Practical No.

1
TABULATION OF DATA

The data generated in most of the studies are voluminous and massive and it becomes
necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order for the
viewers to draw some inferences. This process is called as tabulation Tabulation is a process of
presenting the collected and classified data in a comprehensive way containing all the desired
information about the data. There are essentially seven parts for a scientific table. They are as
follows

(a) Table number

(b) Title of the table
(c) Head notes / prefatory notes
(d) Captions and stubs
(e) Body of the table
(f) Foot note
(g) Source
Type of Table: The following are four types of table

1. Simple tables 2. Complex tables 3. General tables 4. Special purpose tables

Data it should first be grouped into different sets or classes. The process is
known as classification of data. The basic rule followed in classification of data was
proposed by Prof. Sturge and is known as Sturges’ rule. According to Sturge rule
Number of classes = 1 + 3.322 log N
where N is the total number of observations
Hence for 100 observations, number of classes is 1 + 3.322 log 100 = 7.644 which
is approximately 8.
The width of the class is given by the ratio of range of observations to number of
classes. Once the classes and their frequencies are known the frequency distribution table
can be made.
The basic rules for making frequency distribution table include the following
1. Number of classes should not be too many or too few
2. The class width should not be too broad or too narrow
3. The class width should be same for all classes

1
 4. The headings and stubs should be clear
5. Groups must be tabulated either in descending or ascending order of magnitude
6. If certain observations are not included, the reasons for the same must be given
7. If rates or proportions are presented the actual number should be provided in
parenthesis
8. The range of classes should contain entire data and the classes should be continuous
Example No.1
In a survey of 45 families, the number of cows per family was recorded
8,1,0,2,3,4,5,6,7,2,3,4,0,2,5,8,4,5,10,6,3,2,7,6,5,3,3,7,8,9,7,9,4,5,4,3,1,1,4,4,4,4,5,5,6
Represent the above data in the form of a discrete frequency distribution

Example No.2
Classify the following data of daily milk production of 30 cows in a continuous frequency
distribution with equal class intervals of 10 using exclusive method:

11 27 30 14 30 04 25 16 18 33 47 37 18 14 20
25 10 18 09 39 14 29 20 25 29 15 22 20 29 29

Example No.3
The body weights of 100 Gir calves of 10 months of age are recorded as follows. Prepare a
frequency distribution considering the variable as continuous. Form less than and greater than
cumulative frequencies.

233 208 206 300 271 304 207 254 262 231 279 228 287 223 247 292 209 273 194 268 263 262
234 277 291 277 256 271 255 299 278 290 259 251 265 316 318 252 216 221 249 204 241 249
289 211 273 241 215 264 216 271 216 196 269 231 272 236 219 212 320 245 263 244 239 227
275 255 292 246 245 255 229 240 262 291 275 272 218 317 251 257 227 222 266 227 255 251
208 255 266 255 214 204 272 230 224 250 255 284

2
PRACTICAL No. 2

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

One of the most important objective of statistical analysis is to get one single value that
describes the characteristics of the entire data. Such a value is called the central value or an average.
For example average height, income etc.

The common measures of central tendency of a continuous distribution are as follows.

Arithmetic mean

Raw or ungrouped data =∑x/n

Ungrouped frequency distribution = ∑fx / f

Grouped frequency distribution = ∑fm / f

Median

Raw or ungrouped data = [(n + 1) / 2]th observation after forming an array

Ungrouped frequency distribution = Prepare less than cumulative frequency

Find out N / 2

Note the cumulative frequency just more than n/2

Corresponding value of variable is median

Grouped frequency distribution = Prepare less than cumulative frequency

Find out N / 2

Cumulative frequency just more than n / 2

Corresponding class of variable is median class

Median = l + (0.5 N – C) h/f

Where,

l is the lower limit of median class,

N is the cumulative frequency,

h is the width of median class,

3
 f is the frequency of median class and

C is the cumulative frequency of class preceding median class.

Mode

Raw or ungrouped data = Most frequent observation

Ungrouped frequency distribution = Observation with maximum frequency

Grouped frequency distribution = Determine the modal class as the class with maximum
frequency.

Mode = l + [(f1 – f0 / 2f1-f0-f2)] i

Where,

l is the lower limit of modal class,

f0 is the frequency of class preceding modal class,

f1 is the frequency of modal class,

f2 is the frequency of class succeeding modal class and

‘i’ is the width of modal class.

Geometric mean

Raw or ungrouped data = antilog ∑ log x / n

Ungrouped frequency distribution = antilog ∑f. log x / n

Grouped frequency distribution = antilog ∑f. log m / n

Harmonic mean

Raw or ungrouped data = n / (∑1 / x)

Ungrouped frequency distribution =∑f / (∑f / x)

Grouped frequency distribution =∑f / (∑f / m)

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Relationship between measures

Mode = 3 Median-2 Mean

In a symmetrical distribution Mean=Median= Mode

Example No.1
Calculate the arithmetic mean, median, mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean of the rectal
temperature of 10 Jaffarabadi buffaloes provided

99.4 99.6 98.8 99.4 99.3 99.4 99.7 99.2 99.3 99.2

Example No.2
Calculate the arithmetic mean, mode and median of the following body weights of Patanwadi
sheep (kg): 60 50 40 80 90 80 60 70 60 30 80 90 60 50 70 20 51 25 42 52

Example No.3
Calculate the arithmetic mean, median, mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean of body
weights of Jersey cows in a farm

Body weight in Kg 180-195 195-210 210-225 225-240 240-255 255-270

Frequency 10 14 17 24 21 14

Example No.4
Given the mean and median wages of employees of two companies are Rs.500 and 496
rupees Find the mode value of the wages.

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5
PRACTICAL No. 3

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The averages are representatives of a frequency distribution. But they fail to give a
complete picture of the distribution. They do not tell anything about the scatterness of observations
within the distribution

In general two types of measures of dispersion are present. Those which are measured in
units of the observation are known as absolute measures of dispersion and those which are
expressed as ratios or percentages are known as relative measures of dispersion.

Range: The difference between the largest and the smallest scores/values in the data set

Raw or ungrouped data = Difference between highest and lowest value

Ungrouped frequency distribution = Difference between highest and lowest value

Grouped frequency distribution = Difference between upper limit of highest class

and lower limit of lowest class

Relative measure of range is known as coefficient of range and is given by the formula

X max - X min / (X max + X min)

Mean deviation: The mean deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviations from the
mean divided by the number of items, (i.e., the sum of the frequencies).

Data Mean deviation

Raw or ungrouped data

Ungrouped frequency distribution

Grouped frequency distribution

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Standard deviation: If we take the positive square root of the variance, we obtain the root mean
square deviation or simply called standard deviation.

Data Standard deviation

Raw or ungrouped data

Ungrouped frequency distribution

Grouped frequency distribution

Variance: If we square the deviations from the mean and then take their sum. If we divide this
sum by the number of observations (i.e., the sum of the frequencies), we obtain the average of
deviations, which is called variance. Variance is usually denoted by …….2.

Variance is the square of standard deviation

Data Variance

Raw or ungrouped data

Ungrouped frequency distribution

Grouped frequency distribution

Coefficient of variation

It is the standard deviation expressed as percentage of mean

CV = (Standard deviation / Arithmetic mean) X 100

7
 If we want to compare the variability of two or more series, we can use C.V. The series
or groups of data for which the C.V. is greater indicate that the group is more variable, less stable,
less uniform, less consistent or less homogeneous. If the C.V. is less, it indicates that the group is
less variable or more stable or more uniform or more consistent or more homogeneous

Standard error

Standard error is defined as the standard deviation of sample mean

SE = Standard deviation / square root of number of observations

Quartile deviation
Raw or ungrouped data = [(Q3 – Q1) / 2]
Where Q3 is 3rd quartile and Q1 is the first quartile

Ungrouped frequency distribution = Prepare less than cumulative frequency

Find out i (∑f / 4)

Cumulative frequency just more than i (∑f / 4)

Corresponding value of variable is ith quartile

Grouped frequency distribution = Prepare less than cumulative frequency

Find out i (∑f / 4)

Find the CF just more than i (∑f / 4)

Corresponding class of variable is ith quartile class

ith quartile = l + (( i ∑f / 4 ) – C) h/f

Where l is the lower limit of ith quartile class, ∑f is the total frequency, h is the magnitude of ith
quartile class, f is the frequency of ith quartile class and C is the cumulative frequency of class
preceding ith quartile class.

Example No. 1
Calculate Mean deviation and Standard deviation from the following discrete series

Marks (X) 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequencies (Y) 8 12 20 10 6 4

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Example No. 2
A survey was conducted on commercial farms of Gujarat in twelve districts. The numbers of farms
with more than 500 breedable cows are enlisted below. Find out range, quartile deviation, mean
deviation, standard deviation, variance, standard error and coefficient of variation of the data.

Name of
TVM KLM APY KTM IDI PTH EKM TCR PGT KOZ MLP KAN
District

Number 7 6 5 5 6 4 8 7 9 4 3 2
of farms

Example No.3

A study was conducted in Anand district to study the adult body weight of does. The information
is compiled and provided below. Find out range, quartile deviation, mean deviation, standard
deviation, variance, standard error and coefficient of variation of the data.

Body weight of does (in kilograms) Number of animals

20-25 10

25-30 26
30-35 23

35-40 13
40-45 8

Example No. 4

The body weight of 20 calves is given below. Calculate the different measures of dispersion from
the available data.

260 260 230 280 290 280 260 270 260 300 280 290 260 250 270 320 320 250 320 220

Example No. 5
The number of eggs laid per month in a sample of 40 hens are shown below:

30 23 26 27 29 25 27 24 28 26 26 26 30 26 25 29 26 23 26 30 25 28 24 26 27 25 25 28 27 28 26
30 26 25 28 28 24 27 27 29

Calculate descriptive statistics and present a frequency distribution.

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9
PRACTICAL No. 4

GRAPHICAL AND DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA

There are many ways in which you can present numerical data Diagrams and graphs are
some of the many ways. Diagrams are various geometrical shape such as bars, circles etc.
Diagrams are based on scale but are not confined to points or lines. They are more attractive
and easier to understand than graphs. Some important types of Diagrams are as follows
1. Simple Bar diagram.
2. Multiple Bar diagram.
3. Component Bar diagram.
4. Percentage Bar diagram.
5. Pie chart
6. Pictogram

Graphical representation can be used for both the educated section and uneducated
section of the society. Furthermore, any hidden trend present in the given data can be
noticed only in this mode of representation. In all the diagrams and graphs, the groups or
classes are represented on the x-axis and the volumes or frequencies are represented in the
y-axis. There are many different graph types to choose from and a critical issue is to ensure
that the graph type selected is the most appropriate for the data.. Some important types of
graphs are as follows :

Histogram:
Histograms are a special form of bar chart where the data represent continuous rather than
discrete categories. A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights
it is a set of vertical bars drawn over each class interval whose areas are proportional to the
frequencies.
Construction of a Histogram Instructions for drawing a histogram can be listed in several
steps:
1. Calculate the range: (Range = maximum – minimum value)
2. Divide the range into five to 20 classes, depending on the number of observations. The
class width is obtained by rounding the result up to an integer number. The lowest class
boundary must be defined below the minimum value, the highest class boundary must be
defined above the maximum value.
3. For each class, count the number of observations belonging to that class. This is the true
frequency.

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4. The relative frequency is calculated by dividing the true frequency by the total number
of observations: (Relative frequency = true frequency / total number of observations).
5. The histogram is a column (or bar) graph with class boundaries defined on one axis and
frequencies on the other axis.

Frequency polygon: It is a graph of the frequency distribution obtained by joining the

midpoints of various class intervals by means of straight line. Its areas is same as the areas
of histogram. These graphs are used only when depicting data from the continuous
variables shown on a histogram.
Oogive or cumulative Frequency curve: Cumulative frequencies are successive addition
of ordinary frequencies of classes such that the cumulative frequency of the last class is the
total of all the ordinary frequencies. It is of two types
1) Less than type. 2) More than type

Example No.1

The units of cows in a dairy farm for 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 are 5,
8, 9, 6, 12, 15 and 24 respectively. Represent these data using a suitable diagram.

Example No 2:
Construct a histogram for the 14 -month weights (kg) of 100 Gir calves:
233 208 306 300 271 304 207 254 262 231 279 228 287 223 247 292 209 303 194 268 263
262 234 277 291 277 256 271 255 299 278 290 259 251 265 316 318 252 316 221 249 304
241 249 289 211 273 241 215 264 216 271 296 196 269 231 272 236 219 312 320 245 263
244 239 227 275 255 292 246 245 255 329 240 262 291 275 272 218 317 251 257 327 222
266 227 255 251 298 255 266 255 214 304 272 230 224 250 255 284

Example No.3
Draw the frequency polygon for the following data
Class Interval 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90
Frequency 4 6 8 10 12 14 7 5

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11
PRACTICAL No. 5
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

When comparing two different variables, two questions come to mind: “Is there a
relationship between two variables?” and “How strong is that relationship?” These questions can
be answered using regression and correlation. Regression answers whether there is a relationship
(again this book will explore linear only) and correlation answers how strong the linear relationship
is.

Correlation

Two variables are said to be correlated if change in one variable is accompanied by change
in the other variable.

The correlation is measured by coefficient of correlation and is usually denoted by “r”. r

XY is the coefficient of correlation of the variables X and Y.

The coefficient of correlation measures the strength of the linear relationship between two
variables.

The correlation coefficient r is a dimensionless number ranging from -1 to + 1.

A positive r means that larger values of X are associated with, on average, larger values
of Y. A negative r means that large X values and small Y values tend to appear together.

r XY = Cov XY / ( σ X σ Y )

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Where X and Y are the values for the two variables and N is the number of pairs of observations

Rank Correlation

Rank correlation is designated by the letter Rho (ρ)

Concurrent deviation methods

Regression

Regression is a mathematical measure of relationship between two or more variables in

terms of original units of data.

The variables will have a ‘cause – effect’ relationship.

Linear regression uses a line to predict a response numerical variable (Y) from a numerical
explanatory variable (X)

Regression is measured by coefficient of regression and is defined as the change in

independent variable for unit change in dependent variable.

The regression line will take the form Y = a + b X. a is the intercept (where the line crosses
the axis at X = 0), and b is the slope of this regression line.

The regression coefficient of dependent variable Y on independent variable X is designated

as bY.X

b Y.X = Cov XY / ( σ2 X )

13
 Where,
Y is the dependent variable,
X is the independent variable and
Regression coefficient is ‘b Y.X’.
Once the coefficient of regression is known the dependent variable can be
expressed as a function of independent variable

Where Y is the dependent variable, X is the independent variable and the regression
coefficient is ‘b’.
Example No.1
Is there a linear association between weight and heart girth in this herd of cows? Weight was
measured in kg and heart girth in cm on 10 cows.

Weight (y): 641 620 633 651 640 666 650 688 680 670

Heart girth (x) 205 212 213 216 216 217 218 219 221 226

Example No.2
Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the data on 10 farm families ranked according to their
size of holding and standard of living as given below.

Rank of farm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
size

Rank of living 5 6 4 8 9 10 2 3 4 1
standard

Example No. 3
Calculate the coefficient of correlation using the methods of concurrent deviation between supply
and demand of a commodity from the following data for past ten years

Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Supply 125 160 164 174 155 170 165 162 172 175

Demand 115 125 192 10 165 174 124 127 152 169

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Example No. 4
From a farm, 36 sheep were selected at random. The weight of sheep (x) and the length of wool
fibre (y) of the selected animal were recorded. The results are given in the Table. Fit a regression
line of Y on X. Estimate the length of wool for the sheep weighing 30 kgs.

The weight of sheep in kgs (x) and the length of wool fibre in cm (y) of farm as follows:

y x y x y x

95 22.4 143 24.5 112 22.9

109 23.3 127 23.6 131 23.9

133 24.1 92 21.1 147 24.8

132 24.3 88 21.4 90 21.2

136 23.5 99 23.4 110 22.2

116 22.3 129 23.4 106 22.7

126 23.9 91 21.6 127 23.0

124 24.0 103 21.4 145 24.0

137 24.9 114 23.3 85 20.6

90 20.0 124 24.4 94 21.0

107 19.8 143 24.4 142 24.0

108 22.0 108 22.5 111 23.1

*******

15
PRACTICAL NO. 6

PROBABILITY

Event is defined as any phenomena occurring in nature.

The word probability is used to indicate the likelihood that some event will happen. For
example, ‘there is high probability that it will rain tonight’. We can conclude this according to some
signs, observations or measurements

Probability of an event is defined as the ratio of number of favorable cases for that event
to the total number of equally likely cases. For example, we throw a die once and observe the result.

If there are ‘N’ equally likely ways in which an event can occur and if ‘n’ is the number of
ways in which the desired event can occur, and then probability of occurrence of the desired event
is n / N.

An observation of an experiment that cannot be partitioned to simpler events is called an

elementary event or simple event

Permutations

Each different arrangement that can be made from a given number of things by taking part
or all of them at a time is called permutations

From a set of n elements, the number of ways those n elements can be rearranged, i.e., put in
different orders, is the permutations of n elements:

Pn = n!

The symbol n! (Factorial of n) denotes the product of all natural numbers from 1 to n:

n! = (1) (2) (3) ... (n) Also, by definition 0! = 1.

Illustration: In how many ways can three animals, x, y and z, be arranged in triplets?

n = 3 The number of permutations of 3 elements: P(3) = 3! = (1) (2) (3) = 6

The six possible triplets: xyz xzy yxz yzx zxy zyx

More generally, we can define permutations of n elements taken r at a time in particular order as

n
Pr = n! / ( n-r)!

16
Combinations

Each different arrangement that can be made from a given number of things by taking part
or all of them without regard to order of arrangement is called combination.

Number of combinations of n things taken r at a time

n
Cr = r!* nPr = n! / r! ( n-r)!

Theorems of probability

1. Addition theorem
2. The addition principle says that the probability of either of two mutually exclusive events
is the probability of the first event plus the probability of the second event:
Pr[A or B] = Pr[A] + Pr[B] .

3. Multiplication theorem
The multiplication principle says that the probability of two events both occurring - if the two
events are independent -- is the probability of the first times the probability of the second: Pr[A and
B] = Pr[A] Pr[B].

3. Probability of compound events

If ‘p’ is the probability of occurrence of an event, the probability that it will occur in exactly x out
of n cases is nCr*qn-x px .

4. Baye’s theorem

It is used to find out conditional probabilities under dependence

P ( B/A) = P (BA) / P (A)

Where P ( B/A) is the probability of occurenceof B if A has occurred, P (BA) is the probability
of occurrence of A and B together and P (A) is the probability of occurrence of A.

Example No.1
One card is drawn from a standard pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that it is either king
or queen?

17
Example No. 2
Two card are drawn from a deck of well shuffled cards. What is probability that both the extracted
cards are aces when i)the first card drawn is not replaced ii) when the first card drawn is replaced

Example No. 3

A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls. Two balls are drawn at random one after the other without
replacement. Find the probability that both balls drawn are black.

Example No. 4

A farmer got the information that two of his cow had calved. What is the probability that (1) both
calves are females

(2) first is female and second is male calf

(3) one is male and other is female.

Example No. 5
A farmer has 2 Soviet Chinchilla (SC) and 4 Newzealand White (NW) rabbits in one cage and 3
Newzealand White and 5 Soviet Chinchilla rabbits in another cage. If one rabbit is selected at
random from each cage, what is the probability that

(1) Both are Newzealand White

(2) Both are Soviet Chinchilla

Example No. 6

In a pen there are 10 calves: 2 black, 3 red and 5 spotted. They are let out one at the tim

in completely random order. Find the following probabilities: a) the first calf is spotted,

b) the first calf is either black or red, c) the second calf is black if the first was spotted, d)

the first calf is spotted and the second black, e) the first two calves are spotted and black,

regardless of order.

*****

18
PRACTICAL NO. 7

Theoretical Distributions
The following are some popular theoretical distributions
1. Binomial 2. Poisson 3. Normal
Normal distribution
The normal distribution was given by Abraham Demovre in 1733 and aletr by laplace in
1812. It is limiting form of binomial distribution when n is very large and neither p nor q
is very small.
Characteristics of the Normal distribution
1. It is Continuous Symmetric, bell shape
2. The maximum point of the normal curve occurs at mean. Hence the mean, median
and mode coincide
3. Since there is only one maximum point, the normal curve is unimodal
4. The areas under curve is distributed as follows
The interval µ ± 1σ covers the middle ∼ 68% of the distribution.
The interval µ ± 2σ covers the middle ∼ 95% of the distribution.
The interval µ ± 3σ covers the middle ∼ 100% of the distribution.
Example 1:
The heights of persons are normally distributed with mean 6.14 feet and standard
deviation 0.025 feet. Determine the percentage of height
a) Between 6.10 and 6.18 feet
b) Greater than 6.17 feet
c) Less than 6.08 feet

Example 2:
In a normal distribution 31 percent of the items are under 45 and 8 percent are over 64.
Find the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.
*******

19
PRACTICAL NO. 8
TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE- Z TEST and ‘t’ TEST

The data collected from studies or experiments are to be analyzed. In animal experimental
data, the results of experimentation like mean, and proportions obtained may vary from sample to
sample or from sample to population. The significance of these differences or variations is to be
tested. Hence some assumptions are formed from the information collected. The assumption about
a phenomenon in a population is known as hypothesis. Tests of significance are the battery of
statistical methods used to test a hypothesis. A test of significance is a formal procedure for
comparing observed data with a claim (also called a hypothesis), the truth of which is being
assessed.

The null hypothesis is usually an assumption of unchanged state. For example, the H0 states
that there is no difference between some characteristics, for example means or variances of two
populations. This is denoted by H0. The alternative hypothesis, H1, describes a changed state or
existence of a difference. The alternative is one-sided if it states that a parameter is larger or
smaller than the null hypothesis value. It is two-sided if it states that the parameter is different
from the null value (it could be either smaller or larger). The research hypothesis can be
postulated as two possibilities: there is a difference or there is no difference if null hypothesis is
rejected, alternate hypothesis will be accepted. In other words a procedure is adopted to choose
between the null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis by applying appropriate statistical technique.

In general statistical tests can be divided into parametric tests which depends on parameters
of population and non parametric which require fewer assumptions about a population or
probability distribution and are applicable to wider range of situations.

Examples for parametric tests are Z test. T test, regression, correlation etc. Examples for
nonparametric tests are chi-square test, Spearman’s’ rank correlation coefficient etc. In general
parametric tests are more flexible and more powerful than non parametric tests.

Though there is no demarcation between large and small samples, it is normally assumed that a
sample which exceed 30 is considered a large sample

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Z test

The Z test is other wise known as large sample test and is used for samples of sizes more than
30. Six conditions have to be satisfied for using z test.

1. Population is having normal distribution

2. Sample size is more than 30
3. Sample is random sample
4. Population standard deviation is known
5. If samples are compared, the sample sizes should not vary widely
Applications

1. Test of significance of sample mean

2. Test of significance of difference between two sample means
3. Test of significance of single proportion
4. Test of significance of two proportions
Procedure

Step 1. Form null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

Step 2. Fix the level of significance

Step 3. Calculate the test statistics

Step 4. Compare the computed value with the critical values from the table. If calculated value is
more than table value reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Other wise
accept the null hypothesis.

Case I. Test of significance for a sample mean

Comparison of a sample mean and population mean is a common problem of concern. In order to
test whether the sample can be regarded as drawn from a normal population, the procedure of test
of significance of difference between sample mean and population mean is considered

Test statistic (z value)

21
The numerator is the difference between sample mean and population mean and the denominator
is the standard error of population. If the standard deviation of the population is not known, the
sample standard deviation is taken as the population standard deviation with the assumption that
random sample and population is likely to have same standard deviation.

Example No.1
Mean weight of a sample of 400 pigs was found to be 69.76 kg. Can it be concluded that the sample
is from a pig breeding station with a population average of 71.21 kg and standard deviation 1.6 kg?

Example No. 2
Given a sample of 50 cows with an arithmetic mean for lactation milk yield of 4000 kg,
does this herd belong to a population with a mean µ0 = 3600 kg and a standard deviation σ
= 1000 kg?
Case II. Test of significance for difference between two sample means

In order to test whether two samples can be regarded as drawn from the same normal population
the procedure of test of significance of difference between two sample means is considered below

Test statistic (z value)

The numerator is the difference between the two sample means and the denominator is the square
root of sum of the ratios of variances with respective number of observations.

Example No.3:
In a comparative study on body weights of Saannen X Malabari and Alpine X Malabari crosses,
the body weights at 6 months of age were recorded as 16.22 kg for Saanen X Malabari crosses with
variance 2.13 and 14.16 kg with a variance of 1.62 for Alpine X Malabari crosses. If number of
animals recorded were 82 and 61 respectively find out if there is any significant difference between
the body weights of kids with reference to their genetic group.

22
Example No.4:
From the following data of ear heads of Pusa 4 wheat on two samples of 400 each taken
in two seasons, test the significance of difference of means of two samples
Year Number of ear heads Mean(X) length SD (sigma) of length
(N) of ear heads of ear heads (cm)
(cm)

1991-92 400 7.88 1.09

1992-93 400 7.82 0.90

CASE III. Test of significance of single proportion

Test statistic (z value)

The numerator is the difference between the two sample means and the denominator is the sum of
standard errors of the two samples.

Example No.5:
If 30% morbidity is expected for sunstroke in pigs exposed to direct sunlight and it was found that
out of 160 sows fed with an anti-stress agent and exposed to sunlight 43 of them had the disease.
Find out if there is any significant effect of the drug on sunstroke.

Case IV. Test of significance of difference between two proportions

Test statistic (z value)

The numerator is the difference between the two proportions and the denominator is the sum of
ratios of product of proportions with respective number of observations

23
Example No.6:
In a study conducted to find out the presence of tassels in Surti goats, 52 animals of a flock of
129 showed the tassels in Surat panchayath where as in Baroda, it was 46 out of 116. Find out
if there is any difference between the proportions goats with tassels in Surat and Baroda.

‘t’- test

If number of observations is small in a sample, the standard errors estimated from sample
standard deviation will be subjected to sampling variation. Estimation of standard error will be
inconsistent from sample to sample and will both be accurate. Hence probability based on normal
distribution will not be correct.

In 1908 Student derived a new distribution and test statistic calculated based on this
distribution are known as‘t’. The‘t’ statistics is calculated as the ratio of difference between two
means to standard error of the difference.

Conditions to be satisfied for using‘t’ statistics

1. Population should be normal in distribution

2. Sample observation are random
3. Sample size should not differ hugely between samples
4. If number of observations is less than 30, the sample variances should be equal.
Applications

1. Test of significance of sample mean

2. Test of significance of difference between two sample means from a population
3. Paired ‘t’ test for two sample means
4. Test of significance of two proportions
Procedure

Step 1. Form null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

Step 2. Fix the level of significance

Step 3. Calculate the ‘t’ statistic

Step 4. Compare the computed value with the critical values from the table. If calculated
value is more than table value reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Other
wise accept the null hypothesis.

24
Case I. Test of significance for a sample mean

Test statistic (t value)

The numerator is the difference between sample mean and population mean and the denominator
is the standard error of population. If the standard deviation of the population is not known, the
sample standard deviation is taken as the population standard deviation with the assumption that
random sample and population is likely to have same standard deviation.

Example No. 1:
The data are lactation milk yields of 10 cows. Is the arithmetic mean of the sample, 3800kg
significantly different from 4000 kg? The sample standard deviation is 500 kg.

Example No.2:

A random sample of size 16 has mean 53 and sum of squares of the deviation from mean as 135.
Can this sample be regarded as drawn from the population having mean =56? Obtain the 95%
confidence limits of the population mean (Given t0.05=2.13 for 15 df)

Example No.3

A random sample of 10 cows, selected from a large population gave the following data on life time
milk production. The population mean is 4 kg

Si No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Production 4.2 4.6 3.9 4.1 5.2 3.8 3.9 4.3 4.4 5.6
(0000 lt)

Case II. Test of significance for difference between two sample means

Test statistic ( t value)

25
The numerator is the difference between the two sample means and in the denominator, s2 is the
variance of the population, n1 & n2 number of observations of the two samples. If the two samples
are from different populations,

s2 = ( (n1 – 1) s12 + ( n2- 1) s22) / ( n1 + n2 – 2)

s12 & s22 are standard deviations of the two samples with number of observations n1 & n2

Example No.4
Peak yields of 11 cows from shed number 1 and 10 cows of shed number 2 of University Livestock
Farm, Junagadh are given below. Test whether there is any significant difference between peak
yields of cows of Shed no 1 and Shed no 2.

Shed 1 11 12 7 9 8 7 8 10 9 11 12

Shed 2 10 10 7 8 8 9 7 8 10 11

Example No. 5: Five cows of Gir breed were given type A fodder and 7 cows were given type B
fodder respectively. Their daily milk production were recorded as follows

Fodder A 10 12 13 11 14

Fodder B 8 9 12 14 15 10 9

Is there any significant difference in the efficacy of two fodder.

Case III. Paired ‘t’ test of significance for difference between two sample means

Paired ‘t’ test is used when

1. Sample sizes are equal

2. Sample observations are dependent ( paired)
Test statistic ( t value)

26
 The numerator is the average of difference between the paired observations and in the
denominator s is the variance of difference between the paired observations, n is number of
pairs of observations.

2
s = ∑ ( d –(∑d /n)) / ( n-1)

Example No.6

The litter sizes of 10 sows in two successive litters are provided below. Find out if there is any
significant difference between first and second litter sizes.

Sow No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

First 8 9 12 13 14 12 15 13 12 9

Second 8 8 11 14 15 13 12 12 12 9

Example No. 7 Ten students were given a test in statistics. They were given a month’s coaching
and another test as held at the end of it .Can we conclude that the student have been benefitted by
the extra coaching

Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1st test 10 13 15 10 18 17 8 7 12 9

2nd test 12 12 17 12 14 16 16 12 12 18

Case IV. Test of significance for difference between two sample means of two populations

Test statistic (t value)

The numerator is the difference between the two sample means and the denominator is the square
root of sum of the ratios of variances with respective number of observations.

Table value of ‘t’ is calculated using the formula

27
 t tab =

Where t1 & t2 are the table values of‘t’ for samples variances s12 and s22 with n1 & n2 number of

observations (n1 - 1 and n2-1 degrees of freedom respectively)

Example No.8
If the first lactation milk yield of Gir cows at CBF farm Junagadh was 2876 kg with standard
deviation 196 kg (21) and that of Cattle farm at Porbandar was 2756 with standard deviation of 213
kg (27). Find out if there is any significant differences between the first lactation milk yields of Gir
cows at Junagadh and Porbandar farm.

*******

28
PRACTICAL NO. 9

TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE - CHI-SQUARE TEST (χ2) AND F-TEST

χ2 test

χ2 is pronounced as Kye squared. Unlike z test and t-test, chi-square test is a nonparametric

test and is not based on any assumption of distribution of any variable; χ2 test is used when data
consists of nominal or ordinal variables rather than quantitative variables.

Application

1. Comparison of distribution of one category of variable (normal/ordinal) with another ( test

of independence)
2. Comparing an observed distribution with a theoretical one (test of goodness of fit)
That is to test whether deviation of observed frequencies in a given data from the expected
frequencies are due to real causes or due to chance. This test is used to decide whether the given
data has a good fit with one of the known forms of distribution. This is performed when data is
presented in form of a contingency table i.e., a table giving simultaneous classification of body of
data in two different ways.

Two important aspects of chi-square test are that it must be calculated on actual number and not on
proportions or percentages. It is only a test of significance and is not a measure of association.
Hence larger χ2 values does not be interpreted as greater association.

Procedure

Step 1. Form null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

Step 2. Fix the level of significance

Step 3. Calculate the test statistic

χ2 = (Observed frequency – Expected frequency)2 / Expected frequency

Step 4. Compare the computed value with the critical values from the table. If calculated value is
more than table value reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Other wise
accept the null hypothesis.

29
Example No. 1
In a flock of goats there were 100 male and 120 female kids, of them 90 females and 40 males
were polled. Check whether sex of the kid influences the horns.

Example No. 2
The expected ratio of red, roan and white Shorthorns if red and white short horns are mated is 1: 2:
1. If a herd of red Shorthorn cows where inseminated with semen of a white short horn bull, and if
there were 39 white, 18 red and 52 roan calves, check whether there is any deviation from expected
ratio.

Example No. 3
Five hundred one digit numbers were chosen at random from a set of random tables and their
frequencies are given below:

Digits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Frequency 43 47 53 45 57 52 39 58 50 56

Test whether the digits were equally distributed in the tables from which they were chosen

Example No. 4
The distribution of number of inseminations per cow in a sample of 330 cows in a farm
follows Poisson distribution as given below:

No of inseminations 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

No of cows (observed ) 103 143 98 42 8 4 2 0 0 0 0

No. of cows (expected ) 107 141 93 41 14 4 1 0 0 0 0

Apply chi square test for goodness of fit

F test

F-tests are statistical tests using F distribution under a null hypothesis through the
comparison of the ratio of two variances .Comparisons of sample variances are done through
variance ratio rest.. The higher variance is taken on numerator and the lower variance is taken on
denominator. The F-test was devised as an extension to the Z-test: F is equal to the squared
value of t (t2 = F).

30
Assumptions

1. The distribution is normal

2. Variances of populations from which samples are taken does not vary significantly
3. Samples are drawn at random and independently
Procedure

Step 1. Form null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

Step 2. Fix the level of significance

Step 3. Calculate the test statistic

Test statistic (F value) =

Where s12 and s22 are variances of two sample populations of with n1 & n2 observations respectively.

Step 4. Compare the computed value with the critical values from the F table for with n1-1 & n2-
1 degrees of freedom at the required level of significance. If calculated value is more than table
value reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Other wise accept the null
hypothesis.

Example No. 1
The variances of the body weight of two samples of pigs of 19 and 25 numbers were estimated as
46.3 and 59.1. Test whether there is any significant difference between the variances.

Example No. 2

Two random samples of 9 Gir and 11 Kankeraj cows drawn from two normal populations have the
following milk yield in a week

Gir 66 67 75 76 82 84 88 90 92 - -

Kankeraj 64 66 74 78 82 85 87 92 93 95 97

31
Example No. 3

In one sample of 8 observations the sum of the squares of deviations of the sample values from the
sample mean was 84.4 and in the other sample of 10 observation it was 102. 6. Test whether this
difference is significant at 5 % level.

*******

32
PRACTICAL NO. 10

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
We have seen how to test for a difference in two means, using a 2 sample t-test. But what if we
want to test to see if there are differences in a set of more than two means? The tool for doing this
is called ANOVA. The basics principles of analysis of variance (ANOVA) is to partition the total
variation present in a set of observations to a number of non negative components attributable to
different independent causes. With ANOVA, we compare average “between group” variance to
average “within group” variance. f the average amount of variation between the groups is
substantially larger than the average amount of variation within the groups, then the true group
means likely differ. If not, then we cannot rule out that they are equal.

Assumptions

1. The observations are that of whole population or a randomly selected sample and are
continuous.
2. Distribution is normal
3. The groups are independent of one another
4. Variance in different groups are similar
5. Sample sizes should be equal in two way classification and should not differ widely in one
way classification
6. The experimental errors are normally and independently distributed with mean zero
7. Effectors of different factors are additive
Applications

1. One way analysis of data

2. Two way analysis of data
Procedure

1. Calculate grand total of all observations G = ∑Xij

2. Find out correction factor CF = G2 / n

3. Find out total sum of squares TSS = X2 ij

4. Estimate corrected total sum of squares CTSS = TSS - CF

5. Find out sum of squares due to treatment SST = ∑Ri2/ n1- CF

33
6. Find out sum squares due to blocks for two way analysis BSS = ∑Bi2/ n2- CF

7. Estimate error sum of squares ESS = CTSS- SST For one way classification
ESS = CTSS- (SST+ BSS) For two way classification

8. Form ANOVA table

One way ANOVA table

Source of Degrees of
Sum of squares Mean sum of squares F value
variation (S.V.) freedom

Treatment k-1 SST MSST = SST / k-1

F value = MSST /
EMSS
Error n-k ESS EMSS = ESS / n - k

Total n-1 CTSS

Two way ANOVA table

Source of Degrees of Mean sum of

Sum of squares F value
variation(S.V.) freedom (d.f.) squares

MSST = SST / F value = MSST /

Treatment m-1 SST
m-1 EMSS

MBSS = BSS / n- F value = MBSS /

Blocks n-1 BSS
1 EMSS

EMSS = ESS /
Error (m-1) ( n-1) ESS
(m-1) ( n-1)

Total N-1 CTSS

Compare the computed value with the critical values from the ‘F’ table. If calculated value is more
than table value reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Other wise accept
the null hypothesis.

Example No.1
The birth weight of calves of Gir, Tharparkar, and Dangi cattle are provided below. Test whether
there is any significant difference between birth weights of these calves.

34
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Gir 8.9 9.2 11.2 8.8 8.4 9.1 6.3 9.3 7.8 8.8 10 9.7

Tharparkar 11.6 10.3 10 11.5 11.8 11.8 12.1 10.8 11.9 10.7 11.5

Dangi 9.8 9.7 11.5 11.6 10.8 9.1 10.5 10 12.4 10.7

Example No.2 The type of birth of kids and their body weights at the time of weaning of three
genetic groups of goats were recorded. Find out if there is any significant effect of genetic groups
or type of birth on weaning weight of kids.

Single (T1) Twins (T2) Triplet (T3) Quadruplet (T4)

Boer ( G1) 7.86 7.27 6.92 6.11

Malabari( G2) 5.21 5.60 4.30 4.50

Cross bred(G3) 6.48 6.37 6.17 5.01

*******

35
PRACTICAL NO. 11
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
Introduction

Designing an experiment means planning an experiment so that information collected will be

relevant to the problem under investigation.

Treatment

What we apply on the subject of investigation is called treatment. e.g. Application of feed to
animals ,application of fertilizer to agricultural plot, etc.

Experimental material and experimental unit

The individual or group of individuals that will be subjected to a treatment is called the
experimental unit and the collection of such units will be experimental material.

Response

Outcome of an experiment. i.e. the treatment effect available from the experimental units.

Experimental error

It is the unit-to-unit variation within the same treatment group. This is a measure of variation due
to uncontrollable causes. It describes the failure of two identically treated experimental units to
yield identical results.

CRITERIA FOR MAKING BLOCKS

In completely randomized design (CRD), there is no local control applied, while in randomized
block design (RBD) local control is applied in one direction with one criterion and in Latin square
design (LSD) in two directions with two criteria.

COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN (CRD)

This is simplest of all experimental designs. This is the design in which the treatments are assigned
completely at random to the experimental units or vice versa. i.e. it imposes no restrictions on the
allocation of treatments to the experimental units. CRD is preferred when all the experimental units
considered for the experiment are known to be homogeneous. As the design is highly flexible and
simple, the CRD is widely used. Analysis is simple, even if certain values are missing.

Stepwise Procedure

Ho: There is no significant difference between the treatments

36
Step 1

• Calculation of treatment total T1, T2 ….. Tt

• Calculation of grand total (GT) = T1 + T2 + …… +Tt

• Calculation of correction factor (C.F) = (G.T)2/N

Step 2

• Calculation of sum of squares

• Error sum of squares (ESS) = TSS – TrSS

Step 3

• Formation of Analysis of Variance table

Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean squares F

variation (S.V) freedom (d.f) squares (M.S.) = SS/d.f.
(S.S)

TrSS = TrMS/(t-
Treatments (t-1) Tr SS Tr MS/EMS
1)

Error (N-t) ESS EMS = ESS/(N-t)

Total (N-1) TSS

Step 4

Interpretation

• If calculated F< table value of F for (t-1), (N-1)d.f. at 5% level, F is not significant. H0 is
accepted. All the treatments are alike.
• If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-1)d.f. at 5% level F is significant.F=( )*. Ho is rejected.

37
• Iif calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-1) d.f at 1% level F is highly significant. F=( )**. Ho is
rejected.
• If F is significant or highly significant, critical difference between treatment means is to be
worked out.
Critical difference between any two treatment means is defined as the least significant difference
between any two treatments means; to be exceeded by the difference between two treatments
means to declare them as significantly different.

Critical difference between any two = Standard error of the difference between the
treatment means at 5% level treatment means x table value of ‘t’ for error
d.f. at 5% level.

Critical difference between any two = Standard error of the difference between the
treatment means at 1% level treatment means x table value of ‘t’ for error
d.f. at 1% level.

• Critical difference between Tr1 and Tr2 at 5% (1%)

• Critical difference betweenTr1,Tr3 at 5%(1%)

• After this, write treatment means Tr1,Tr2….Trn in the ascending order of magnitude. Bar
chart representation will be done to show the significant differences among the
treatments.
Note

• If we have equal number of replication, i.e, n1 = n2 = …. nt = n, then,we have in step 2

• Treatment sum of squares

38
 • Critical difference between any two x table 't' for error d.f. at 5% or 1% level treatment
means at 5% or 1% level

Example No.1:
The 4 diets were fed to 5 chickens each and weight gains are given below. Analyze the data and
test the difference of diets.

Feed 1 Feed 2 Feed 3 Feed 4

11 8 12 6
12 9 10 5
13 7 9 4
15 15 14 7
14 16 11 8

RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN (RBD)

• In this design, we make use of the principle of local control with the idea of reducing the
variability due to experimental error.
• First we arrange the experimental units into homogeneous blocks such that within the
blocks, the experimental units are as far as possible homogeneous and between the blocks
there is variability.
• This design can be made use of when the experimenter finds that the available experimental
units can be grouped into different homogeneous blocks each containing units as many as
the number of treatments or as a multiple of the number of treatments.
• The blocking has to be done on the basis of any observable character, which is likely to
have influence over the factor under study.
• For e.g. in the study of comparative effects on weight gain in chicks, the chicks may be
grouped according to strains. If we are to conduct a Randomised Block Design to try ‘t’
treatments, we need `bt' number of experimental units, where b = number of blocks and t
= number of treatments.
• Each block is a replication by itself and number of replication = number of blocks = b. This
is the restriction in the case of RBD. RBD is an equi-replicated design.

RBD is a better design than CRD, as this will have greater precision of the estimates and greater
efficiency of the designs.

39
Stepwise Procedure

• Ho : Treatment means do not different significantly

Step 1

• Calculation of treatment total, i.e. T1, T2 ….. Tt

• Calculation of block total, i.e. B1, B2,….Bt
• Calculation of grand total (GT) = T1 + T2 + …… +Tt = B1 + B2 + …… +Bt = Sum of the
treatment totals = Sum of the block totals
• Calculation of correction factor (C.F) = (G.T)2/N

Step 2

• Calculation of sum of squares

Step 3

• Formation of Analysis of Variance table

ANOVA Table

Source of variation d.f. Sum of squares Mean squares F

Treatments (t -1) Tr SS TrMS = TrSS/(t-1) Tr MS/EMS

Block (b -1) BSS BMS = BSS /(b-1) BMS/EMS

Error (b-1) (t-1) ESS EMS = ESS/(b-1) (t-1)

Total N-1 TSS

40
Step 4

Interpretation

• If calculated F< table value of F for (t-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f. at 5% level, F is not significant. H0 is
accepted. All the treatments are alike.
• If calculated F> tab F for (t-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f. at 5% level F is significant=( )*. Ho is
rejected.
• If calculated F> tab F for (t-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f at 1% level F is highly significant =( )**. Ho is
rejected.

Example No.2
In an experiment to study the effect of 4 rations A,B,C,D on daily milk yield of cows, 20 cows
under 1st lactation and belonging to 5 different breeds were taken and allotted to 4 rations in RBD
with breeds as block. The increase in milk yield in a 2 months period is given below:

Breed/Diet A B C D
Kangayam 20 15 10 25
Sindhi 45 50 65 35
Tharparker 40 45 40 42
Sahiwal 60 65 80 55
Ongole 25 30 35 20

Carry out analysis of variance and judge whether the ration are significantly different in
increasing daily milk yield of cow.

*******

41
PRACTICAL NO. 12
COMPUTER: BASICS AND COMPONENTS

The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another. However,
the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. The basic components of
computer are as follows:

✓ Input Unit
✓ Output Unit
✓ Storage Unit
✓ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
✓ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
✓ Control Unit

Input Unit: Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the
computer system performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that depend
upon the particular device used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a manner similar
to typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a mouse, which is another
type of input device. All input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed into
the binary codes that the primary memory of the computer is designed to accept. Input devices
include key board and mouse.

• Key board
The keyboards are having usually 104 keys and the important functions of different keys are as
follows

Key Function

Alpha numeric Regular typing, some functions can also be assigned to them
keys

Keys F1 to F12 Special functions depending on the soft ware

Enter or Return Execution an instruction or data keyed through keyboard

42
 Tab Move cursor normally 5 characters at a time along a line

Caps Lock Used for typing upper case letters

Backspace Erase character to left of cursor position

Shift If pressed simultaneously with a key upper case symbols are produced

Num Lock Activate number keys in numeric keyboard

Ctrl,Alt Input special specific messages when used with other keys

Space bar Used to put blank space

Del Delete characters in current cursor position

Esc Used to cancel command

Ins Insert a character in cursor position

Cursor control Used to move cursor in different directions

Pg Up, Pg Dn Move the cursor half page up or half page down respectively

Home, End Used to move the cursor to beginning of page or end of page

Scroll lock Terminate active programmes

Print Screen Print what ever is displayed in the screen

• Mouse
The motion of mouse sends signal and it moves the cursor.

The other input devices include scanner, light pen, tracker, Joysticks, voice etc

Storage Unit:
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units
have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the
results produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer system before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate
results produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing.
The Storage Unit or the primary / main storage of a computer system is designed to do

43
all these things. It provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate
results and also space for the final results.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside
the computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs “Arithmetic and
Logical operations”. The operations a Microprocessor performs are called “instruction
set” of this processor. The instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the
machine language for the CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the
CPU works. Processors differed from one another by the instruction set. If the same
program can run on two different computer brands they are said to be compatible.
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly
known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer
system. In a human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of
the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major
calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for
activating and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the place where the actual execution of the instructions
take place during the processing operations. All calculations are performed and all
comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the
primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where
processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate
results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until
needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back again
as storage many times before the processing is over. After the completion of processing,
the final results which are stored in the storage unit are released to an output device.
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take place. It
consists of circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition, subtraction,

44
multiplication, division over data received from memory and capable to compare numbers
(less than, equal to, or greater than).

Control Unit:
The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. It
interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any,
are needed, where it is stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the
control signals to the devices involved in the execution of the instructions.

Output Unit:
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplied information
and results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the computer with the external
environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the
binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted
to human acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output
interfaces. They include the visual display unit, printers etc.
*******

45
PRACTICAL NO. 13

SIMPLE COMPUTER OPERATIONS

:: MICROSOFT –WORD ::

A set of instructions for the computer is known as computer programme. Software is the
collection of such related programmes.

The different software used for the computer include the operating softwares, compiler soft wares
and application softwares.

Earlier versions of computer used the Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS). But
for using this software, the user need to type the commands using the keyboard and hence it is
known as Character User Interface Software (CUI)

But the current versions of computers are using Graphic User Interface Operating System
software. These include Windows-95, Windows-98, Windows-2000, Windows-ME and Windows-
XP. These programmes are comparatively easy.

WHAT IS A MICROSOFT -WORD?

Word is a word - processor, which is marketed by a company named Microsoft Word 97

is the most full - featured word processing program is used today. Word is one of the most popular
word processing software in the world. It is normally sold as part of total office automation software
called Microsoft Office.

❖ MS Word operations

1. Starting the computer

a. Switch on the UPS / Electrical connection to the computer
b. Switch on the computer
c. Wait till the Desk top screen appears
d. Click the start button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
2. Creating a file in MS Word
a. Click the start button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
b. Move the cursor to the ‘Programmes’ and then to ‘MS Word’ and double click it
c. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
d. Click on ‘new’ to create a new file
3. Naming a file and saving it

46
 a. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
b. Click on ‘Save as ’ of the pull down menu
c. Give the file name in the dialogue box of ‘Save as’ in the appropriate box.
d. Click on ‘Save’ to save the new file
4. Creating a folder in windows
a. On the desk top screen press the right button of mouse
b. Click on the option ‘New ’ of the context menu
c. Click on the option ‘Folder ’ of the context menu
d. Give the file name in the appropriate box and click the mouse after moving the
cursor outside.
5. Saving a file in the folder created in the desktop
a. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
b. Click on ‘Save as ’ of the pull down menu
c. Select ‘Desktop’ in the ‘Save in ’ option.
d. Select the appropriate folder name on the desktop and click the mouse
e. Give the file name in the appropriate box and click on ‘Save
6. Formatting a floppy
a. Double click ‘my computer’ icon the desktop
b. Select the floppy to be formatted and click the right button of the mouse
c. Select the ‘Format’ option from the list and click it.
d. Select ‘Start’ option and click it.
7. Creating a file in the folder
a. Move the cursor in the folder and double click it
b. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
c. Click on the option ‘New ’ of the pull down menu
d. Select ‘Microsoft word document’ option and click it.
e. Give the file name in the appropriate box and click the mouse after moving the
cursor outside.
8. Opening a file from the folder
a. Open the folder on the desktop by double clicking on it
b. Select the file you want to open
c. Click on the option ‘File ’ of the file menu
d. Click on the option ‘open ’ of the file menu
9. Transferring a file from one folder to another folder

47
 a. Double click the folder on which the file of interest is present
b. Select the file you want transfer and right click the mouse
c. Choose ‘Copy’ option and click it
d. Close the folder
e. Select the folder to which the file has to be transferred and right click the mouse
f. Choose ‘Paste’ option and click it
10. Saving a file in the floppy
a. Open / create the file you want to save in the floppy
b. Click on ‘Save as ’ of the pull down menu
c. Select ‘3 ½ Floppy (A:) ’ in the ‘Save in ’ option.
d. Give the file name in the appropriate box and click on ‘Save’
11. Switch over from MS-DOS to Windows and vice versa
a. Click the “Start’ button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
b. Move the cursor to the ‘Programmes’ and then to ‘MS-DOS’ and double click it
c. ‘MS-DOS’ Prompt comes on the screen
d. Type ‘EXIT’ and press <Enter>
e. Windows desktop appears on the screen
12. Use calculator in the windows
a. Click the “Start’ button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
b. Move the cursor to the ‘Programmes’ and then to ‘Accessories’ and double click
it
c. Select ‘Calculator’ and click it
13. Changing the wall paper
a. Place the cursor in the desktop and right click the mouse
b. Select ‘Properties’ and click it
c. Select ‘Desktop’ and click it
d. Select the wallpaper from the ‘background’ or from ‘Browse’ option
e. Click ‘OK’ to get the new wallpaper
14. Changing the Screen saver
a. Place the cursor in the desktop and right click the mouse
b. Select ‘Properties’ and click it
c. Select ‘Screen saver’ and click it
d. Select the screen savor from the ‘Screen saver’
e. Click ‘OK’ to get the new screen saver

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15. Inserting a table in MS Word
a. Open the ‘MS-WORD’
b. Select ‘Table’ from the top menu and click it
c. Select ‘Insert’ and click it
d. Select ‘Table’ and click it
e. Specify the table properties and click ‘OK’
16. Inserting a picture in MS Word
a. Open the ‘MS-WORD’
b. Select ‘Insert’ from the top menu and click it
c. Select ‘Picture’ and click it
d. Select the appropriate source of picture and click it
e. Select the appropriate picture and click ‘Insert’
17. Printing a document
a. Open the document.
b. Select ‘File’ and click it
c. Select ‘Print’ and click it
d. Specify ‘Page range’, ‘Number of copies’ and ‘Zoom’ options.
e. Click ‘OK’
18. Existing MS Word
a. Close all the documents
b. Select ‘File’ and click it
c. Select ‘Exit’ and click it
19. Underlining a sentence
a. Select the sentence to be underlined
b. Select ‘Format’ from the top menu and click it
c. Select ‘Fond’ and click it
d. Select the appropriate underline style
e. Click ‘OK’
20. Shutting down the computer
a. Close all the programmes to get the windows desktop
b. Click the “Start’ button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
c. Select ‘Shutdown’ option and click it
d. Select ‘Yes’ option for shutting down the computer and click it

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 e. Wait for some time till the message ‘It is safe to turn off your computer’ comes
on the screen and then turnoff the electric supply.
Class work

1. Practice the different functions of MS - Word

*******

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PRACTICAL NO. 14

INTERNET AND E-MAIL

Network is a collection of interconnected computers which can share softwares, data, output
devices like printers etc. Generally it is classified into three major types

1. LAN – Local Area Network is a collection of computers which spans relatively small area.
2. MAN Metropolitan Area Network is a collection of computers which usually spans a city
area
3. WAN Wide Area Network is a collection of computers of a large area.
The computers of a network collection are known as nodes. For a networking the following are
needed

1. Network cards
2. Physical connection between the computers
3. Software to interface between the networking system and operating system
Internet consists of a network of computers which is not controlled by a central authority. It
provides the user a network of networks which shares resources, services and communicates with
each other so as to the benefit of the end user. World Wide Web (WWW) is the large collection of
web documents that can be accessed through internet. It is supported by a protocol called Hyper
Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Modem is a communications device that allows us to communicate with another computer through
telephone lines. It is abbreviation of modulator/demodulator.
Some of Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) and their answers about internet

Which are the major internet providers in India

The Videsh Sanchar Nigam (VSNL), Bharath Sanchar Nigam (BSNL), Dishnet, Sathyam
online, Asianet online, National Informatics Centre ( NIC).

1. What is known Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)?

TCP/IP says that data communicated through internet is passed as small packet and first part
of the packet should have the address where the packet is meant to go. The information in the
servers is provided to the client on request bundles the information into small packets each with
the address.

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2. What is a web browser?
Web browser is a program that allows one to browse through the World Wide Web. They
translate the HTML codes to assemble a web page for presentation to the server. Example for
browsers are Netscape.

3. What is Domain Naming System (DNS)?

The addresses of all the different servers are made according to Domain Naming System
(DNS). It uses six domains for the most commonly used functionaries of internet. They are

Code Used for

com Commercial establishments (business)

edu Educational institutions

gov Government organizations

mil Military establishments

net Network institutions including service providers

org Other organizations

The domain name also include the country code in two letters (‘in’ for India)

These are together known as canonical address.

4. What is an IP address?
The Numerical Internet Protocol Address (IP address) is an addressing system recognised by
internet. IP address has four numbers separated by three dots. This number is allotted by the
local network agencies as per the guide lines of internet NIC .

5. What are search engines?

In order to search through the internet on different topics we have to scan through millions of
files. This is possible only with the help of special programmes which is provided by search
engines. Some of the examples are http://www.yahoo.com, http://www.google.com,
http://www.altavista.com etc.

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 *****

In the address bar of the browser enter the address of the website or enter the address of
the any search engine.

If the address entered is a website then the corresponding webpage will get displayed.

If the address entered is of a search engine (For example Google) then the
webpage of the corresponding search engine will get displayed.
In the search tab enter the information about your search. For example if you want to
browse about computers enter the computers in the search tab.
Then click Search tab.

A set of pages with the links to the webpages which contain information about computer
is displayed.
Clicking the links desired by you will be taking you to those webpages.

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E-MAIL (SHORT FOR ELECTRONIC MAIL)
It is a fast and convenient way to communicate with others.

You can use e-mail to:

• Send and receive messages.

• Send and receive files.

• Send messages to groups of people.

• Forward messages.

To use e-mail, you need three things:

• An Internet connection.

• An e-mail program or web-based e-mail service.

• An e-mail address.

Here's how to fill out the message window in most e-mail program
In the ‘to’ box, type the e-mail address of at least one recipient.
If you're sending the message to multiple recipients, type a semicolon (;) between e-mail addresses.
In the Cc box, you can type the e-mail addresses of any secondary recipients—people who should
know about the message but don't need to act on it. They'll receive the same message as the people
in the ‘to’ box.
If there are no secondary recipients, leave this box blank. Some e-mail programs also have a Bcc
field, which allows you to send a message to people while hiding certain names and e-mail
addresses from other recipients.
2. In the Subject box, type a title for your message.
3. In the large blank area, type your message. To attach a file to the message, click the Attach File
button on the toolbar (located just below the menu bar). Locate the file, select it, and then click
Open. The file now appears in the Attach box in the message header.

*******

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PRACTICAL NO. 15

PRODUCTION OF GRAPHICS
Data produced is many times voluminous and need be presented in a comprehensible form.
There are different ways to represent the data. Computers are very useful in production of graphs
and diagrammatic representations of the data. Chart wizard is one of the software in “MS-Excel”
programme which can be used for the purpose.

Preparation of Charts / Graphs

1. Drawing graphs

a. Select the data to used in ‘MS Excel’ file

b. Select and click on icon of ‘Chart wizard’
c. Select the ‘Chart type’ and click
d. Follow the directions on right bottom of ‘chart wizard’ window
e. Click ‘Finish’ to get the required graph.
2. Drawing a Pie Diagram

a. Select the data to be used ‘MS Excel’ file

b. Click on ‘Insert’ to get the pull down menu
c. Select the ‘Chart’ and click
d. Select the Chart type ‘Pie’ and click
e. Select the Sub-Chart type and click
f. Follow the directions on right bottom of ‘chart wizard’ window
g. Click ‘Finish’ to get the required pie diagram.
3. Changing titles of graph

h. Select the data to used

i. Select the ‘chart type’ and click ‘Next>’
j. Select the ‘Series’ and click ‘Next>’
k. Select ‘Titles’ and fill the appropriate cells.
l. Click ‘Next’ followed by ‘Finish’
4. Changing legend

a. Select the data to used

b. Select and click on icon of ‘Chart wizard’
c. Select the ‘chart type’ and click ‘Next>’

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 d. Select the ‘Series’ and click ‘Next>’
e. Select ‘Legend’ and fill the appropriate cells.
5. Customizing the graphs

a. Double click on the graph

b. Select the option for changes namely ‘pattern’, ‘Font’ and ‘Properties’
c. Click ‘OK’
Class work

1. Practice all the ‘Chart wizard’ commands

******

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PRACTICAL NO. 16
MICROSOFT POWERPOINT

Ms-excel is a windows based application package, which is also the member of ms-office
family. It can be used to automate accounting, scientific calculation related tasks such as
calculations and analysis of data. Ms-excel is easily customizable. It provides a very comfortable
environment and assists the user in several ways. When excel starts, worksheet opens
automatically. The major elements of the excel screens are toolbars, worksheet and status bar

Menus of power point

Menu bar has several menus which can be invoked by simply clicking on them, by using
a mouse or by using a hot key combination from the keyboard. These menus provide access to
different commands of power point. These commands are grouped together in menus. Menu bar
displays the list of all these menu groups

What is presentation?

Power point is a good way to communicate ideas simply and effectively. For complex topics that
are rich with details, such as a scientific paper or an annual report. Each presentation consists of
one more pages or slides, which can contain text, bulleted lists, graphics, charts and other data
types.

Name shortcut key

• File alt +f (related to file/folder)

• Edit alt +e (related to word processing & text editing)
• View alt +v (related to page setting & Layout)
• Insert alt +i (related to insertion of types of items)
• Format alt +o (for text formatting of Cells, rows)
• Tools alt +t (contains tools like auto & spell check)
• Data alt +d (has data processing commands)

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 • Insert a new slide
1. Insert a slide, go to insert menu and choose slide.

2. Choose a new slide button from standard tool bar.

3. From the power point startup screen, choose blank presentation.

4. If power point is already open, pull down the file menu. Choose new, select blank
presentation from the general tab, and click ok.

5. Click the new button on the standard toolbar.

• Delete a new slide

To delete a slide, make that slides current slide and choose duplicate slide from the edit
menu. Slide will be deleted immediately.

• Duplicate a slide
To duplicate a slide make that slide current slide and choose duplicate slide from the edit
menu

• Creating master slide

If you want to have certain common items on all the pages without adding them
individually to the slides one by one, create a master slide. The items contained in master
slide will automatically become the items for all the slides.

What are presentation graphics?

Presentation graphics is an application software available for designing charts. You can perform
any of the following tasks.

1. Design characters.

2. Arrange the matter in readable form.

3. Add pictures in the charts.

4. Change the appearance of the alphabets on the charts.

5. Print these charts.

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 • Saving a presentation
Click the save button on the standard or choose save option or save as option from the
file menu.

✓ Option save is to save the file with current name and save as the command to save
file with some other name.

• To display a slide show

A presentation can be displayed on the screen by running a slide show. The slides can be
advanced manually or automatically.

The procedure for running the slide show is:

1. Click on the slide button. At the bottom of the slide to begin the slide show.

2. Select slide show from the view menu to display a dialog box.

3. One slide is displayed at a time each slide fills the entire screen.

4. Click on the left mouse button or press enter or press page down to move one slide forward.

5. When we reach the last slide in the presentation, power point brings us back to the slide view,
or any other view that we are in.

6. Click on file menu option.

7. Click on close command to close the presentation.

8. Click on exit command to exit from the power point.

• Printing a presentation
1. Choose file menu print to open the print dialog box.

2. In the print range area, choose the slides to be printed.

3. In the print what drop – down list, select whether to print slides, handouts, notes pages, or an
outline?

4. Set other print options.

5. Click ok begin printing.

******

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PRACTICAL NO. 17
BIOLOGICAL DATA ENTRY:
:: MICROSOFT EXCEL ::
There are different commercial softwares available for biological data entry. Most
of them are tailor made for specific applications. They include soft wares for farms,
hospitals and laboratories. MS EXCEL is part of MS OFFICE software and can be used
for routine data entry and is suitable for smaller and medium establishments. Most of the
operations and commands are similar to MS WORD and hence it is very easy to operate.
Concepts
✓ Spreadsheets are commonly referred to as workbook in Excel and have many
worksheets.
✓ Each worksheet is made up of
➢ columns
➢ rows
➢ intersections of row and columns called cells.

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Standard Toolbar

The Standard toolbar, located beneath the menu bar, has buttons for commonly
performed tasks like adding a column of numbers, printing, sorting, and other operations.
Excel let's you customize the toolbar or even display multiple toolbars at the same time.
The Standard Excel XP toolbar appears in the figure below.

Formatting toolbar
The Formatting toolbar, located beneath the Standard toolbar bar, has buttons for
various formatting operations like changing text size or style, formatting numbers and
placing borders around c

ells.

Formula bar & Name box

The formula bar is located beneath the toolbar at the top of the Excel worksheet. Use the
formula bar to enter and edit worksheet data. The contents of the active cell always
appear in the formula bar. When you click the mouse in the formula bar, an X and a
check mark appear. You can click the check icon to confirm and completes editing, or
the X to abandon editing.

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MS EXCEL operations

1. Starting the MS EXCEL programme and opening a file

a. Click the start button at the left hand bottom corner of the screen
b. Move the cursor to the ‘Programmes’ and then to ‘MS OFFICE’ and then to ‘MS
EXCEL’ and then double click it
c. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
d. Click on ‘new’ to create a new file
2. Naming a file and saving it
a. Click on ‘file’ to get the pull down menu
b. Click on ‘Save as ’ of the pull down menu
c. Give the file name in the dialogue box of ‘Save as’ in the appropriate box.
3. Copying and pasting a part of file
a. Click on ‘Edit’ to get the pull down menu
b. Select the required part to be copied
c. Click on ‘Copy ’ of the pull down menu
d. Place the cursor on the place where the information has to be pasted
e. Click on ‘Paste’ to paste the information
4. Inserting rows or columns
a. Place the cursor on the place where the rows or columns are to be inserted
b. Click on ‘Insert’ to get the pull down menu
c. Select ‘rows’ or ‘columns’ as per need and click on it
d. New row will be inserted on upper part of cursor and new column will be
inserted on left side of cursor.
5. Changing the height of rows
a. Click on ‘Format’ to get the pull down menu
b. Select ‘cells’, ‘rows’ or ‘columns’ as per need and click on it
c. Select the ‘height’ and click on it
d. Give the appropriate values and click ‘OK’
6. Sorting the data
a. Select the data to be sorted
b. Double click ‘Data’ icon the desktop
c. Select ‘Sort’ and click cells, rows or columns
d. Place the cursor at ‘sort’ and click on it
e. Select the appropriate option from ‘sort by’
f. Click ‘OK’.

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7. Freezing the pans
a. Place the cursor on appropriate place
b. Click on ‘Window’
c. Select the ‘Freeze pans’ and click on it
8. Statistical operations
a. Select the data to used
b. Double click ‘∑’icon on the top menu
c. Select the appropriate function and click
d. Fill appropriate information
e. Click ‘OK’.
9. Calculations using formula
a. Select the cell on which the formula result is to be placed
b. Type ‘=’ followed by formula in the ƒx cell
c. Click <Enter>
10. Printing a document
a. Open the document.
b. Select ‘File’ and click it
c. Select ‘Print’ and click it
d. Specify ‘Page range’, ‘Number of copies’ and ‘Print what’ options.
e. Click ‘OK’

******

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