Networking Basics
Data communications – the electronic transfer of information between computers.
This has become a major focus of the computer industry especially since the rapid
growth of the internet.
Networks can include all computers and devices in a department, building or multiple
building spread over a large geographical area. Many networks carry voice, audio
and video traffic.
Uses of a network
A network is a way to connect computers so that they can communicate, exchange
information and share resources in real time. Networks enable multiple users to
access shared data and programs instantly.
Four of the most important benefits of networks
1. Simultaneous access to critical programs and data.
2. Sharing of peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
3. Streamlining personal communications.
4. Easier backup process.
Simultaneous Access
Multiple users may need to access the same data at the same time. Without a network
that enables file sharing each user typically keep separate copies of the data on
different disks and universally updating the data is difficult.
This problem is solved by determining which data is used by more than one person
and storing it on a network server – a central computer that provides a storage device
and other system resources that all users can share. If the server stores data files for
users to access it is commonly called a file server. A single master copy of the data
file is stored on the server which users can access whenever they need.
To protect the integrity of the data users can be granted 2 basic types of access to it
1. Read Only
Some users are entitled only to read the data. The user can read (retrieve) the
data but cannot write changes to the master data files. This type of protection
prevents unwanted changes from being made to the data.
2. Read/Write
Some users may be allowed to open shared files from the network server and
to make changes to the files. When such users make changes to the files the
updated file can be viewed by all users.
With supervisor rights a user can perform any task on the files. Network managers
can assign specific access rights to each user on the network on a per-drive, per-folder
or per-file basis.
In addition to using the same data files users also use many of the same programs. In
a non-networked PC environment each PC must have a separate copy of the software.
This can prove expensive and time consuming. 2 solutions to this problem
1. Site Licences – a business purchases a single copy of an application then pays
the developer for a licence to copy the application to a specified number of
computers. Each user has a complete individual copy of the program on
separate PCs but the business generally pays less for the site licence than to
individually licence each separate copy.
2. Network versions – Connect the users computers to a central network server
and enable users to share a network version of a program. Only one copy of
the application is stored on the network server with a minimum number of
supporting files copied to each individual computer. The program is loaded
from the sever into the individual RAM when needed. In the case where the
network server handles some or all of the processing tasks it is called an
application server because it handles some application processing as well as
storage.
Some software designed for networks is classified as groupware. This type of
software includes scheduling software, email and document management software.
Groupware allows multiple users on a network to co-operate on projects. Best know
examples of groupware are Lotus notes, Microsoft exchange and Novell Groupwise.
Shared Peripheral Devices
Best incentive to link computers in a network à sharing of peripheral devices such as
laser printers.
By using a process called spooling multiple users can send print jobs to a printer
simultaneously. When users send documents (print jobs) to a networked printer each
job is stored temporarily on the file server. As the printer finishes a job the next one
is sent by the file server so it can be printed. An advantage to spooling is that it
allows the user to continue working while the document is printing.
Personal Communications
One of the most far reaching applications of data communications is electronic mail
(email), a system for exchanging written messages (or voice and video) through a
network.
Each user has a unique identifier typically referred to as an email address. To send an
email message you must use an email program that works with the network to send
and receive.
Process for sending and receiving email
1. Sender composes message and sends it.
2. Message is stored on the server
3. Server alerts recipient that there is a message.
4. when the recipient is readyto read the message he retrieves it from the server.
Many email systems allow you to attach data files to a message. This allows uses to
share files even when they do not have access to the same storage devices.
A teleconference is a virtual meeting in which a group of people in different locations
conduct discussions by typing messages to each other. Each message can be seen by
all participants.
If users have the necessary hardware and software, they can see and speak to each
other as they meet online – videoconferencing.
Easier backup
If all valuable data is kept on a shared storage device that user access through a
network then the person managing the network has the responsibility of making
regular backups of the data on this device.
How networks are structured
2 main types of networks distinguished mainly by geography,
• Local Area Network
• Wide Area Network
Some networks use servers
• Server based Networks
Some don’t
• Peer – to – Peer Networks.
Local Area Networks
A local area network (LAN) is a network of computers located relatively near to
each other and connected in a way that enables them to communicate with each other.
A LAN can consist of just 2 or 3 PCs connected together to share resources or can
include hundreds of different computers. Any network that exists within a single
building or group of adjacent buildings is considered a LAN.
It may be helpful to connect different LANs together. To understand how this may be
possible there is a need to understand how networks transmit data and how different
types of networks share data.
On a small network data is broken into small groups called packets before being
transmitted from one computer to another. A packet is a data segment that includes a
header, payload and control elements that are transmitted together. The receiving
computer reconstructs the packet into the original structure.
The payload is the part of the packet that contains the actual data being sent. The
header contains info about the type of data in the payload, the source and destination
of the data and a sequence number so that data from multiple packets can be
reassembled at the receiving computer in the proper order.
Each LAN is governed by a protocol, which is a set of rules and formats for sending
and receiving data and an individual LAN may utilise more than 1 protocol.
Some of the mail protocols in use today include
• TCP/IP
Originally associated with UNIX hosts, this is the protocol of the internet and
is required on every client machine for direct communication across the
internet to occur. TCP/IP is now the default networking protocol on Win.
2000 and many other OS.
• IPX/SPX
A proprietary protocol of Novell and has been used in most versions of the
Netware network OS for networking offices throughout the world.
• NetBEUI
Relatively simple protocol with no real configurable parameters. Sends
messages through broadcasts to every computer that can receive it. It is an
excellent protocol for networking small offices or homes but does not expand
well into larger environments. NetBEUI was the default networking protocol
of Win 3.11, Win 95 and other Microsoft client OS.
• DLC
Originally a protocol used with large mainframe computer systems, it is now
used to control communications with network printers. It allows the printers
to be configured remotely and to send status messages.
If 2 LANS are built around the same communication rules then they can be connected
with one of 2 devices
1. Bridge
A device that looks at the information in each packet header and forwards the
data that is travelling from one LAN to another.
2. Router
More complicated device that stores the routing info for networks. Like a
bridge a router looks at the packet header to determine where the packet
should go and then determines a route for the packet to take and thus reach its
destination.
If you need to create a more sophisticated connection between networks you need a
gateway, a computer system that connects the 2 networks and translates information
from one to the other. Packets from different networks have different types of
information in their headers and the info can be in various formats. The gateway can
take a packet from one type of network, read the header, encapsulate the whole packet
into a new one, adding a header that is understood by the second network.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) is 2 or more LANs connected together generally across
a wide geographical area. Each site needs resources, data and programs locally but it
also needs to share data with the other site. To accomplish this routers can be
connected over public utilities (such as phone lines) to create a WAN. A WAN does
not have to include any LAN systems e.g. 2 distant mainframe computers can
communicate through a WAN even though neither is part of a LAN.
Geographical distance aside the main difference between a WAN and a LAN is the
cost of transmitting data. In a LAN all components are typically owned by the
organisation that owns them. To transmit data across great distances a WAN based
organisation typically lease many of the components used for data transmission – such
as high speed phone lines or wireless technologies such as satellite.
Server based Networks
Describing a network as a LAN or WAN gives no info on how individual computers
on a network (nodes) interact with each other.
Many networks includes not only nodes but also a central computer with a large hard
disk used for shared storage – the server.
One relatively simple implementation of a network with nodes and a file server is a
file server network. This arrangement allows each node to have access to the files
on the server but not necessarily to files on other nodes. When a node needs
information from the server it requests the entire file. In other words the file server is
simply used to store files and to forward them on to the nodes that request them.
Client/server Networks
Client/server networks are a hierarchical strategy in which individual computers
share the processing and storage workload with a central server. This type of
arrangement requires specialised software for both individual node and the server,
this software can be used on both LANs and WANs.
Most common example
• A database that can be accessed by many different computers on a network.
Database is stored on the network server as is the server portion if the database
management system (DBMS) which allows users to add or extract info from
the database.
Client/server software is valuable to large modern organisations because it distributes
processing and storage workloads among resources efficiently, users get the info that
they need faster.
This is also a commonly used model on the Internet. Users typically have client
software that provides an easily used interface for interacting with this giant WAN.
Peer – to – Peer Networks
In a peer – to – peer network (sometimes called a workgroup) all nodes on the
network have equal relationships with all others and all have similar types of software
that support the sharing of resources. The relationship is typically non-hierarchical.
Some high-end peer – to – peer networks allow distributed computing, which enables
users to draw on the processing power of other computers in the network.
Peer – to – peer networks are commonly set up in small organisations or schools
where the primary benefit of a network is shared storage and printers or enhanced
communications.
Network Topologies for LANs
Another distinguishing feature among LANs is the topology – the physical or logical
layout of the cables and devices that connect the nodes of the network. The 3 basic
topologies are,
• Bus
• Star
• Ring
A less common one is
• Mesh
Factors in determining the topology or combination of topologies to use include
• Type of computers currently installed
• Type of cabling (if any) currently installed
• Cost of components and services required to implement the network
• Distance between each computer
• Speed with which the data must travel around the network.
The Bus Topology
A bus network uses a single conduit to which all the nodes and peripheral devices are
attached.
Each node is connected in series to a single cable, at the cables start and end points a
special device called a terminator is attached. This stops the network signals so they
do not bounce back down the cable.
The disadvantages
• Keeping data from colliding requires extra circuitry and software.
• A broken connection can bring down or crash all or part of the network.
Primary advantage
• Uses the least amount of cabling of any topology.
The Star Topology
The star network is the most commonly used topology today. A device called a hub
is placed in the centre of the network so all nodes are connected to the central hub and
communicate through it.
Some hubs known as intelligent hubs can monitor traffic and help prevent collisions.
A broken connection does not affect the rest of the network. If you lose the hub
however all nodes connected to that hub are unable to communicate.
The Ring Topology
The ring topology connects the nodes of a network in a circular chain with each node
connected to the next. The final node in the chain connects to the first one to complete
the ring.
With this methodology each node examines data sent through the ring. If the data
(known as a token) is not addressed to the node examining it, it passes it along to the
next node in the ring.
There is no danger of collisions because only one packet of data may traverse the ring
at a time. If the ring is broken the entire network is unable to communicate until the
ring is restored.
The Mesh Topology
The mesh topology is the least used topology and the most expensive to implement.
A cable runs from every computer to every other computer.
Advantage
• The data can never fail to be delivered, if one connection goes down there are
other routes available.
This topology is impractical for most working environments but is ideal for
connecting routers on the Internet.
Network Media and Hardware
Twisted-Pair Cable
Normally consists of 2 wires individually insulated in plastic and then twisted around
each other and bound together in another layer of plastic.
Except for the plastic nothing shields the wire from outside interference so it is
sometimes called UTP (unshielded twisted-pair). Some wires are encased in a metal
sheath and are therefore called STP (shielded twisted-pair).
This type of wire is also sometimes called telephone wire as it is used for indoor
telephone wiring. Today most twisted-pair wire used for network communication is
made to more demanding specifications than voice grade wire.
Network media are sometimes compared by the amount of data that they can transmit
per sec. The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a transmission
channel is known as bandwidth – the higher the bandwidth the more data that can be
transferred at any one time. Networks based on twisted-pairs now support
transmission speeds of up to 1Gbps.
Coaxial Cable
Sometimes called coax is similar to cable used in cable television systems. There are
2 conductors in a coaxial cable – one is a single wire at the centre of the cable and the
other is a wire mesh shield surrounding the first wire with an insulator in between.
It can support transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps and so can carry more data than
older types of twisted-pair wiring. It is more expensive and less popular than the
newly improved twisted-pair technology. 2 types of coaxial cable are used
• Thick – old and seldom used in new networks.
• Thin
Fibre-Optic Cable
A thin strand of glass that transmits pulsating beams of light rather than electric
frequencies. The strand carries the light all the way from one end to the other bending
around corners on the way. Light travels at much greater speeds than electrical
signals à fibre-optic cables can carry data at more than a billion bps. Speeds are now
approaching 100Gbps.
Fibre-Optics offer extraordinary bandwidth and are a very secure transmission
medium. It is however relatively expansive and difficult to install.
Wireless Links
Wireless communication relies on radio signals or infrared signals for transmitting
data.
4 common uses
1. Office LANs can use radio signals to transmit data between nodes.
2. Laptops can be equipped with cellular phone equipment and a modem.
3. Corporate WANs often use microwave transmission to connect 2 LANs within
the same area. Requires unobstructed line of sight between 2 antennas.
4. WANs that cover large distances often use satellites and microwave
communication.
Network Interface Card, Network Protocols and Cabling Specifications
Cables or wireless technologies are used to link a network together in a topology.
Regardless of the wiring and topology the network still needs a hardware component
to control the flow of data – the NIC (network interface card).
Ethernet
The most commonly used network technology originally designed for the bus
topology and thick coaxial cable. A new technology uses pre-existing telephone
wiring to provide a network medium for interconnecting computers. Easy to integrate
and does not require installing any new media.
With Ethernet, if 2 nodes transmit simultaneously the collision is detected and they
retransmit one at a time – this approach is called carrier sense multiple
access/collision detection (CSMA/CD).
Most popular implementation of Ethernet is called 10Base-T and uses a star topology
and twisted-pair, speeds up to 10Mbps.
Fast Ethernet
100Base-T is available using the same media but different NICs are used to achieve
speeds of up to 100Mbps.
Token Ring
IBMs network technology – controlling hardware transmits an electronic token to
each node on the network many times per sec if the token is not already in use by
another node. A computer can copy data into the token and set the address where the
data should be sent. The token continues around the ring until it reaches the required
destination. The receiving computer then sends an acknowledgement. The tokens
status is then reset to empty.
Hardware is expensive and speeds can go up to 100Mbps.
Network Software
The group of programs that manage the resources on the network is often called the
network operating system (NOS).
Popular NOS include
• Novell NetWare
• Microsoft Windows NT Server 4.0
• Microsoft Windows 2000
• Banyan VINES
• AppleShare
• Linux
Data communications over Standard Telephone Lines
The alternative to using dedicated media is to use the telephone system – called POTS
(plain old telephone system). This is a popular option because it is really just a giant
electronic network owned by the telephone companies.
By connecting your computer to the phone line you can potentially send data to
anyone else in the world. Typically analogue lines that carry voice signals are not
well suited to carrying data because the limit for transmission speeds is only about
0.005 as fast as a 10Base-T Ethernet network.
In response to user demand Hayes Microcomputer Products Inc. developed the first
modem for PCs in 1978.
Modems
Attaching a computer to an analogue telephone line requires a modem. Because a
computers voice is digital – on and off pulses representing 1s and 0s – the modem
(short for modulator-demodulator) is needed to translate the digital signal into
analogue signals that can travel over the phone line. Modulation phase à modem
turns computers digital signal into analogue. Demodulation à opposite.
Choosing a modem
A modem can be an expansion card that plugs into an expansion slot or can be an
external device that plugs into a serial port.
A software modem replaces most of the hardware with an application program.
Considerations
1. Transmission speed - bps
2. Data Compression – technologies to shrink the size of the data prior to
sending, standard today v90.
3. Internal vs External – external modem is a box housing the circuitry outside
the computer. Internal modem is a circuit board that plugs into an expansion
slot.
4. Error Connection – error connection protocols enable a modem to detect
errors in the data being received and request a resend.
Modems also come in the form of cards for a laptop – referred to as PCMCIA cards.
Cable modems perform functions similar to a standard modem but connect through
the cable TV system.
Most modems emulate fax machines and can exchange faxes with any other fax
machine or fax modem.
Uses of a modem
File transfer – term used to describe sending a file to a remote computer. Act of
sending is known as uploading and receiving is known as downloading. For a file to
be transferred between 2 modems both computers must use the same file transfer
protocol (FTP). The most common FTPs are
• Kermit
• Ymodem
• Xmodem
• Zmodem
Modem communication is full-duplex – data can travel in both directions at the same
time. Modem communications can be half-duplex – data can be sent in only one
direction at a time. In either type the receiving computer can respond to the sender
and verify the data received contained no errors. If there are errors the sending
computer resends the incorrect portion.
Using Digital Phone Lines
The transformation from analogue to digital will affect most users in 3 ways
1. You will need a new phone – digital one that translates your voice into bits
rather than an analogue signal.
2. No modem will be needed to send data, just an adaptor.
3. You can send data much quicker.
ISDN, T1 and T3
ISDN – integrated services digital network, is a system that replaces analogue
services with digital services.
BRI (basic rate ISDN) provides 3 communication channels on one line – 2 64kbps
data channels and 1 19kbps control channel. The 2 data channels can be used
simultaneously.
A higher level of service is called primary rate ISDN or PRI providing 24 channels at
64kbps each à total bandwidth of 1.554Mbps. This level of bandwidth is referred to
a T1.
T3 offers 672 channels à 44.736Mbps.
DSL Technologies
Digital subscriber line (DSL), less expensive than ISDN and much faster.
Several types
• ADSL – Asymmetrical, Upstream – 1Mbps, Downstream 8Mbps.
• RADSL – Rate adaptive, Upstream – 512kbps, Downstream 1.554Mbps.
• HDSL – High bit rate, Upstream – 1.554Mbps, Downstream 1.554Mbps.
• IDSL – ISDN, Upstream – 128kbps, Downstream 128kbps.
• SDSL – Symmetric, Upstream – 1.554Mbps, Downstream 1.554Mbps.
• VDSL – Very high rate, Upstream – 1.6Mbps, Downstream 12.96Mbps.
ATM
Asynchronous transfer mode – a protocol designed as a more efficient way to send
voice and computer data over a single network.
Fast, flexible and well suited to all types of data it has become the technology used for
backbones in telephone company branches.
