Chapter 5

Linear Transformations and

Matrices

Objectives
(1) Define a linear transformation and prove basic properties
(2) Solve for the matrix representation of a linear transformation
(3) Explain the relationship between a linear transformation and
its matrix representation
(4) Define the image of a linear transformation and prove that the
image is a subspace
(5) Define the kernel of a linear transformation and prove that the
kernel is a subspace

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Linear Algebra I Linear Transformations and Matrices

5.1 Definition and Examples

Definition 5.1.1. Let V and W be vector spaces. A function L :
V −→ W is called a linear transformation of V into W if

(a) L(u + v) = L(u) + L(v) for every vector u and v in V .

(b) L(cu) = cL(u) for any u in V , and c is any real number.

If V = W , the linear transformation L : V −→ W is called a linear

operator on V .

Example 5.1.2. Let A be an m × n matrix. The matrix

transformation is defined as a function L : Rn −→ Rm where
L(u) = Au for every u ∈ Rn . Show that every matrix
transformation is a linear transformation.

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text
The following are examples of matrix transformations.

Example 5.1.3. text

1. Reflection with respect to the x-axis: L : R2 −→ R2 is

defined by
 !  
u1 u1
L = .
u2 −u2

2. Projection into the xy-plane: L : R3 −→ R2 is defined by

 !
u1  
u
L u2
  = 1 .
u2
u3

3. Dilation: L : R3 −→ R3 is defined by

L(u) = ru for r > 1.

4. Contraction: L : R3 −→ R3 is defined by

L(u) = ru for 0 < r < 1.

5. Rotation counterclockwise through an angle φ:

L : R2 −→ R2 is defined by
 
cos φ − sin φ
L(u) = u.
sin φ cos φ

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Example 5.1.4. Let L : R3 −→ R3 be defined by

 !  
u1 u1 + u2
L u2  =  −2u3  .
u3 u2 + 5u1

Show that L is a linear transformation.

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Example 5.1.5. Let L : R2 −→ R2 be defined by

L([u1 u2 ]) = [u22 2u1 ].

Is L a linear transformation?

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Example 5.1.6. Let L : P1 −→ P2 be defined by

L[p(t)] = tp(t).

Show that L is a linear transformation.

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Theorem 5.1.7. Let L : V −→ W be a linear transformation. Then

(a) L(0V ) = 0W .

(b) L(u − v) = L(u) − L(v), for u, v ∈ V .

Proof :

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Example 5.1.8. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space and S =

{v1 , . . . , vn } an ordered basis for V . If v ∈ V , then

v = a1 v1 + · · · + an vn ,

where a1 , . . . , an are real numbers. We define L : V −→ Rn by

L(v) = [v]S .

Thus, L is a linear transformation.

Example 5.1.9. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space and S =

{v1 , . . . , vn } and T = {w1 , . . . , wn } be ordered basis for V . If v ∈ V ,
then
[v]S = PS←T [v]T
where PS←T is the transition matrix from T to S. Let L : Rn −→ Rn
be defined by
L(v) = PS←T v
for v ∈ Rn . Thus, L is a matrix transformation, so it follows that L
is a linear transformation.

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Theorem 5.1.10. Let L : V −→ W be a linear transformation of

an n-dimensional vector space V into a vector space W . Let S =
{v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis for V . If v is any vector in V , then L(v) is
completely determined by {L(v1 ), . . . , L(vn )}.

Example 5.1.11. Let L : R4 −→ R2 be a linear transformation and

let S = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } be a basis for R4 , where

v1 = [1 0 1 0], v2 = [0 1 − 1 2],
v3 = [0 2 2 1], v4 = [1 0 0 1].

Suppose that

L(v1 ) = [1 2], L(v2 ) = [0 3],

L(v3 ) = [0 0], L(v4 ) = [2 0].

Let v = [3 − 5 − 5 0]. Find L(v).

Solution:

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Theorem 5.1.12. Let L : Rn −→ Rm be a linear transformation and

consider the natural basis {e1 , . . . , en } for Rn . Let A be the m × n
matrix whose jth column is L(ej ). The matrix A has the following
property:  
x1
 .. 
If x =  .  is any vector in Rn , then
xn

L(x) = Ax. (1)

Moreover, A is the only matrix satisfying Equation (1). It is called

the standard matrix representing L.

Example 5.1.13. Let L : R3 −→ R3 be the linear transformation

defined by
 !
x1  
2x 1 − x 2
L  x2  = .
5x2 + 2x3
x3

Find the standard matrix representing L.

Solution:

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Example 5.1.14. Cryptology is the technique of coding and

decoding messages; it goes back to the time of the ancient Greeks.
A simple code is constructed by associating a different number with
every letter in the alphabet. For example,
A B C D ··· X Y Z
l l l l ··· l l l
1 2 3 4 ··· 24 25 26
Suppose that Mark S. and Susan J. are two undercover agents who
want to communicate with each other by using a code because they
suspect thai their phones are being tapped and their mail is being
intercepted. In panicular, Mark wants to send Susan the following
message:

MEET TOMORROW

Using the substitution scheme just given, Mark sends this message:

13 5 5 20 20 15 13 15 18 18 15 23

A code of this type could be cracked without too much difficulty

by a number of tcchniques, including the analysis of frequency of
letters. To make it difiicult to crack the code. the agents proceed as
follows. First, when they undertook the mission, they agreed on a
3 × 3 nonsingular matrix, the encoding matrix, such as
 
1 2 3
A = 1 1 2 .
0 1 2

(1) Code the message MEET TOMORROW.

(2) Decode the message

77 54 38 71 49 29 68 51 33 76 48 40 86 53 52 .

Solution:

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5.2 Kernel and Range of a Linear

Transformation
Definition 5.2.1. A linear transformation L : V −→ W is called
one-to-one if it is a one-to-one function; that is, if v1 6= v2 implies
that L(v1 ) 6= L(v2 ) . An equivalent statement is that L is one-to-one
if L(v1 ) = L(v2 ) implies that v1 = v2 .

Definition 5.2.2. Let L : V −→ W be a linear transformation of a

vector space V into a vector space W . The kernel of L, ker L, is the
subset of V consisting of all elements v of V such that L(v) = 0W .

Example 5.2.3. Let L : R2 −→ R2 be defined by

 !  
u1 u1 + u2
L = .
u2 u1 − u2

If L one-to-one? Find ker L.

Solution:

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Theorem 5.2.4. Let L : V −→ W be a linear transformation of a

vector space V into a vector space W . Then

(a) ker L is a subspace of V .

(b) L is one-to-one if and only if ker L = {0V }.

Corollary 5.2.5. If L(x) = b and L(y) = b, then x − y belongs to

ker L. In other words, any two solutions to L(x) = b differ by any
element of the kernel L.

Example 5.2.6. Let L : P2 −→ R be a linear transformation defined

by Z 1
2
L(at + bt + c) = (at2 + bt + c)dt.
0

(a) Find ker L.

(b) Find dim ker L.

(c) Is L one-to-one?

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Definition 5.2.7. If L : V −→ W is a linear transformation of a

vector space V into a vector space W , then the range of L or image
of V under L, denoted by range L, consists of all those vectors in
W that are images under L of vectors in V . Thus w is in range L
if there exists some vector v in V such that L(v) = w. The linear
transformation L is called onto if range L = W .

Theorem 5.2.8. If L : V −→ W is a linear transformation of a

vector space V into a vector space W , then range L is a subspace of
W.

Example 5.2.9. text

1. Let L : R2 −→ R2 be defined by
 !  
u1 u1 + u2
L = .
u2 u1 − u2

Is L onto?

2. Let L : P2 −→ R be a linear transformation defined by

Z 1
2
L(at + bt + c) = (at2 + bt + c)dt.
0

Is L onto?

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Example 5.2.10. Let L : R3 −→ R3 be defined by

 !   
u1 1 0 1 u1
L u2  = 1 1 2 u2  .
u3 2 1 3 u3

(1) Is L onto?

(2) Find a basis for a range L.

(3) Find ker L.

(4) Is L one-to-one?

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Theorem 5.2.11. If L : V −→ W is a linear transformation of an

n-dimensional vector space V into a vector space W , then

dim ker L + dim rangeL = dim W.

Remark: The dimension of ker L is also called the nullity of L.

Example 5.2.12. Let L : P2 −→ P2 be the linear transformation

defined by
L(at2 + bt + c) = (a + 2b)t + (b + 3c).

(1) Find a basis for ker L.

(2) Find a basis for range L.

(3) Verify Theorem 5.2.11.

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Corollary 5.2.13. If L : V −→ W is a linear transformation of a

vector space V into a vector space W and dim V = dim W , then the
following statements are true:

1. If L is one-to-one, then it is onto.

2. If L is onto, then it is one-to-one.

Remark: A linear transformation L : V −→ W of a vector space

V into a vector space W is called invertible if it is an invertible
function- that is, if there exists a unique function L−1 : W −→ V
such that L ◦ L−1 = IW and L−1 ◦ L = IV , where IV = identity linear
transformation on V and IW = identity linear transformation on W .

Theorem 5.2.14. A linear transformation L : V −→ W is invertible

if and only if L is one-to-one and onto. Moreover, L−1 is a linear
transformation and (L−1 )−1 = L.

Remark: If L : V −→ V is a linear operator that is one-to-one and

onto, then L is an isomorphism.

Example 5.2.15. Consider the linear operator L : R3 −→ R3

defined by  !   
u1 1 1 1 u1
L u2  = 2 2 1 u2  .
u3 0 1 1 u3
Find L−1 .

Theorem 5.2.16. A linear transformation L : V −→ W is one-

to-one if and only if the image of every linearly independent set of
vectors in V is a linearly independent set of vectors in W .

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5.3 Matrix of a Linear Transformation

Theorem 5.3.1. Let L : V −→ W be a linear transformation of an
n-dimensional vector space V into an m-dimensional vector space W
(n 6= 0, m 6= 0) and let S = {v1 , . . . , vn } and T = {w1 , . . . , wn } be
ordered bases for V and W , respectively. Then the m × n matrix
A whose jth column is the coordinate vector [L(vj )]T of L(vj ) with
respect to T has the following property:

[L(x)]T = A[x]S for every v ∈ V. (1)

Moreover, A is the only matrix with this property.

Example 5.3.2. Let L : P2 −→ P1 be defined by L(p(t)) = p0 (t),

and consider the ordered bases S = {t2 , t, 1} and T = {t, 1} for P2
and P1 , respectively.

(1) Find the matrix A associated with L.

(2) If p(t) = 3t2 + 2t + 1, compute L(p(t)) directly and then by

using A.

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Example 5.3.3. Let L : P2 −→ P1 be defined by L(p(t)) = p0 (t),

and consider the ordered bases S = {1, t, t2 } and T = {t, 1} for P2
and P1 , respectively.

(1) Find the matrix A associated with L.

(2) If p(t) = 3t2 + 2t + 1, compute L(p(t)) directly and then by

using A.

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Example 5.3.4. Let L : P2 −→ P1 be defined by L(p(t)) = p0 (t),

and consider the ordered bases S = {t2 , t, 1} and T = {t + 1, t − 1}
for P2 and P1 , respectively.

(1) Find the matrix A associated with L.

(2) If p(t) = 3t2 + 2t + 1, compute L(p(t)).

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Remark: The matrix A is called the representation of L with

respect to the ordered bases S and T . We also say that A
represents L with respect to S and T . Having A enables us to replace
L by A and x by [v]S to get A[x]S = [L(x)]T . Thus the result of
applying L to x in V to obtain L(x) in W can be found by multiplying
the matrix A by the matrix [x]S .

Example 5.3.5. Let L : R3 −→ R2 be defined by

 !  
x1   x1
1 1 1  
L x2  = x2 .
1 2 3
x3 x3

Let
     
1 0 0
e1 = 0 , e2 = 1 , e3 = 0 ,
0 0 1
   
1 0
e1 = , and e2 = .
0 1

Then S = {e1 , e2 , e3 } and T = {e1 , e2 } are the natural bases for R3

and R2 , respectively. Find the representation of L with respect to S
and T .

Solution:

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Example 5.3.6. Let L : R3 −→ R2 be defined by

 !  
x1   x1
1 1 1  
L x2  = x2 .
1 2 3
x3 x3

and consider the ordered bases

(1 0 0) (   )
1 , 1 , 0 1 1
S= and T = ,
2 3
0 1 1

for R3 and R2 , respectively. Find the representation of L with respect

to S and T .

Solution:

Example 5.3.7. Let L : M22 (R) −→ M22 (R) be defined by L(X) =

1 2
AX where A = . Find the representation of L with respect to
3 4
S, where (       )
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
S= , , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Remark: If S = T , then the matrix A is just called the

representation of L with respect to S.

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