POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Before we examine the implications of may change its forms and powers, and its
globalization in the existence of the state, it is territories may change its size, but the state
important that we understand the concept of remains the same; it continues to exist for as
the state itself. What, then, is a state? long as it exercises its exclusive power to
enforce obedience within its territory.
THE IDEA OF THE STATE
For the sociologist Max Weber, "[a] LEGITIMATE USE OF AUTHORITY
compulsory political organization with That the state has an exclusive legitimate use
continuous operations will be called a “state” if of force to enforce obedience among the
and in so far as its administrative staff people within its territory means that the state
successfully upholds a claim to the monopoly is sovereign. Sovereignty is the power of of the
of the legitimate use of physical force in the state to effectively enforce obedience from its
enforcement of its order." (Quoted in Schattle people absent any power over and above it.
2014: 106) The state therefore exercises the supreme
power to govern its members within its
Based on the given definition, state has the territory.
following elements:
Another definition of state, to which many of us
It is a political organization; may be familiar, is given by James Garner. "A
It is a compulsory political organization; state," according to him, "is a community of
It has continuous operation; and persons more or less numerous, permanently
It has the exclusive legitimate use of power in occupying a definite portion of territory, having
the enforcement of order [within its territory]. a government of their own to which the great
body of inhabitants render obedience and
enjoying freedom from external control.”
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (Quoted in De Leon 2011, 6)
The state is a group of people organized for
the purpose of promoting the common good. The state, from the given definition, has the
As a political organization, it has a formal following elements: people, territory,
structure of government; it works according to government, and sovereignty. A political
declared principles and policies; its powers are organization, to be properly considered a
established, defined, and limited; and people's state, must have all of these elements; absent
rights and obligations are declared and any one of them renders it a non-state.
enumerated.
PEOPLE
COMPULSORY ORGANIZATION To constitute a state, there is no minimum
As a compulsory political organization, (a) the number of members required. It may be
state is supreme and must be obeyed by the composed of about a thousand people just like
people at all times; (b) membership to it is the smallest state in the world, Vatican, or it
conferred by the state according to the may be composed of a billion people just like
requirements it prescribes; (c) membership in China, the biggest state in the world. State
the state entails corresponding rights and does not also require that its people should
obligations which are demandable and have common racial origin or that they should
obligatory; (d) and obedience to its commands share common cultural traits, which is what a
is obligatory, which means that they must be nation is. Its people may come from different
complied with to avoid punishment. races such as the United States of America or
it may be composed of people with common
CONTINUOUS OPERATION racial origin and cultural traits such as the
The state is different from the government. Philippines. A state need not be a nation and
The government is the agency through which nation need not be a state.
the state expresses and carries out its will.
People may come and go, the government TERRITORY
Territory refers to the defined mass of land and recognized, establishing the principle of the
water, including the airspace above it, in which separation of church and state; (b) the
its people cohabit and within which the state principle of international diplomacy as a mode
exercises sovereignty. of resolving conflicts (instead of war) was laid
down; and (c) third, which is considered the
GOVERNMENT most important, the principle of the sovereignty
The government is the administrative body of the state was solidified.
through which the state exercises its
sovereignty by enacting, implementing, and It was on this treaty where the idea of state as
applying laws for the promotion of the common a sovereign political entity was established.
good. If the state refers to all the people that (Suter 2003, 17)
compose the political organization, the
government refers to the body of the people Article LXIV of the said treaty states:
entrusted with the power to express and carry And to prevent for the future any Differences
out the wills of the state. In short, the arising in the Politick State, all and every one
government governs and the people that of the Electors, Princes and States of the
compose the state are governed. Roman Empire, are so establish'd and
confirm'd in their antient Rights, Prerogatives,
SOVEREIGNTY Libertys, Privileges, free exercise of Territorial
Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state Right, as well Ecclesiastick, as Politick
to command obedience from its people within Lordships, Regales, by virtue of this present
its territory. To be supreme means to have an Transaction: that they never can or ought to be
exclusive power over the people within, and molested therein by any whomsoever upon
things found in, its territory. Sovereignty has any manner of pretence.
two elements: internal and external. Internal
sovereignty refers to the supreme power of the Accordingly, the Treaty of Wesphalia in 1648
state to command obedience from its people established the rights, prerogatives, and
(A state has internal sovereignty if it is able to liberties of the state including the following: (a)
effectively control and regulate people in its territorial right, (b) religious right, (c) political
territory). External sovereignty refers to the right, and (d) the right against interference
power of the state to direct its economic, from the church, the empire, and other state,
political, social, and cultural affairs, without the in short, the right to sovereignty.
interference of any external forces (A state has
external sovereignty if it is independent from Article LXV of the same treaty provides:
foreign countries and institutions). They shall enjoy without contradiction, the
Right of Suffrage in all Deliberations touching
LESSON: THE WESTPHALIAN IDEA OF the Affairs of the Empire; but above all, when
THE STATE the Business in hand shall be the making or
interpreting of Laws, the declaring of Wars,
The traditional idea of the state has its origin in imposing of Taxes, levying or quartering of
the Treaty of Westphalia which was entered Soldiers, erecting new Fortifications in the
into by different states in 1648, which Territorys of the States, or reinforcing the old
effectively diminished the power of the Roman Garisons; as also when a Peace of Alliance is
Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire, to be concluded, and treated about, or the like,
and has cemented the sovereignty of the none of these, or the like things shall be acted
state. for the future, without the Suffrage and
Consent of the Free Assembly of all the States
The Idea of the State in Treaty of of the Empire: Above all, it shall be free
Westphalia in 1648 perpetually to each of the States of the
The Treaty of Westphalia, according to Patton Empire, to make Alliances with Strangers for
(2019), has resolved three major issues, their Preservation and Safety; provided,
namely: (a) religious freedom was officially nevertheless, such Alliances be not against
the Emperor, and the Empire, nor against the laws should be patterned to natural laws) had
Public Peace, and this Treaty, and without also eroded giving rise to positivistic view of
prejudice to the Oath by which every one is the society. As a result, "[p]ositive law was
bound to the Emperor and the Empire. created by the national sovereign whether
king, president, parliament, or congress. The
Prior to this treaty, states belonging to the nation-state was bound only by the laws it
Roman Empire were simply recipients of the created or international treaties it agreed to
decisions made by the Empire; they did not accept. In theological terms, then, positivism
have the right to participate in the political ended the idea that rulers were ultimately
decision-making processes that affected the accountable to God. Rulers themselves were
welfare of the Empire including theirs. With the at liberty to do what they decided was best for
conclusion of the treaty, the right of the states their countries. In international law terms,
to participate and vote in all deliberations states could not be forced to accept any
affecting the affairs of the Empire was international treaty they did not like." (Suter
recognized, including the following: creation 2003: 22)
and implementation of laws, declaration of
wars, imposition of taxes, discipline of soldier's The Treaty of Westphalia had then paved the
fortification of state defense, and forging of way to the secularization of the states, the
peace alliances for their protection, which are effective transfer of the seat of political power
rights exercised by sovereign political entities. from the divine to the human, from the church
to the sovereign chosen by the people.
Indeed, the Treaty of Wesphalia had Thomas Hobbes' book Leviathan (1651),
recognized the rights of the state as a published three years after the Treaty of
sovereign political entity. It is this recognition Westphalia, envisions of the political society in
which solidified the sovereignty of the state which the powers of the sovereign emanate
and effectively diminished the power of both from the social contract they have voluntarily
the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy entered into and not from the God as was
Roman Empire. believed prior to the conclusion of the said
treaty. John Locke's Second Treatise of
While the sovereignty of the state was formally Government (1690) also provides that the
recognized in the aforementioned treaty, its powers of the government--legislative,
strengthening is a product of deliberate efforts, executive, and judicial--emanate from the
which involved five mutually reinforcing people exercised by their representatives for
developments: "national consolidation of the protection of their lives, liberties, and
power, creation of a national sense of loyalty, properties. For John Locke, sovereignty
erosion of natural law to which national rulers resides in the people and all powers exercised
were accountable, creation of a system of by the government are just entrusted to it. The
national laws, and the creation of the concept government, then, is accountable to the
of national, sovereign equality of all people and not to a divine entity as the divine
nation-states. (Suter 2003,20). From power right theory states.
being exercised over them by the Holy Roman
Empire, the states had to solidify its exercise Exercising sovereignty, the state has the
of sovereignty by requiring among its people a power to enact laws which are enforceable
national sense of identity and loyalty by and demandable among its members within its
creating national symbols such as national territory. These laws are enacted and
flag, national anthem, and national holidays. implemented by the sovereign to whom the
(Kennedy in Suter 2003:20) powers are entrusted by the people. The
sovereign is accountable only to the people
With the decline of the power of the church and not to any external entities. The sovereign
over the state, the divine law theory (which exercises the right to determine and
states that political power emanates from God) implement policies and laws deemed wise for
and the natural law theory (stating that positive the observance of its people. The sovereign, in
its exercise of the powers of the state, has the 5. “Each state has the right to freely choose
right against interference from any foreign and develop its political, social, economic and
institutions and states. cultural systems.
6. “Each state has the right to comply fully and
LESSON: FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINES OF in good faith with its international
INTERNATIONAL LAW BASED ON THE obligations and to live in peace with other
WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM states.” ( Suter 2003, 22-23)

Based on the Westphalian idea of the state, EQUALITY

international law adopts the following Juridically, states are equals. This means that,
fundamental principles which shall govern the under the law or in the eyes of the law, states
relations of all states in the world: are equal. Some states may be politically and
(1) States have exclusive domestic jurisdiction. economically powerful than others but they do
States are supreme in matters affecting its not have special rights and privileges before
internal affairs. So as long as the state policy the law. Regardless of their political and
or decision does not affect others, they must economic stature, states are equal before the
be left alone to decide what they think is best law.
for them.
(2) States are equal. [See next section] SOVEREIGNTY
(3) States have diplomatic immunity. All states are sovereign. As such, they all
This means that heads of states and enjoy all the rights inherent to the exercise of
governments, including their official their sovereignty such as the right to
representatives such as the ambassadors, determine their domestic and international
cannot be sued for violating laws in policies and the right to enact and implement
other states in recognition of the sovereignty of laws deemed imperative for their national
the states they represent.] interests.
(4) States enjoy nonintervention.
States are independent; they must be left PERSONALITY
alone to decide what is good for States are juridical persons. They all enjoy
them. certain rights and privileges, sovereignty being
(5) New states and governments are entitled the most important. All states are duty-bound
to recognition. (Suter 2003, 23) to recognize and respect these rights. As
such, no state has the right to dominate any
LESSON: FUNDAMENTAL EQUALITY OF other states.
STATES
INVIOLABILITY
The Treaty of Westphalia has also established All states are independent from one another.
the equality of states, which, according to UN As independent political entities, they have the
Secretary General Javier Perez de Cuellar, right to determine their domestic and
has the following essential elements: international policies. Consequently, no state
has the right to intervene in the affairs of
1. "States are juridical equals; another.
2. “Each state enjoys the rights inherent in full
sovereignty. All states have their own respective territories.
3. “Each state has the duty to respect the Their economic and political rights over these
personality of other states. territories--land, water, air--are inviolable.
4. “The territorial integrity and political
independence of the state are LIBERTY
inviolable. As sovereign political entities, all states have
the right to adopt economic, political, social
and cultural systems deemed to effectively
advance their national interests. No states, no
international institutions, and no international the Electronic Herd if they want to remain
organizations can dictate any state to adopt a globally competitive. Friedman states:
particular system or policy.
“This herd has grown exponentially thanks to
DUTY the democratizations of finance, technology
States co-exist with other states. As such they and information – so much so that today it is
are obligated to observe generally accepted beginning to replace governments as the
principles of international relations in order to primary source of capital for both companies
promote peaceful co-existence among them. and countries to grow. Indeed, as countries
Since all states are sovereign, no particular increasingly have to run balanced budgets to
state can exercise absolute sovereignty for by fit into the Golden Straitjacket, their economies
doing so it may violate the sovereignty of other become ever more dependent on the
states. Electronic Herd for growth capital. So to thrive
in today’s globalization system a country not
LESSON: THE STATE IN THE GLOBALIZED only has to put on the Golden Straitjacket, it
WORLD has to join this Electronic Herd.” (Friedman
quoted in Schattle 2014: 108)
In the article Governments and Citizens in the
Globally Interconnected World of States, Hans As the neoliberal ideology advocates
Schattle (2014) identifies five global forces that deregulation, privatization, and free trade,
challenge the Westphalian concept of the economic globalization effectively emasculates
state, namely: global economic the state as it is being sidelined in economic
interdependence, political and economic policy-making processes dominated by global
integration, the rise of international law and economic institutions (World Treaty
universal principles, the development in Organization, World Bank, and International
communication network, and the rise of Monetary Fund). Furthermore, as economic
transnational activism. globalization promotes free competition which
privileges transnational companies, the state
GLOBAL ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE find itself constantly yielding to their demands
Global economic interdependence is a state of in exchange for their investment promises.
affairs wherein countries in the world are
economically dependent with one another. It ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL INTEGRATION
constitutes a global web of supply and Economic interdependence has given rise to
demand wherein states, corporations, and political and economic partnerships among
private individuals engage in free trade. This neighboring states such as the European
economic interdependence is the necessary Union, African Union, Association of Southeast
effect of economic globalization or the Asian Nations (ASEAN). (Schattle 2014: 110)
integration of the world economy, which These organizations have created political and
abolishes national economic barriers. Behind economic rights and duties among their
the prevailing form of economic globalization is members, one of which is conformity to rules
neoliberalism, an economic philosophy that and standards they have mutually agreed
advocates deregulation, privatization, and free upon. These rules and standards shape the
trade as global economic policies. These domestic policies and laws of the member
economic policies, according to Schattle states, thereby affecting their political and
(2014: 108), “[impose] a forced choice upon economic sovereignty.
states: either conform to free-market principles
or run the risk of being left behind.” These THE RISE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND
policies effectively undermine the economic UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
sovereignty of the states in the sense that they Globalization has created an “increasingly
are forced to conform to the global economic complex, multi-layered interrelationships
system by joining what Thomas Friedman calls between states, international institutions, local
and international non-state actors, and of
course, ordinary people.” (Battersby 2014: “International law defines the legal
481) And this has given rise to the adoption of responsibilities of States in their conduct with
international law and universal principles (i.e. each other, and their treatment of individuals
Universal Declaration of Human Rights), the within State boundaries. Its domain
creation of international institutions, and the encompasses a wide range of issues of
emergence of transnational networks and international concern, such as human rights,
global non-governmental organizations. disarmament, international crime, refugees,
(Schattle 2014) migration, problems of nationality, the
treatment of prisoners, the use of force, and
International Institutions the conduct of war, among others. It also
Foremost of these international institutions is regulates the global commons, such as the
the United Nations (UN) presently composed environment and sustainable development,
of 193 state-members. The UN is an international waters, outer space, global
international organization created in 1945 after communications and world trade.
the World War II for the following purposes: [Link]
-​ "To maintain international peace and hold-international-law/[Link][Link]
security, and to that end: to take [Link]/en/sections/what-we-do/uphold-internati
effective collective measures for the onal-law/[Link]
prevention and removal of threats to
the peace, and for the suppression of To apply the international law, the UN created
acts of aggression or other breaches the International Court of Justice which “settles
of the peace, and to bring about by legal disputes submitted to it by States in
peaceful means, and in conformity accordance with international law. It also
with the principles of justice and gives advisory opinions on legal questions
international law, adjustment or referred to it from authorized UN organs and
settlement of international disputes or specialized agencies..”
situations which might lead to a [Link]
breach of the peace; hold-international-law/[Link]
-​ To develop friendly relations among
nations based on respect for the So, what does the existence of the UN mean
principle of equal rights and to the sovereignty of states?
self-determination of peoples, and to
take other appropriate measures to “[T]he mere existence of institutions such as
strengthen universal peace; the United Nations and the International
-​ To achieve international co-operation Criminal Court and the ever-widening public
in solving international problems of an validation of key international human rights
economic, social, cultural, or declarations relate in important ways with
humanitarian character, and in global governance in a world of states. As the
promoting and encouraging respect for number of states worldwide has risen steadily,
human rights and for fundamental national leaders of these fledgling states have
freedoms for all without distinction as turned to the UN and European rights
to race, sex, language, or religion; and declarations for inspiration when drafting
-​ To be a centre for harmonizing the constitutions and have often signed human
actions of nations in the attainment of rights conventions quickly – sometimes more
these common ends." (Article 1, UN quickly than they can properly implement and
Charter, uphold them – as a way of building up global
[Link] respectability for their new political and legal
rter/chapter-i/[Link]) systems. (Schattle 2014: 112-113)

To fulfill these purposes, the UN is empowered Transgovernmental Networks

to enforce the international law, which is If there are vertical lines that connect the
defined as: states to international institutions, there are
also horizontal linkages that bind through their Corruption Perception Index
governmental agencies. It is through these (CPI) which “scores and ranks
networks that the different branches of the countries/territories based on how corrupt a
governments in the world, including their country’s public sector is perceived to be by
various agencies, exchange information, experts and business executives.”
coordinate governmental actions, uphold ([Link] In its
common standards, and enforce domestic 2019 CPI, for example, the Philippines scored
and international laws to “smooth out more 34/100 and ranked 113 out of 198 countries
productive and efficient working relationships surveyed , which means that the Philippines
among themselves.” (Schattle 2014: 113) was perceived as highly corrupt in 2019.
([Link]
According to Anne Marie Slaughter, the ults/phl)
establishment of transnational networks is the
mechanism by which nation-states “solve When states and governments are subjected
collective problems that can only be to evaluation and ranking by transnational
addressed on a global scale” (quoted in non-governmental organizations, which
Schattle 2014: 113) without resorting to the publicize their findings worldwide, the former
creation of a global government. Slaughter initiate and implement measures in
observes: accordance with the standards in order to gain
moral credibility. In effect, states and their
“The state is not disappearing; it is governments tend to comply to the demands
disaggregating. Its component institutions – of organizations which have no legal power
regulators, judges, and even legislators – are over them.
all reaching out beyond national borders in
various ways, finding that their once COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND
“domestic” jobs have an international SOCIAL MEDIA
dimension’ (quoted in Schattle 2014: 113) In the last module (economic globalization) we
discussed about the flattening of the world
Non-governmental actors because of the development in information
Aside from the inter-governmental linkages, and communication technology. The invention
another horizontal linkages emerged: that of the internet has made the world smaller as
which bind the states with numerous virtual global communication and interaction is
transnational non-governmental organizations. made possible. Revolution in the information
Transnational non-governmental organizations and communication technology, according to
are private entities voluntarily formed to Friedman has opened a lot of economic
advance universal principles. These opportunities to peoples all over the world.
organizations constitute the global civil society Aside from economic opportunities, however,
which seeks to ensure that states and their social and political interactions have also been
governments uphold generally accepted made intense. Filipinos, for example, may now
principles of international law. They serve as be aware of what is going in virtually any part
the moral vanguards of the states in the world, in the world made possible through the
evaluating and raking the latter’s internet especially with the emergence of
performances according to international social media—Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
standards, which lends moral credibility to their Viber, etc. Foreign news, written or broadcast,
existence. (Schattle 2014: 114) Transparency which were available only to a few subscribers
International is one example of this are now accessible via smartphones. Indeed,
non-governmental organization whose mission the revolution in information and
is “to stop corruption and promote communication has brought about by
transparency, accountability and integrity at all technological developments has democratized
levels and across all sectors of society.” data, information, and knowledge, which may
([Link] One give rise to intense consciousness of the
way by which it accomplishes this mission is various global concerns and issues across the
world. This consciousness gives rise to people anti-globalization movements are only some of
empowerment which enables them to demand the examples of transnational activism, made
accountability from the states/governments, possible through social media revolution as
global institutions, and transnational Schattle explains:
corporations. Because of the emergence of “Social media platforms have also eased the
the digital platforms for communication, way for citizens groups across the ‘global
interaction and advocacy, the netizens of the south’ to build network partners. Facebook,
world may form domestic and global networks Twitter and their localized counterparts around
to demand accountability from the world now figure heavily in much of the
states/governments and other actors in the new scholarship in transnational advocacy
world. Digital globalization has then created movements…. Political elites and everyday
“new kinds of communities [that] coalesce via citizens everywhere are using new media to
networks and create new arenas for political navigate and renegotiate their relationships in
interaction, identity and belonging. (Schattle the global age – and this leads us to another
2014: 117) important development in global studies: the
growing interaction between the fields of
THE RISE OF TRANSNATIONAL ACTIVISM international relations and political
With the flattening of the world partly caused communication. (Schattle 2014: 117)
by the revolution in information and
communication, a new form of power that In conclusion, Schattle states:
challenges the sovereignty of the state has “[G]lobalization has dispersed political and
emerged—that is the rise of transnational economic power well beyond the state.
activists, a group of people from different Governments now jockey for competitive
countries inspired by the common hope for a advantage alongside international political and
better future actively advocating for social and economic institutions, transnational civil
global transformation. Schattle explains their society organizations and multinational
emergence: corporations. States now hold themselves
accountable to a host of international norms
“[T]he surge in public consciousness of and standards, often with the express purpose
globalization and all its implications led of gaining legitimacy at home and
growing numbers of everyday people during respectability abroad. States frequently find
this period to begin thinking of themselves as themselves in subordinate positions,
‘global citizens’ and to link this idea particularly in the pecking order of global
substantially with concepts of awareness, capitalism, with diminished capacities to
responsibility, participation and cross-cultural protect the economic well-being of their
empathy.” (Schattle 2014: 115) populations. And states now face new kinds of
pressures, with advances toward
With the democratization of information supranational integration on the one hand met
brought about by social media revolution has with forces of local fragmentation on the other.
led to the intensification of what Robert (Schattle 2014: 105)”
Roberson calls the intensification of global
consciousness, that is the awareness of the While states remain to be powerful agents that
fact that people dwell in the same planet transform societies and the world, it can no
facing common challenges. This intensified longer be denied that the ideological and
consciousness has led people of diverse communication revolutions—the so-called
nationalities to coalesce in order to demand flatteners of the world—have transformed the
change from the states/governments, nature and functions of states. With all the
international institutions, transnational changes happening in the
corporations, and other global actors. The world—technological, social, cultural, and
global movements for justice, global economic—the state cannot remain the
movements against climate change, global all-powerful political entity envisioned by the
movements against poverty, and the Westphalian Treaty.
Furthermore, with the common challenges all
Stable Government Unstable
the states in the world are confronting, a state
Government
defined by its territorial concerns is already
obsolete. From domestic governance, states
now have to embrace the idea and reality of Colonialism and the North-South Divide
global governance as Battersby states, citing The North –South divide is said to be a
UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan ‘heritage of colonialism.' The colonial powers
(1996–2006): have become the ‘North” and obviously, the
ones colonized are now known as the “South”
[T]he new century demanded a new method of (Brown, 2018).
global problem solving, one which placed
emphasis upon ‘integration’, ‘policy Brown (2018) explains that “[T]he history of
coherence’, ‘flexibility’ and ‘informational colonialism supports the paternal nature of the
capacity’ across government, relationship that is still present. She agrees
non-government, and intergovernmental with Dados and Connell that the use of the
sectors to address multi-dimensional and term “Global South” references “an entire
multi-sector security issues: poverty, history of colonialism,” with the South
education, health, environmental degradation, generally being composed of former colonies
and human rights. (Battersby 2014: 483) that have been stripped of resources by the
North.
THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE
Neo-Colonialism and the North-South
What is the North-South Divide? Divide
The North – South Divide is described as the Ebaye and Ogbang (2016) maintained that “in
socio – economic and political division that the 1960s and the 70s when colonialism
exist between the wealthy developed collapsed in most part of the 3rd world, the
countries, called “the North”, and the international economic system was structurally
underdeveloped/developing countries known stacked against the less developed countries
as “the South”. It is interchangeably called of South”. They also said that “the MNCs and
politics of development and Bretton wood institutions were part of the
underdevelopment.. (Aja, 2001 cited by facilitators use by the industrial North to
Ebaye, 2016). exploit, subjugate, expand and deepen their
domination of post - colonial economics."
Thus, North-South divide, obviously, does not
refer to the geographical division of the globe Neocolonialism created a hierarchical
but socio-economic and political schism structure on which the rich North were the
existing in the world. center (core) of the world economic system,
while the South remained at the periphery of
How do they differ from each other? the system (Bade 1983 cited by Ebaye and
Ogbay).
North South

Economic Progress Economic Indeed, political independence had already

Weakness been achieved by the former colonies.
However, it cannot be denied that economic
Heavily Largely Consuming dependence of the South (former colonies) to
Productive/Industrial the North (the colonizers) is still evident in
ized today’s world.

Strong Market Weak Market Industrial Revolution and the North-South

Economy Economy Divide
Industrial revolution, according to Ebaye and
Ogbang (2016), occurred when earlier known
civilization in Africa, Asia and the 19th announced a Declaration and Plan of Action
century’s Latin America were capitalized for the Establishment of a New International
(non-industrialized) economies. Industrial Economic Order (NIEO), which called for
revolution soon became an export protection of the real value of commodities, the
phenomenon itself. right of developing states to expropriate
foreign enterprises, and the international
Accordingly, industrialization has resulted to regulation of multinational corporations (Davis,
acquisition of wealth and technology by the 2012).
North. Industrial revolution was not only about
the production of various goods; it has The Declaration built on the establishment of
showcased the application of technology in the the North-South Conference on International
production process to achieve better goods Economic Cooperation a month earlier by the
and even happiness. Various firms were UN, which included Saudi Arabia and Algeria
developed for the manufacture of different on its panel. The Declaration’s key terms were
goods and services. In fact, some of them reiterated in the Sixth Special Session of the
were for the production of sophisticated UN General Assembly in 1974. This was given
navigation aids weapon that were necessary more formal expression later in the UN Charter
for overpowering and subjugating the more of Economic Rights and Duties of States of the
premature and unarmed south (Ebaye same year, proposed by Mexico (Jones, 1983
&Ogbang, 2016). cited by Davis).

The Brandt Line and the North-South Other Events which have Implications on
Divide the North-South Divide
Conversely, the initial idea of the North and -​ Decolonisation of Asia and African
South emerged from what was known as the States and the moves of Latin
“Brandt” line, which separated the globe into American States to free themselves
the rich North and poor South with some from US domination
exceptions (notably, Australia and New -​ Cold War
Zealand. The Brandt line has fallen out of -​ The Oil Crisis of the 1970’s
favor since it was never updated in order to -​ The major institutional changes in the
account for many markers of both concepts international realm (Davis, 2012)
co-existing in the same region (Brown, V).
The Current Face of the North-South Divide
The ‘Brandt Line’ is said to refer to “a The following salient points are obtained from
visualisation created to illustrate international the talk given by Dr. Enrique Iglesias in 2014,
inequalities and the socioeconomic gulf that former Foreign Minister of Uruguay which
separates regions of the world, popularised in depict the transformation in the role of the
North-South: A Programme for Survival – also south in the global political economy:
known as the Brandt report” (Lees, 2020). -​ The rise of the South is
unprecedented in speed and scale;
Note: Willy Brandt was a German Chancellor -​ The rise of the South provides
who chaired Independent Commission that opportunities to the North;
published the Brandt Report. -​ The South is becoming a major engine
in keeping afloat the situation of the
The New International Economic Order world economy through trade,
Houari Boumedienne, the former President of exchange of technology, and others.
Algeria and Chair of the Organisation of -​ South contribute more to global
Non-Aligned States (ONAS), initiated a economic growth of developed
campaign to modify the established institutions countries (The Rise of the Global
and structures of the global economy. At the South: Towards an Agenda for the
Fourth Summit Conference of the ONAS in New Century).
Algeria, held in December 1973, Boumedienne
ASIAN REGIONALISM shifting ideas of regionalism. A complex
variety of national or even sub-regional ideas
Asian regionalism is believed to be a of regionalism has emerged. This includes the
by-product of economic interaction and not a early Japanese, Indian, and Chinese notions
consequence of political planning. Doubtless, of pan-Asianism; Mahathir’s notion of an East
there are Asian countries that have Asian Economic Group (He, 2004);
experienced economic growth as a result of a Indonesian, Malaysian, and Filipino
successful outward oriented growth strategies. conceptions of pan-Malayism, xxx among
This, has also paved the way to a closer ties others.”
among the countries in the region. Conversely,
it is evident that is no single, strong, and He and Inoguchi (2011) also pointed out that
exclusive regional block in Asia (embracing all “there is a general pattern of oscillation
countries in the said region). What could between approaches to the region that are
possibly the reason for the said absence based on Asianism and those that are based
on ‘Pacificism.’ Shifts between the two visions
Describing Asian Regionalism have been influenced by a number of factors.
According to Oba (2019), [r]egionalism in Asia
developed toward the end of the Cold War, What are some of these factors?
with the creation of various regional institutions -​ The vital role of the US in backing a
for nearly two decades after the 1980s. regional idea that extends the region
Against the backdrop of the changing regional beyond the mainland of Asia and
circumstances caused by the escalation of the maritime Southeast Asia and also
Sino-U.S. rivalry, the promotion of regionalism includes the Pacific;
in Asia has become more active since the end -​ The global political economic aspects;
of the 2000s. Currently, several world powers, and
including the United States and China; middle -​ Nature of domestic politics of
powers, like Japan; and some small powers, individual countries, among others.
such as the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) member countries, are
promoting their regional multilateral Things to Ponder
approaches by proposing and advancing -​ How do you think the predominance of
various regional frameworks. neoliberalism is shaping Asia as a
region?
It is said that the regional institutionalization in -​ What has been the role of the United
Asia was, in fact, not a high-level one. Oba States in Asia? Does it preclude the
(2019) mentioned in his paper the argument of formation of a strong regional block in
Katzenstein, to wit: “Asian regionalism was the said region? Justify your answer.
characterized by dynamic developments in -​ China has been playing a huge role in
markets rather than by formal political the global political economic realm.
institutions”. Furthermore, Asian regionalism How does it affect Asian regionalism?
eschewed ‘formal institutions’ and that the -​ What are the other existing
characteristic of Asian regionalism was ‘soft impediments for the formation of a
regionalism’ compared to the European ‘hard single and strong regional block in
regionalism,’ which was “based on politically Asia?
established discriminatory arrangement”
(Oba, M 2019). ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN
NATIONS (ASEAN)
On the other hand, according to He and
Inoguchi (2011), “[t]here is no single Asian The Formation of the ASEAN
idea of regionalism. Individual countries such One of the notable regional blocks that has
as South Korea and Japan show internal been formed in Asia is the Association of
differences in developing, modifying, and Southeast Asian Nations. In line with our
objective to understand the different facets of trade, the improvement of their
the ASEAN Integration, it is vital to first look transportation and communications
into its inception and get to know the rationale facilities and the raising of the living
behind its establishment and the fundamental standards of their peoples;
principles that they adhere in relation with one -​ To promote Southeast Asian studies;
another. and
-​ To maintain close and beneficial
The Establishment and the Members cooperation with existing international
-​ ASEAN was founded on August 8, and regional organisations with similar
1967 in Bangkok, Thailand aims and purposes, and explore all
-​ The first members include the avenues for even closer cooperation
Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, among themselves.
Indonesia and Singapore.
-​ They signed the so-called ASEAN Fundamental Principles
DECLARATION, otherwise known as -​ "Mutual respect for the independence,
the BANGKOK DECLARATION. sovereignty, equality, territorial
-​ Brunei Darussalam joined in 1984, integrity, and national identity of all
Viet Nam in 1995, Lao PDR and nations;
Myanmar in 1997, and Cambodia in -​ The right of every State to lead its
1999, making up what is today the ten national existence free from external
Member States of ASEAN. interference, subversion or coercion;
-​ Non-interference in the internal affairs
Aims and Purposes of ASEAN of one another;
-​ "To accelerate the economic growth, -​ Settlement of differences or disputes
social progress and cultural by peaceful manner;
development in the region through -​ Renunciation of the threat or use of
joint endeavours in the spirit of force; and
equality and partnership in order to -​ Effective cooperation among
strengthen the foundation for a themselves."
prosperous and peaceful community
of Southeast Asian Nations; The ASEAN Econonomic Integration
-​ To promote regional peace and Several Summits have been held to form an
stability through abiding respect for ASEAN Economic Community. It was on the
justice and the rule of law in the 12th ASEAN Summit in 2007 when the leaders
relationship among countries of the of the member states agreed to transform
region and adherence to the principles ASEAN into a region with free movement of
of the United Nations Charter; goods, services, investment, skilled labour,
-​ To promote active collaboration and and freer flow of capital
mutual assistance on matters of
common interest in the economic,
social, cultural, technical, scientific and
administrative fields;
-​ To provide assistance to each other in
the form of training and research
facilities in the educational,
professional, technical and
administrative spheres;
-​ To collaborate more effectively for the
greater utilization of their agriculture
and industries, the expansion of their
trade, including the study of the
problems of international commodity