Math 222 Lecture 6

by Hovsep Mazakian

January 23 2025
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Last time, we saw that if a function f (x) can be represented by a power

series on some interval: ∞
X
f (x) = an x n
n=0

then we know the coefficients must be

f (n) (0)
an =
n!
In other words, if f (x) can be represented by a power series of the form
X∞
an xn , then
n=0
∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn
n=0
n!

Note: f (n) denotes the n’th derivative of f, so for example f (1) = f ′ , f (2) = f ′′ , f (3) = f ′′′
etc and by definition
f (0) (x) = f (x)

This series is called the ”Taylor Series of f (x) centered at 0” (we also say
the Taylor Series of f (x) about 0 and the Taylor Series of f (x) at 0). Also
it has another special name: It is also called the Maclaurin Series of f (x).
Similarly, if
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − c)n
n=0

then we can show that the coefficients must be

f (n) (c)
an =
n!
In other words, if f (x) can be represented by a power series of the form
X∞
an (x − c)n , then
n=0
∞
X f (n) (c)
f (x) = (x − c)n
n=0
n!
This series is called the ”Taylor Series of f (x) centered at c” (also called the
Taylor series of f (x) about c, or at c)
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These facts imply that the power series representation of a function f (x)
centered at any number c is unique (and given by the Taylor series of f (x)
about c).

Next class, we will see how to find the interval of convergence (and to
prove that a function can be represented by a power series).
However, today we will simply find the Taylor series of several functions,
without finding the interval of convergence.
Question: Assume that the following functions can be represented as power
series. Find the Taylor series around the given point.
1. Find the Taylor Series for f (x) = ex centered at 0.
Solution:
In fact, this question is asking for the Maclaurin Series for ex . Mclaurin
Series have the form:
∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn
n=0
n!

We need to find a general formula for f (n) (0) :

• f (x) = ex and so f (0) (0) = f (0) = e0 = 1

• f (1) (x) = ex and so f (1) (0) = e0 = 1
• f (2) (x) = ex and so f (2) (0) = e0 = 1
• f (3) (x) = ex and so f (3) (0) = e0 = 1
• We see that in general,
f (n) (x) = ex and so f (n) (0) = 1 for all n ≥ 0.

Therefore, the Maclaurin series for ex is

∞
x
X 1 n
e = x
n=0
n!

2. Find the Taylor Series for f (x) = ex centered at c = 2.

Solution:
The Taylor Series for f (x) at c = 2 is
∞
X f (n) (2)
f (x) = (x − 2)n
n=0
n!

We need to find a general formula for f (n) (2) :

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• f (x) = ex and so f (0) (2) = f (2) = e2

• f (1) (x) = ex and so f (1) (2) = e2
• f (2) (x) = ex and so f (2) (2) = e2
• f (3) (x) = ex and so f (3) (2) = e2
• We see that in general,
f (n) (x) = ex and so f (n) (2) = e2 for all n ≥ 0.
Therefore,the Taylor series for ex centered at 2 is
∞
X e2
ex = (x − 2)n
n=0
n!

2
3. Find the Taylor Series for f (x) = e−x centered at 0.
Solution:
We can try to find the Maclaurin Series directly, by computing the
first few derivatives, and trying to see what the pattern is to get a
general formula for f (n) (0). However, this is not simple in this case,
2 2 2
since f ′ (x) = −2xe−x , and then f ”(x) = −2e−x − 2x(−2x)e−x , etc,
so the general pattern may not be so clear/easy to find.
However, observe that if we plug in −x2 into x in the Mclaurin Series
for ex , we get
∞ ∞
−x2
X 1 2 n
X 1
e = (−x ) = (−1)n x2n
n=0
n! n=0
n!

Observe that we do get a power series centered at 0, and so that series

2
is in fact exactly the Maclaruin series for e−x (since the Maclaurin
series for a function is unique.)

Z
2
4. Write the indefinite integral e−x dx as a Maclaurin Series.
Solution:
2
We will just integrate the Maclaurin Series for e−x which we just found
in the previous part:
∞ ∞ Z ∞
(−1)n 2n (−1)n
Z Z X
−x2 1 n 2n
X X
e dx = (−1) x dx = x dx = C+ x2n+1
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
n!(2n + 1)
2
Note: The curve y = e−x is the famous bell curve (normal/Gaussian
distribution), and is used heavily in probability and statistics. There
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is no formula in terms of the standard functions for its integral (the

techniques of substitution, by parts, etc, will not work.) Using series,
we do get a formula that is quite useful, as we’ll see next week.
5. Find the Mclaurin Series for f (x) = sin(x) (that is the Taylor Series
centered at c = 0.)
Solution:
• f (x) = sin(x) and so f (0) (0) = sin(0) = 0
• f (1) (x) = cos(x) and so f (1) (0) = cos(0) = 1
• f (2) (x) = − sin(x) and so f (2) (0) = − sin(0) = 0
• f (3) (x) = − cos(x) and so f (3) (0) = − cos(0) = −1
• f (4) (x) = sin(x) and so f (4) (0) = sin(0) = 0
• f (5) (x) = cos(x) and so f (5) (0) = cos(0) = 1
• f (6) (x) = − sin(x) and so f (6) (0) = − sin(0) = 0
• f (7) (x) = − cos(x) and so f (7) (0) = − cos(0) = −1
• f (8) (x) = sin(x) and so f (8) (0) = sin(0) = 0
• We see that every fourth derivative brings us back to where we
started. So for instance the fourth derivative of sin(x) is sin(x).
This cycle repeats after every 4 terms.
We have ∞
X f (n) (0)
sin(x) = xn
n=0
n!
and so we need to find the general formula for f (n) (0). To find this
formula, let’s write out the first several terms of the series:
0 1 1 0 2 1 3 0 4 1 5 0 6 1 7 0 8 1 9
sin(x) = + x + x − x + x + x + x − x + x + x +... =
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9!
1 1 1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9
x − x + x − x + x + ...
1! 3! 5! 7! 9!
Observe that only the odd powers of x have non-zero coefficients, so
only those power’s contribute to the sum. Odd numbers can be repre-
sented as 2n+1 for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... . Also, the numerators alternate be-
tween 1 and -1, so the numerators are equal to (−1)n for n = 0, 1, 2, ....
Hence, we can write this series in sigma notation as
∞
X (−1)n 2n+1
sin(x) = x
n=0
(2n + 1)!
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This is the Maclaurin Series for sin(x) (that is the Taylor Series for
sin(x) centered at 0).
6. Find the Mclaurin Series for f (x) = cos(x) (that is the Taylor Series
centered at c = 0.)
Solution:

• f (0) (x) = cos(x) and so f (0) (0) = cos(0) = 1

• f (1) (x) = − sin(x) and so f (1) (0) = − sin(0) = 0
• f (2) (x) = − cos(x) and so f (2) (0) = − cos(0) = −1
• f (3) (x) = sin(x) and so f (3) (0) = sin(0) = 0
• f (4) (x) = cos(x) and so f (4) (0) = cos(0) = 1
• f (5) (x) = − sin(x) and so f (5) (0) = − sin(0) = 0
• f (6) (x) = − cos(x) and so f (6) (0) = − cos(0) = −1
• f (7) (x) = sin(x) and so f (7) (0) = sin(0) = 0
• f (8) (x) = cos(x) and so f (8) (0) = cos(0) = 1
• We see again that every fourth derivative brings us back to where
we started. So for instance the fourth derivative of cos(x) is cos(x).
This cycle repeats after every 4 terms.
We have ∞
X f (n) (0)
cos(x) = xn
n=0
n!
and so we need to find the general formula for f (n) (0). To find this
formula, let’s first write out the first several terms of the series:
1 0 1 1 2 0 3 1 4 0 5 1 6 0 7 1 8
cos(x) = + x − x + x + x + x − x + x + x +... =
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
1 1 1 1 1
− x2 + x4 − x6 + x8 + ...
0! 2! 4! 6! 8!
We see that only the even power terms have non-zero coefficients and re-
main in the sum. Even numbers are represented by 2n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
The numerators also alternate between 1 and -1, so again they are equal
to (−1)n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Therefore, the Maclaurin Series for cos(x) is
∞
X (−1)n
cos(x) = x2n
n=0
(2n)!
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7. Find the Maclaurin Series for f (x) = x cos(x2 ) (Taylor Series centered
at c = 0.)
Solution: We can use the Maclaurin series for cos(x) that we just
found, and replace x by x2 , and also multiply the entire series by x:

Therefore, the Maclaurin Series for x cos(x2 ) is

∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)n X (−1)n X (−1)n
x cos(x2 ) = x (x2 )2n = x x4n = x4n+1
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n)!