluid passed through vibrating tube → frequency changes with
density

Hydrometer Measures buoyancy

Coriolis Flow Meters Indirectly measure density via mass flow

🔹 8. Viscosity Sensors
Measure resistance to flow of liquids.

🛢️ Techniques:
Type Principle

Capillary Time taken by fluid to pass through narrow tube

 Rotational Torque required to rotate spindle in fluid

Vibrational Damping effect on oscillating element in fluid

🔹 9. Sound Sensors
Detect sound (pressure waves in air).

🎤 Types:
Type Principle Output

Dynamic Microphone Coil + magnet (induced voltage) Analog

Condenser Mic Capacitive diaphragm High fidelity

MEMS Mic Small silicon sensors Digital/Analog

🔹 10. Displacement Transducers

a) LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

●​ Measures linear displacement​

●​ Output is AC voltage proportional to displacement​

●​ Core moves between coils → differential voltage changes​

b) RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer)

●​ Measures angular displacement​

●​ Similar principle to LVDT, but with rotating core​

c) Encoders

Measure angular/linear position → output is digital pulses.

Type Description
Incremental Outputs pulses for movement → relative position
Encoder

Absolute Encoder Outputs unique digital code → exact position

🔸 Summary Table
Sensor Measures Key Principle

pH Acidity/Basicity H⁺ ion activity

Conductivity Ion concentration Electrical current flow

Leak Leakage of gas/liquid Pressure, sound,

conductivity

Flame Flame presence UV/IR detection

Smoke Smoke particles Light scattering / Ionization

Humidity Moisture in air Capacitance/Resistance

Density Mass/volume Frequency or buoyancy

Viscosity Flow resistance Torque or vibration

Sound Pressure waves Voltage/membrane motion

LVDT Linear position AC voltage from core shift

RVDT Angular displacement Rotational magnetic coupling

Encoder Position Digital pulse count/code

📘 UNIT 6: Smart and MEMS Sensors

🔹 1. Smart Sensors
A Smart Sensor is a sensor integrated with signal processing, decision-making, and
communication capabilities.

🧠 Basic Architecture:
Physical Input → Sensor → Signal Conditioning → A/D Converter → Microcontroller →
Output/Communication

🔸 Features of Smart Sensors

Feature Description

Self-Calibration Adjusts itself without manual recalibration

Self-Diagnostics Detects faults in operation

Digital Output Communicates directly with microcontrollers

Remote Communication Can connect via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.

Onboard Processing Can preprocess or filter data

🔸 Terminology
Term Explanation

Sensor Basic device to detect physical quantity

Transducer Converts one form of energy to another

Smart Sensor + Microprocessor + Communication

Sensor

Calibration Adjusting sensor output to match standard

Drift Deviation in output over time

Resolution Smallest detectable change

Accuracy Closeness to true value

Sensitivity Output change per unit input

🔸 Classification of Smart Sensors

 Classification Examples

Temperature Digital temperature ICs (e.g., LM35, TMP102)

Pressure MEMS barometric sensors (e.g., BMP280)

Motion Accelerometers, Gyroscopes

Gas MQ series with ADC

Proximity Infrared-based smart proximity sensors

Environmental BME680 (Temp, Pressure, Humidity, Gas)

🔹 2. MEMS Sensors (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems)

⚙️ Definition:
MEMS are miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical elements (sensors and
actuators) made using microfabrication.

📏 Size:
●​ Typically range from 1 micron to 1 millimeter​

🔸 Features of MEMS Sensors

Feature Benefit

Small Size Compact integration

Low Power Ideal for battery-powered

devices

Batch Fabrication Cost-effective

Fast Response High speed

Ruggedness Used in harsh environments

🔸 MEMS Fabrication Technologies

 Method Description

Surface Micromachining Adds/removes thin films layer-by-layer

Bulk Micromachining Etching silicon substrate

LIGA Uses lithography and electroplating

DRIE (Deep Reactive Ion Etching) Etches high aspect-ratio structures

🔸 Types of MEMS Sensors

Type Measures Working Principle

Piezoresistive Pressure, force Resistance changes under strain

Capacitive Displacement, Capacitance varies with plate

acceleration movement

Conductive (Thermal) Gas flow Changes in heat conduction

Optical Displacement, Bio Uses light (interferometry, LED/laser)

🧪 Examples of MEMS Sensors in Use

Sensor Application

MPU6050 (Gyro + Accelerometer) Motion tracking in phones, drones

BMP280 (Pressure, Temp) Altitude measurement

ADXL345 (Accelerometer) Vibration detection

MEMS Mic Voice command systems

MEMS Pressure Car tire pressure, barometers

🔹 3. Introduction to Sensor Modeling

Sensor modeling helps in:

●​ Predicting behavior under various conditions​

 ●​ Understanding sensitivity, range, linearity​

🧮 Basic Sensor Model:

Let:

●​ x(t) = physical input​

●​ y(t) = output signal​

●​ H = sensor transfer function​

Then:

y(t) = H[x(t)]

🔸 Parameters in Modeling:
Parameter Meaning

Sensitivity (S) dy/dx, how much output changes per input unit

Linearity Deviation from ideal straight line

Hysteresis Difference in output for increasing vs. decreasing input

Time Constant (τ) Speed of response

Noise Random signal fluctuations

🔹 Smart Sensor Applications

Field Application

Healthcare Wearable monitors (HR, SpO₂, Temp)

Automotive Crash detection, ABS, tire pressure

Consumer Phones, smartwatches

Electronics

Industrial IoT Vibration monitoring, predictive maintenance

Agriculture Soil moisture, climate sensors

🔸 Summary Table
Concept Summary

Smart Sensor Sensor + Microprocessor + Communication

MEMS Microscopic mechanical sensors

Piezoresistive MEMS Output changes due to strain

Capacitive MEMS Capacitance change due to displacement

Sensor Modeling Mathematical prediction of sensor behavior

✅ Revision Tip:
●​ Smart Sensors = Think "Brains + Body"​

●​ MEMS = Think "Tiny Machines"​

●​ Always remember classification + principle + examples!​

✅ Complete Summary of All 6 Units (Quick Revision)

🔵 Unit 1: Temperature Sensors
Topics:

●​ Basics: Scope, measurement concepts, classification​

●​ Scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Rankine​

●​ Mechanical Sensors: Bimetallic strips, liquid-in-glass, gas-filled​

●​ Electrical Sensors: Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor, IC sensors​

 ●​ Non-contact Sensors: Infrared (IR), Radiation pyrometer, Optical sensors​

🔵 Unit 2: Pressure & Level Sensors

Pressure Measurement:

●​ Scales: Gauge, Absolute, Differential​

●​ Devices: Manometers, Bourdon tube, Diaphragm, Bellows​

●​ Gauges: Pressure gauge, Vacuum gauge​

●​ Direct & Indirect Methods​

Level Measurement:

●​ Direct: Sight glass, float​

●​ Indirect Electrical: Ultrasonic, Radar, Thermal, Capacitance, Optical, Inductive​

●​ Level Switches​

🔵 Unit 3: Flow Sensors

●​ Flow Types: Laminar, Turbulent​

●​ Equations: Bernoulli's Equation​

●​ Head Type Meters: Orifice, Nozzle, Venturi​

●​ Variable Area: Rotameter​

●​ Other Meters:​

○​ Turbine​

○​ Target​
 ○​ Electromagnetic​

○​ Ultrasonic (Doppler, Transit time)​

○​ Vortex​

○​ Positive Displacement​

🔵 Unit 4: Force & Torque Sensors

●​ Force: Strain gauge, Load cell, Piezoelectric, Shear web, Vibrating wire​

●​ Torque:​

○​ Strain Gauge Torque Meter​

○​ Inductive Torque Meter​

○​ Magnetostrictive Transducer​

○​ Torsion Bar Dynamometer​

🔵 Unit 5: Allied Sensors

●​ Chemical: pH sensor, Conductivity​

●​ Safety: Flame detector, Smoke detector, Leak detector​

●​ Environmental: Humidity (capacitive/psychrometric), Density, Viscosity​

●​ Sound: Microphones, Ultrasonic​

●​ Displacement: LVDT, RVDT, Encoders​

🔵 Unit 6: Smart & MEMS Sensors

 ●​ Smart Sensor = Sensor + Processor + Communication​

●​ Features: Self-calibration, Digital output, Intelligence​

●​ MEMS Types:​

○​ Piezoresistive​

○​ Capacitive​

○​ Thermal​

○​ Optical​

●​ Modeling: Sensitivity, Linearity, Noise, Hysteresis​

📝 Practice Questions and MCQs (Unit-wise)

UNIT 1: Temperature Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ Which sensor is based on Seebeck effect?​

a) RTD​

✅
b) Thermistor​
c) Thermocouple ​
d) IC Sensor​

2.​ Bimetallic strip is used in which type of temperature measurement?​

✅
a) Contact Electrical​
b) Mechanical ​
c) Radiation​
d) Optical​

Short Qs:
 ●​ Explain difference between RTD and Thermistor.​

●​ Derive temperature conversion formula from °C to °F.​

UNIT 2: Pressure & Level Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ Bourdon tube works on the principle of:​

a) Optical reflection​

✅
b) Magnetic induction​
c) Elastic deformation ​
d) Capacitance​

2.​ Radar level sensor is:​

✅
a) Direct contact​
b) Non-contact ​
c) Mechanical​
d) None of these​

Short Qs:

●​ Explain how ultrasonic level sensor works.​

●​ Compare gauge and absolute pressure.​

UNIT 3: Flow Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ Bernoulli’s equation is used in:​

a) Ultrasonic flow meter​

✅
b) Electromagnetic meter​
c) Orifice meter ​
d) Turbine meter​

✅​
2.​ Rotameter is a:​
a) Variable area meter
 b) Positive displacement​
c) Doppler meter​
d) None​

Short Qs:

●​ Draw Venturi meter and label parts.​

●​ Explain Doppler vs Transit time ultrasonic flow meters.​

UNIT 4: Force & Torque Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ Load cells often use:​

✅
a) Piezo crystal​
b) Strain gauges ​
c) Thermocouples​
d) LVDT​

2.​ Magnetostrictive sensors measure:​

a) Voltage​

✅
b) Pressure​
c) Torque ​
d) Temperature​

Short Qs:

●​ Explain working of vibrating wire force sensor.​

●​ How is torque measured using torsion bar?​

UNIT 5: Allied Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ LVDT measures:​

a) Voltage​
 b) Displacement ✅​
c) Vibration​
d) Speed​

2.​ Flame detectors work on:​

✅
a) Pressure​
b) Heat radiation ​
c) Light refraction​
d) Sound​

Short Qs:

●​ Compare LVDT and RVDT.​

●​ List applications of leak detectors.​

UNIT 6: Smart & MEMS Sensors

MCQs:

1.​ Smart sensors contain:​

a) Sensing element only​

✅
b) ADC​
c) Microprocessor ​
d) Transistor​

2.​ Capacitive MEMS sensor works by detecting change in:​

a) Resistance​

✅
b) Voltage​
c) Capacitance ​
d) Inductance​

Short Qs:

●​ List advantages of MEMS sensors.​

●​ Describe sensor modeling in Smart Sensors.​

Would you like me to compile all this into a printable PDF or revision guide format as well?