CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND A REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURES AND STUDIES

1.1 Introduction

Water shortage remains a pressing concern worldwide. While water covers approximately
71% of the Earth's surface, freshwater comprises only 2.5%, and less than 1% is easily accessible
for human consumption [1]. As shown in Figure 1, only a small percentage of the Earth's water is
freshwater—and an even smaller percentage is available for human consumption.

Source: USGS, [Link]

Figure
This already limited supply 1. Earth’s
faces growingwater distribution.
pressure from population growth, urban
expansion, industrial activities, and the effects of climate change. Many communities around the
world—especially in developing countries—struggle to access clean and adequate water for
daily use.

An annual rainfall in the Philippines' tropical archipelago spans from 965 to 4,064
millimeters [2]. This tropical archipelago receives abundant rainfall annually however most of
this rainfall leaves rivers and seas without being properly captured or utilized for meaningful
purposes [3]. To address this inefficiency, communities must adopt effective water management
strategies that make better use of natural resources like rainwater. Rainwater harvesting systems
(RHS) offer a practical and environmentally friendly solution to support water needs. These
systems reduce the pressure on traditional water sources such as municipal supplies and deep
wells, which are often expensive or unreliable [4], [5]. Schools are especially well-suited for
RHS because of their wide roof areas and constant need for water. By collecting and reusing
rainwater, schools can ease their water expenses while encouraging students and staff to adopt
more sustainable habits [6].

At Mining Elementary School in Barangay Mining, Angeles City, Pampanga, a basic

rainwater harvesting system was already installed but was not functioning efficiently. In this
study, we improved that system by adding a multi-layer natural filtration unit made from
accessible, affordable materials like anthracite, silica sand, limestone, gravel, and granular
activated carbon [7], [8]. These materials were chosen based on previous studies that support
their effectiveness in improving water quality for non-potable uses.

The upgraded system was designed to make collected rainwater safer and more suitable
for everyday tasks such as cleaning, gardening, and handwashing—supporting hygiene needs
while promoting environmental responsibility. More than just a technical upgrade, this project
shows how even small, science-based solutions can turn overlooked resources like rainwater into
something useful and dependable. The success of this initiative may inspire other schools and
communities to adopt similar systems, helping promote smarter and more sustainable water
practices [9].
[1] World Economic Forum. (2022). Water scarcity: A growing global challenge. Retrieved
from [Link]
funding-for-entrepreneurs-to-tackle-freshwater-crisis/

[2] Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. (n.d.).

The climate of the Philippines. Retrieved from
[Link]

[3] Schmitt, R. W. (n.d.). The global water cycle. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
Retrieved from [Link]

[4] Ali, S., Zhang, Y., & Moazeni, M. (2022). Water and energy saving performances of
rainwater harvesting systems in urban areas of Pakistan: A case study of Islamabad,
Lahore, Peshawar, and Khanpur. Sustainable Cities and Society, 89, Article 104424.
[Link]

[5] Samion, N. K. B. M. (2024, December 8). The water crisis in the Philippines: Challenges
and solutions. Wateroam. [Link]
philippines

[6] Burszta-Adamiak, E., & Spychalski, P. (2021). Water savings and reduction of costs
through the use of a dual water supply system in a sports facility. Sustainable Cities and
Society, 66, 102620. [Link]

[7] Zhao, Y., Wang, X., Liu, C., Wang, S., Wang, X., Hou, H., Wang, J., & Li, H. (2019).
Purification of harvested rainwater using slow sand filters with low-cost materials:
Bacterial community structure and purifying effect. Science of The Total Environment,
674, 344-354. [Link]

[8] Raimondi, A., Quinn, R., Abhijith, G. R., Becciu, G., & Ostfeld, A. (2023). Rainwater
Harvesting and Treatment: State of the Art and Perspectives. Water, 15(8), 1518.
[Link]
[9] D. J. A. Marzan et al., “Proposed Rainwater Harvesting System with Filtration: An
Alternative Source of Potable Water,” International Journal of Research, vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 91–106, Feb. 2024, doi: [Link]
2.1 Research Design

This study adopted a systematic and practical approach to evaluate and enhance the
rainwater harvesting system (RHS) at Mining Elementary School. This study examined
rainwaters functionality and suitability for non-potable uses such as handwashing, cleaning, and
gardening.

An initial evaluation was conducted through structured field observations and blueprint
analysis to trace water flow from roof catchment to storage tanks, identify leaks or inefficiencies,
and determine available space for system improvement. The analysis involved reviewing water
bills alongside onsite evaluation to confirm water requirements and staff members participated in
interviews for system improvements.

Rainfall data together with catchment area measurements were used to estimate water
collection potential. Water samples from the existing tanks were tested to determine their
physicochemical properties and compare them with national standards. A natural filtration
prototype was then constructed using layered materials—anthracite, silica sand, limestone,
gravel, and activated carbon—based on established filtration methods.

Filtered water samples were analyzed and compared with the baseline results to evaluate
filtration effectiveness. Descriptive analysis in combination with MS Excel operated as the data
processing tools. Assessment results of the filter led to redesigns which optimized the RHS
functionality while ensuring compatibility with the school's water requirements thus supporting
sustainable school water management practices.
2.1.3 Behavior Analysis and Efficiency

The effectiveness of a rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) lies in its capacity to reliably
meet non-potable water needs, such as those for cleaning, gardening, and handwashing, while
minimizing waste and dependence on external sources. A key determinant of this performance is
the storage tank size, which influences how much rainwater can be collected, stored, and used
effectively throughout the year [52].

To conduct this analysis, a manual simulation of the system’s behavior was developed
using Microsoft Excel. While many studies utilize dedicated hydrologic simulation software,
Excel was chosen for its accessibility and flexibility in performing monthly water balance
computations. This method allowed us to monitor the inflows, outflows, and storage behavior of
the system across the school year. The process began with estimating the annual volume of
rainwater that could be harvested using the following formula:

V ARWH =R x A x C (1)

Where:

A=Area of catchment ( Roof Area ) , ( m2 )

R=Average annual rainfall ,(m)

C=Runoff coefficient

This value represents the total theoretical volume of rainwater that could be collected
from the school's roof annually. From this, the monthly water demand was determined by
dividing the school’s total annual water requirement evenly across twelve months:

V ARWH
WU = (2)
Total No .of Months

This assumption provided a baseline for comparing water supply and demand over time.
A monthly water balance analysis was carried out. The goal was to determine how much of the
harvested rainwater could realistically be stored and used each month, considering both usage
and possible overflows. The storage volume at the end of each month was calculated with the
equation:

V t =V t −1 + I t −Ot

Where:

3
V t =Storage volume at the end of the current time,(m )

3
V t −1=Storage volume at theend of the previoustime step ,(m )

3
I t=Inflow of theroof runoff ,(m )

3
Ot =Overflow ¿ therainwater tank store ,(m )

Using this equation, each month’s balance was manually updated in Excel. The system
was assumed to start with an empty tank to capture the full dynamic range of performance
throughout the year. If the rainfall inflow exceeded the tank’s capacity, the excess was treated as
overflow, following the principles of the Yield-After-Spillage (YAS) algorithm [53]. This
method ensured that demand was prioritized before storing excess rainwater, which helped
simulate realistic system behavior. To determine the optimal storage tank size, we identified the
maximum storage volume required during the 12-month simulation:

S=max ⁡(V 1 , V 2 , … ,V 12 ) (4)

This approach ensured that the tank would be neither undersized (leading to overflows
and water loss) nor oversized (resulting in unnecessary costs), promoting both economic and
functional efficiency [52]. The total available water in a given month is defined as the sum of
inflow and remaining water from the previous month:

At =I t +V t −1 (5)

The amount of water that can be supplied for use is the minimum between the available
water and the monthly demand:

Y t =min( A t , U) (6)
Any excess beyond the tank's capacity is treated as overflow:

Ot =max(¿ A t−Y t−S , 0)¿) (7)

The remaining volume stored in the tank for the next period is:

V t =min ⁡[max ( A t −Y t , 0 ) , S ] (8)

The performance of the RWHS is evaluated using the water-saving efficiency, Eₜ, which
measures the system’s ability to meet water demand with harvested rainwater [54]. The
efficiency is calculated as:

∑ Yt
ET = x 100 [%] (9)
∑ Dt

Where:

ET =Water saving efficiency

3
Dt=Demand during the timeinterval ,(m )

This metric indicates how effectively the system meets the school’s non-potable water
needs using harvested rainwater. A higher efficiency suggests better performance and reduced
dependence on municipal water supplies [55]. By applying these simulations and calculations,
the behavior and efficiency of the RWHS at Mining Elementary School were thoroughly
analyzed.

References
[52] A. Campisano et al., “Urban rainwater harvesting systems: Research, implementation and
future perspectives,” Water Research, vol. 115, pp. 195–209, Mar. 2017, doi:
10.1016/[Link].2017.02.056.

[53] M. Semaan, S. D. Day, M. Garvin, N. Ramakrishnan, and A. Pearce, “Optimal sizing of

rainwater harvesting systems for domestic water usages: A systematic literature review,”
Resources Conservation & Recycling X, vol. 6, p. 100033, Feb. 2020, doi:
10.1016/[Link].2020.100033

[54] S. Van Dijk, A. W. Lounsbury, A. Y. Hoekstra, and R. Wang, “Strategic design and finance
of rainwater harvesting to cost-effectively meet large-scale urban water infrastructure needs,”
Water Research, vol. 184, p. 116063, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1016/[Link].2020.116063.

[55] A. M. Dixon, D. Butler, and A. Fewkes, “Water saving potential of domestic water reuse
systems using greywater and rainwater in combination,” Water Science & Technology, vol. 39,
no. 5, Jan. 1999, doi: 10.1016/s0273-1223(99)00083-9.
3.4.1 Collection of Rainwater Sample

Rainwater samples were collected from the existing rainwater harvesting system at
Mining Elementary School to assess water quality for physicochemical and microbiological
parameters, ensuring suitability for lavatory and other school purposes. The Eminent Water
Laboratory Center provided six sterile containers for sampling: three for unfiltered samples and
three for filtered samples. For each sample type, the lab supplied two 1-liter plastic bottles, one
wrapped in aluminum foil to protect against light exposure and one unwrapped, and one small
glass container, which needed to be stored in a cooler to maintain sample stability. Samples were
drawn from the three storage tanks at the school, which contained rainwater from previous
rainfall. The tank outlets were cleaned and flushed briefly to ensure the water represented the
stored contents accurately.

The unfiltered samples were collected first by filling the three designated containers
directly from the tank outlets. Each container was sealed tightly and labeled with the collection
date, time, and sample type. Next, the filtration process was conducted using the prototype
system. Rainwater was poured into the filtration system, and the filtered water was collected at
the outlet. The three containers for filtered samples were then filled with this processed water,
sealed, and labeled accordingly. The small glass containers for both unfiltered and filtered
samples were immediately placed in a cooler with ice packs to preserve their integrity for
microbiological analysis. All samples were transported to the Eminent Water Laboratory Center
and delivered within 8 hours, ensuring accurate results to evaluate the effectiveness of the natural
filtration system.