chapter

Section 4 12

Development of the
Calf Digestive System

Introduction
A primary objective of calf-rearing systems is to get the calf off of milk and on to solid feed
as early as possible. In other words: moving the calf from the pre-ruminant to the ruminant
phase. Much of the skill in calf rearing is making this diet transition as smooth as possible,
without set-backs to the calf’s performance.

1 Pre-ruminant digestion.
2 The transition phase - development of the digestive system.
3 Ruminant digestion.
4 Ingredients to initiate rumen development.

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1 Pre-ruminant digestion. The time it takes for the calf to change from
using just the abomasum to efficiently using all
Newly born calves are pre-ruminants. They four stomachs depends on the type of food it is
have the same four stomachs as an adult but fed. If milk is freely available for a long time, the
the rumen is significantly smaller. In the calf, calf will have only a small appetite for dry feeds
the largest part of the digestive tract is the and rumen development is slow.
abomasum (fourth stomach), making up nearly
70% of the digestive tract. At this point, the If the feed management encourages the calf to
immature digestive metabolic systems function eat solid feeds, rumen development is enhanced
similarly to those of a young monogastric and the calf reduces its dependence on liquid
animal, and the calf depends on milk or milk milk as a source of essential nutrients.
replacer as an easily digestible source of
carbohydrate and protein.
KEY POINT:
The act of sucking by the calf causes a fold
of muscle to develop in the wall of the rumen • By one week of age the calf should be
called the reticular or oesophageal groove. As encouraged to eat some concentrates and
the calf sucks, the oesophageal groove delivers hay/straw.
KEY FACTS:
milk directly to the abomasum where it is o At this time the rumen, reticulum
digested most efficiently. and omasum will begin to develop.
• By one month of age calves should
In the first weeks of life, rennin is the beTIPS:
KEY eating substantial quantities of
predominant enzyme in the digestive system concentrates and hay/straw.
of the calf. Rennin allows the calf to efficiently o Calves will become less dependent
utilise the proteins in milk. In time, as the level on milk, risk of scours is reduced,
of the enzyme pepsin increases, the calf is able calves can be weaned earlier,
to utilise non-milk sources of protein. For this and labour and rearing costs are
reason, milk replacers that contain non-milk lowered.
protein should not be fed to the calf in the first
three weeks of life. If the calf is on a restricted liquid diet and
has access to solid feed, this transition from
For the first three to four weeks of life the pre-ruminant to ruminant digestion can be
enzyme lactase also predominates, meaning the completed at about six weeks of age.
calf can effectively utilise lactose, the important
carbohydrate in milk. The calf is unable to utilise 3 Ruminant digestion.
starch at this stage.
Ruminant digestion is based on the function of
2 The transition phase - development of the the rumen, where micro-organisms transform
digestive system. carbohydrate, protein and all other fermentable
substances into volatile fatty acids, ammonia,
The transition phase (period covering the move methane, carbon dioxide and microbial protein.
from the pre-ruminant to the ruminant phase)
occurs between four and eight weeks of age, The ruminant phase begins at about six to
when the rumen begins to take over the main eight weeks of age. At this point, dry feed
digestion of feed. is the sole source of feed, and the rumen
accounts for approximately 70% of all stomach
When a calf consumes water and starter compartments. A calf will usually have full
concentrates, bacterial fermentation is initiated rumen development at 12 weeks of age and its
in the rumen. This generates large amounts ability to eat and digest dry food will then be
of Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs) in the forms more or less similar to that of an adult animal.
of acetate, butyrate and propionate. This
production of VFAs is responsible for rapid
rumen development.

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Oesophageal
groove ADULT

CALF
Rumen
25%
Reticulum
Rumen
70%

70%
15% Omasum

Abomasum (true stomach)

4 Ingredients to initiate rumen development.

Rumen development is defined as the development of the epithelium and it is critical to successful
weaning and good calf growth rates. There are five key ingredients that are required to initiate rumen
development:
I. Bacteria
Rumen bacteria are absent when a calf is born and are introduced as the calf begins to eat calf
starter concentrates. Bacteria help the digestive process. Bacterial end products of digestion (VFAs)
cause significant changes in the rumen. The type of VFA produced is crucial. Calf starter contains
carbohydrates in the form of starch which is fermented by bacteria that produce propionic and butyric
acids. In contrast, when forages are digested the primary end product is acetic acid.
Acetic and propionic acids are absorbed through the rumen wall and are converted into metabolites
that the calf uses as energy sources. Butyric acid is not absorbed through the rumen wall and is instead
converted into an energy source used by cells in the rumen wall.
The production of VFAs lowers the pH of the rumen and establishes an ideal growing environment for
bacteria, especially for bacteria that digest starch and produce propionic and butyric acids.

Energy source for

Butyric acid
growth of rumen wall
Concentrates
Propionic
acid
Feedstuff Energy source for calf
growth
Forages Acetic acid

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II. Liquid in the rumen
Liquid in the rumen provides an ideal environment, combined with the absence of oxygen, for the
rapid growth of bacteria. As milk bypasses the rumen, it does not provide enough liquid for optimal
rumen development and therefore the calf must have access to ‘free water’ (see chapter 14).
Offering water from three days of age helps to increase calf weight gain, promotes starter intake and
reduces the incidence of scour.
III. Muscular movement - outflow of material from the rumen
Feedstuffs that enter the rumen must be able to leave it. Therefore the development of rumen
activity, such as contractions, pressure and regurgitation, is necessary. This muscular movement also
helps mix the feedstuffs.
When the calf is born, the rumen has little muscular activity, few contractions and no regurgitation.
As the calf’s dry feed intake increases, rumen contractions begin. If calves are fed milk, hay, and
starter from shortly after birth, normal rumen contractions can be detected as early as three weeks
of age. In contrast, if calves are only fed milk, normal rumen contractions may not be measurable for
extended periods.
IV. Absorptive ability of the tissue
From a structural point of view, the rumen is made up of two layers: the muscular and the epithelial,
the latter is responsible for absorption of VFAs.
At birth, the epithelium does not have any ability to absorb. It is the production and subsequent
absorption of VFAs in the rumen, from the fermentation of starter feedstuff that stimulates
epithelium development by increasing the surface area through the development of the epithelium
into
KEYfinger-like
POINT: projections called papillae.
V. Availability of feed stuff in the rumen
The key factor to promote early rumen development, and thereby early weaning, is dry feed intake.
As concentrates
KEY FACTS: are fermented to propionate and butyrate, they are a good choice to ensure early
rumen development. Offer clean, fresh, starter at three days of age which is both highly palatable and
meets the nutrient recommendations for dairy beef calves.

KEY TIPS:

A concentrate to roughage ratio of 8:1 by weight is necessary to avoid the development of ‘pot
belly’ condition in calves and to optimise rumen muscle tone.

Diet: Milk only Diet: Milk and hay Diet: Milk and grain
Rumen development at six weeks. When fed milk only (left) the rumen has no papillae and is white
in colour (no blood circulation), meaning there is little feed absorption possible. When fed milk and
starter (right) the rumen at six weeks shows developed papillae and is dark colour, allowing for
significant feed absorption. Source: Penn State University.

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Section 4 13

Concentrate
Feeding and Feed Additives

Introduction
The intake of calf starter concentrates is the single most important factor in the development
of the rumen, which is very small and undeveloped at birth. Starter intake is important in
ensuring a smooth transition from milk feeding to an adult diet at weaning without setbacks
to growth. In general, calves are fed a ‘calf starter’ ration up to 12-16 weeks of age. From there
they are switched to a ‘calf grower’ ration.
1 What are the important qualities of a calf starter?
2 Coarse ration v pellets - which is better for calf performance?
3 What ingredients do coarse rations usually contain?
4 When should you start feeding concentrates to calves?
5 What allocation of concentrates is recommended?
6 What are the factors affecting calf starter intake?
7 Calf starter nutrient specification.
8 Vitamins and minerals.
9 Feed additives.

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Concentrate
13 Feeding and Feed Additives
1 What are the important qualities of a calf starter?
It is essential that any calf ration is:

High quality - the ration

should be highly
Palatable - the calf should digestible in energy and Competitively priced - the
be willing to eat the ration, protein and contain the cost per kg gain must be
starting as early as possible. necessary amount of favourable.
other nutrients.

2 Coarse ration v pellets - which is better for calf performance?

A coarse calf ration has ingredients of similar size (e.g. rolled barley, flaked maize), with no dust or fine
meal present.
The young calf will accept a coarse ration more readily than pellets. A course ration encourages more
chewing and saliva secretion. In addition, calves fed coarse starter mix eat more and have been shown
to have higher weight gains than those fed pellets. The coarseness also benefits growth of the muscle
layers in the rumen wall.
Therefore, calf concentrate feeding should begin as a coarse ration (approximately 2,000μm). After a
few weeks, pelleted starters can be gradually introduced. Pellets that are either too hard or too soft
will adversely affect the calf’s concentrate intake.
Dusty meals can pose a problem, leading to increased incidence of respiratory disease. Finely ground
ingredients increase the incidence of digestive disorders. Adding molasses (approximately 5%) helps
to control the dustiness of rations and can also improve ration palatability.

Calves prefer a prefer a high quality coarse ration of uniform size (left). A dusty ration (right) will
reduce feed intake.
3 What ingredients do coarse rations usually contain?
Most coarse rations contain ingredients such as flaked maize, rolled barley, peas, processed soya, beet
pulp, linseed flakes, molasses and a pelleted protein balancer. Each ingredient must be palatable in its
own right to prevent the calf from selecting out individual components of the ration. Because flaked/
toasted cereals are more expensive than the same cereal in ground form, coarse rations tend to be
more expensive than pelleted rations.

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Flaked maize Toasted flaked peas

Toasted full fat soya Pelleted protein balancer

Toasted barley Hipro soyabean meal

Pelleted sugar beet pulp Calf starter concentrate

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Concentrate
13 Feeding and Feed Additives
4 When should you start feeding concentrates to • Milk feeding programs; the amount being
calves? fed, protein and fat percentage of MR.
• Water intake/availability.
Calves should have access to clean, palatable • Calf starter formulation and its physical
starter concentrates from three days of age. form.
• Calf genetics, gender, birth weight.
From three weeks of age calves will begin to eat • Calf housing, management and
considerable amounts of starter concentrates. environmental conditions.
From then on, the higher the quantity of milk • Starter quality - dusty, mouldy, off-flavours
fed, the lower the amount of concentrates they will reduce palatability.
will consume.
7 Calf starter nutrient specification.
5 What allocation of concentrates is
recommended? A ration that meets the calf’s nutrient
specifications, as well as their preference for
When it comes to stimulating calf starter texture, taste and smell, will encourage early
consumption in young calves, always remember intake.
“less is more.” At first, a small handful of
concentrate should be offered after milk is To promote growth and maintain health, calf
fed. The ration should be placed in front of the rations must contain:
calves in shallow troughs/buckets to encourage
the calf to ‘nose around’ in it. By two weeks, the • Energy for growth and functions like
allocation should be increased to two handfuls. breathing, walking and grazing.
The idea is to encourage consumption while not • Protein for all basic metabolic processes
overwhelming the calves or wasting feed. and growth.
• Fibre for rumen function and to ensure cud
The ration offered should be changed daily, chewing.
keeping it fresh and encouraging the calf to eat. • Vitamins for metabolic processes, bone
Use a measure for meal dispensing as it helps to formation and disease resistance.
prevent overfeeding which can lead to digestive • Minerals for carbohydrate metabolism,
upsets and scouring. cartilage and muscle function.

Concentrate should be increased gradually, with

Protein content Calf rations should
calves consuming at least 1kg of concentrate
contain 18% crude
daily by weaning. It is vital to check that the
protein (CP) on an
calves’ dung does not loosen too much as the
as-fed basis.
ration allocation is increased.
Energy content Calf starter should
have adequate energy
supplied from a grain
base. Energy values
of 13-14 MJ ME/
kg dry matter are
acceptable (12MJ/kg
DM minimum). A target
energy density of 0.95
UFL is recommended.
Oil content The oil content of a
starter can be up to 4%.
Farmers should use a measure for meal The ration should not
dispensing to prevent overfeeding and waste. contain added fat.
6 What are the factors affecting calf starter Fibre content A fibre content of
intake? 8-10% is sufficient
to prevent digestive
There are a number of variables that contribute upsets.
to differences in calf starter intake. These
include:

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8 Vitamins and minerals. Vitamin A

Calves are born with very low reserves of Vitamin A is important for development of a
vitamins A, D and E and are very dependent calf’s vision. It also contributes to the calf’s
on colostrum to supply these vitamins. Most basic growth and development because it plays
milk replacers and concentrates have enhanced a role in the maintenance of cell tissue. A typical
levels of these vitamins because of their calf starter should contain 4,000 IU/kg.
importance to calf health. Vitamin D

The milk-fed calf is also unable to synthesise Vitamin D is partially responsible for good bone
its requirements for the complex of B vitamins development, as it is required for Ca absorption.
and these are normally added to milk replacers. Insufficient vitamin D results in sub-optimal
However, once the calf has a fully functioning bone development and therefore sub-optimal
rumen, it is capable of supplying its own B growth. A calf starter should contain 600 IU/kg.
vitamins. Therefore these are not normally Vitamin D.
added to concentrate mixes. Vitamin E
Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) Vitamin E is an important antioxidant in the
body. A deficiency of vitamin E in young calves
The main function of both calcium and
results in White Muscle Disease. Affected
phosphorus is skeletal growth. Nearly 99% of
animals may show stiffness, lameness, or even
the calcium in the body is found in the skeleton,
cardiac failure. The typical calf starter should
while 80% of the phosphorus is in the bones
contain 25 IU/kg Vitamin E.
and teeth.
Table 1. Typical nutrient requirement for a calf starter.
The remaining Ca is extracellular and plays a
Nutrient Specification
role in nerve conduction, muscle contraction,
blood clotting and immune system activation. Minerals
The remaining P is involved in energy utilization
and transfer, acid-base and osmotic balance, Crude Protein 18%
and for cattle is required by ruminal microbes
Calcium 0.7%
for growth and cellular metabolism.
Phosphorus 0.45%
Deficiency of Ca and P is rare in milk fed
animals. Calf starter should contain 0.7% Ca and Magnesium 0.10%
0.45% P. This meets the recommended Ca:P Sodium 0.15%
ratio of approximately 2:1.
Potassium 0.65%
Selenium Chlorine 0.20%
Selenium plays an important role in the Sulphur 0.20%
antioxidant system as a component of the Iron 50 mg/kg
enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Selenium
Zinc 40 mg/kg
deficiency can result in the development of
White Muscle Disease in calves, which results in Manganese 40 mg/kg
the degeneration and necrosis of both skeletal Copper 10 mg/kg
and cardiac muscle. In addition, un-thriftiness,
weight loss, and diarrhoea are other signs of a Iodine 0.25 mg/kg
deficiency. A calf starter should contain 0.3ppm Cobalt 0.10 mg/kg
selenium. Selenium 0.30 mg/kg
Copper Vitamins

Copper deficiency can result in fragile bones, Vitamin A 4,000 IU/kg

anaemia, sudden death due to heart failure and
Vitamin D 600 IU/kg
reduced immune response. Calf starter should
contain 10ppm copper. Vitamin E 25 IU/kg

Source: NRC, 2001.

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Concentrate
13 Feeding and Feed Additives
Key points when feeding concentrates:
I. Decreasing the pH in the large intestine
• The calf should have access to concentrates through the production of lactic acid.
from three to four days to stimulate rumen II. Competitive attachment to the digestive
activity. The rumen is usually functioning tract lining.
well by 10-12 weeks. III. Competition for nutrients.
• Concentrates should be introduced by IV. Stimulation of the host’s immune system.
placing a small amount in a shallow bucket. V. Direct antagonism between lactic acid
When the calf finishes drinking, rub a little bacteria and the pathogenic bacteria.
concentrate on its muzzle to encourage the
calf to taste it. Following colostrum feeding, calves can be fed
• Calf concentrates should be highly probiotic orally. This is commonly done through
palatable, coarse-textured, high in energy milk replacer feeding. Some benefits of feeding
and protein and low in roughage (> 15%). probiotics to calves include:
• By three weeks a calf should be able to
digest small amounts of grain, meal and hay. • Protection of young animals against
• Any feed changes must be introduced gastrointestinal disorders.
slowly. • Assistance against digestive disorders due
to stress.
• Improved feed efficiency.
• Improved growth rate/weight gain.
• Reduced faecal [Link] count in pre-ruminant
calves.
• Improved immune system.

However, there is also research showing the

failure of probiotics to produce beneficial
effects. This may be due to one or more of the
following reasons:
KEY POINT:
Calves should have access to concentrates from
three to four days of age. a) Some probiotics don’t contain enough
viable bacteria or they contain the wrong
strains of bacteria.
KEY FACTS: b) The bacteria are unable to survive in the
stomach and small intestine.
Calves can be weaned once they are c) The bacteria fail to competitively exclude
consistently consuming 1kg of concentrates harmful bacteria.
KEY
per TIPS:
day. This level of intake can be reached by d) The animals already have a correct
eight weeks if access to palatable starter and microbial balance between the lactobacilli
water is available ad lib. and coliforms in the intestinal tract.

9 Feed additives. II. Prebiotics

A number of feed additives can be added to Prebiotics are carbohydrates which are not
calf rations to help improve calf digestion, broken down in the small intestine. They are
health and support optimum growth and fermented in the large intestine, acting as a
performance. These include probiotics, feedstuff for the growth of beneficial bacteria.
prebiotics, yeast, and yucca extracts. Mannanoligosaccharides and β-glucan are
commonly used prebiotics that are able to
I. Probiotics prevent pathogenic bacteria sticking to the
lining of the digestive tract. Prebiotics can also
Probiotics are live bacteria that are fed to, and decrease the coliform numbers in the large
benefit, the animal through improvements in intestine and colon of calves.
their microbial gut flora. Feeding beneficial
lactic acid bacteria is thought to inhibit the Through these mechanisms, prebiotics can
growth of pathogenic bacteria by: improve average daily gain and reduce faecal

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[Link] counts in calves.

III. Yeast products

There are two types of yeast products on the

market: live yeast products and yeast cultures.

I. Live yeast products contain viable yeast

(such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and the
media on which the yeast is grown.
II. Yeast culture contains the media in which
the yeast was grown, the metabolites
made by the live yeast cell during the
manufacturer’s fermentation process, and
dead yeast cells.

Direct feeding of yeast products has become a

popular trend in cattle rearing. It is claimed they
stimulate rumen fermentation and bacterial
growth, and thereby increase dry matter intake
and consequently improve animal performance.
In calves, feeding yeast has been shown to:

• Reduce the incidence and duration of

diarrhoea.
• Increase rumen development measurements
e.g. VFAs.
• Increase ADG and feed intake.
• Lower faecal scores.
• Reduce Salmonella intestinal colonisation of
the intestine and faecal shedding.

However some research studies have found only

limited effects of yeast on both intake and gain
efficiency. This suggests that the response of
calves to yeast cultures can be both variable
and inconsistent.

IV. Yucca extract

Yucca extract is prepared by processing the

cactus plant Yucca schidigena.

Yucca inclusion in the diet of pigs and poultry is

common practice with a significant reduction in
ammonia levels found.

For calves, the inclusion of Yucca extract in

their diet can improve rate of gain and feed
efficiency. This may be due to the reduction
of rumen fluid ammonia levels and increases
in microbial growth, resulting in increased
microbial protein synthesis and increased
protein availability in the small intestine.

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Section 4 14

The importance of
Water and Fibre

Introduction
Water is often the most overlooked aspect of calf-rearing. Water consumption is important
for the development of the rumen and to allow for timely weaning of calves off milk.
Ruminants require quality fibre in the diet to maximise production and maintain health by
sustaining a stable environment within the rumen. If the calves you are rearing are to achieve
maximum milk or beef production from pasture, then the importance of setting the rumen up
for life with quality fibre early cannot be overemphasised.

1 Why is early ‘free water’ consumption important?

2 When should water be offered and how much?
3 Keeping water fresh and clean.
4 Why is fibre important?
5 When should fibre be introduced?
6 How important is fibre quality?
7 What type of fibre should be fed?
8 Turning calves out to grass.

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The importance of
14 Water and Fibre
1 Why is early ‘free water’ consumption • Calves offered water eat 31-60% more dry
important? feed.
• Calves gain 38% more weight from birth to
‘Free water’ is pure water that is consumed four weeks of age (each extra litre of water
by the calf. This water goes directly into the leads to a 56g increase in weight gain per
rumen and creates the ideal environment day.
for fermentation by rumen bacteria. It is • Calves achieve 31% higher ADG from 0-10
this fermentation of grains that leads to the weeks of age.
development of the rumen. • Calves offered free-choice water have fewer
scour days.
The water that is in milk or milk replacer does
not contribute to this ‘free water’ requirement
as milk bypasses the rumen and goes directly The effect of water consumption on calf starter intake.
into the abomasum, the largest compartment of
8
the young calf’s stomach. 7
Water intake (L/d)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Starter DM intake (g/d)

Figure 1. The correlation between water and

starter concentrate intake. Source: J. Quigley,
2001.

2 When should water be offered and how much?

From 3-4 days of age, fresh water should be

offered to all calves. However, ideally water
should be made available to calves from birth.
Water should be available ad lib.

‘Free water’ should be constantly available. KEY POINT:

Early water consumption is important for the
following reasons; Calves need to drink five litres of water in
addition to their milk feed for each one kg of
dry
KEYfeed they consume.
FACTS:
Rumen
development 3 Keeping water fresh and clean.

•KEY
Separate
TIPS: buckets – Feed buckets should be
separated from water buckets to prevent
grain from getting into the water and vice
versa. Separation improves both starter and
Better starter Improved grain water consumption.
KEY POINT: • Routine cleaning – Frequent rinsing of water
intake fermentation
buckets increases daily bodyweight gain.
• Water quality issues (elevated mineral levels
or microbial contaminants) are a good
KEY FACTS: reason to regularly test the water given to
calves. As a minimum, the water should
Research has shown that calves that have free be tested annually for minerals, nitrates,
access to water eat more starter concentrates total dissolved solids and pH, as well as
KEYhave
and TIPS:enhanced rumen development. contaminants such as bacteria.

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14

Water and concentrates should be rigorously separated.

KEY POINT:

There are two important factors which encourage water consumption:

•KEY
Quality
FACTS:– water should be high-quality and kept fresh.
• Quantity – adequate water should be offered to promote healthy growth and rumen development.

4 Why is fibre important?

KEY TIPS:
In a calf’s diet, fibre promotes the growth of the muscular layer of the rumen and helps maintain the health
of the rumen lining through its abrasive effect (preventing papillae clumping together).

5 When should fibre be introduced?

The initial solid feed should contain 10-20% roughage in the dry matter. Offering chopped forage of 3-4cm
in length is ideal.

The ideal time for hay or straw to be introduced depends on the type of starter concentrates that you are
feeding. In particular, if fine ground pelleted rations are fed, additional roughage will be necessary to aid
the development of the rumen.

In general, fibre/roughage may be introduced by day three and should be available to all calves by two
weeks of age.

It is important to not over-feed fibre. Too high an intake of hay in young calves decreases the intake of
starter concentrates, leading to the development of ‘hay bellies’. In this situation, the rumen is stuffed with
hay which cannot be properly digested and rumen development is delayed.

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14 Water and Fibre

Hay and straw work equally well as a source of fibre.

6 How important is fibre quality?

Fibre quality is very important for calf performance. Poor quality fibre creates a fill effect, especially if long
stemmed, and is indigestible to a young calf. Poor quality fibre decreases the calf’s appetite and limits
concentrate intake due to the delay in passage out of the rumen.

Fibre should be fresh to minimise rejection. If the fibre source is heavily contaminated it should be
discarded.
7 What type of fibre should be fed?

Studies have shown that providing pre-weaning calves with a chopped forage source separately to starter
concentrate, such as oat or ryegrass hay, triticale silage and barley straw, improves their average daily gain,
final bodyweight at weaning and their starter intake compared to calves not receiving forage and those
receiving alfalfa hay.

Table 2. Effect of different forage sources on performance and feeding behaviour of Holstein calves.

Alfalfa Ryegrass Oat Barley Triticale Corn

Control
hay hay hay straw silage silage

ADG (kg/d) 0.72 0.76 0.84 0.93 0.88 0.88 0.82

Final BW (kg) 84.5 86.4 91.6 96.1 93.2 93.6 89.8

Starter intake
0.88 0.76 0.99 1.14 1.06 1.17 0.98
(kg of DM/d)

Source: Castells et al., 2012. Journal of Dairy Science.

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The source of fibre roughage that is fed should, turnout in spring, the autumn born calf does not
if possible, be different from the bedding. For require any concentrate feeding at pasture.
example, if straw is used as both bedding and
feed, calves may eat contaminated bedding and If grass management is poor, both spring and
consume pathogenic organisms at the same autumn calves will require continuous feeding
time. at grass if performance is to be maintained at
an acceptable level.
Calves tend to prefer hay over straw, however
Calves are selective grazers, so maintaining
both improve rumen function. Calves prefer
a high quality grazing sward is important to
long versus chopped hay, whereas they show
maximise performance. Operating a leader-
no significant preference between long versus
follower system will help to maintain calf
chopped straw.
performance and intestinal health.

KEY POINT:

The most influential factor promoting solid

consumption is the ease with which it can be
eaten by calves. Differences in particle size
KEY FACTS:
may contribute to the range in performance
and intakes observed in calves receiving
different forage sources.
KEY TIPS:
8 Turning calves out to grass.

Calves should be put out to grass when they

are strong enough and when the weather has Calves are choosy grazers so a high quality
settled and become milder (i.e. there is less sward is essential.
chance of very cold, wet days). Continue to feed
concentrates for at least one month after turn The leader-follower system.
out. The amount fed will depend on the age/
weight of calves at turnout and the quality and In this system farmers allow the younger
quantity of the grass available. Generally about animals onto a paddock, strip or block before
1kg per calf per day is adequate. the adults. This allows the younger animals to
get the best quality grass while helping them to
With the exception of the first week or so after avoid picking up intestinal parasites.

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