DIRECTING/LEADING FUNCTION
Meaning of Leadership
Van Fleet describes leadership as an influence process directed at
shaping the behaviour of others (leadership is shaping the behaviour of
others through influence).
David Schwartz describes leadership as the art of inspiring subordinates
to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically.
5.3.2 Leadership Versus Management
The question of whether leadership is synonymous with management has
long been debated. While they are similar in some ways, they are
different in more ways.
People can be leaders without being managers, managers without being
leaders or both leaders and managers.
A manager usually directs others because of formal authority and
power.
A manager is by essence required to perform the four functions of
planning, organizing, directing and controlling.
leadership is a little of management but not all of it—it involves ability
to persuade others to seek set goals willingly.
Leadership binds a group together and motivates it towards agreed
goals.
A leader needs only to influence his followers or their behaviour in
whatever direction he chooses.
Unlike the manager a leader does not rely on any formal authority,
because while a manager can force people to comply by using formal
authority a leader has no such power.
However, people can be both and effective leadership does increase a
person's managerial capabilities.
5.3.3 Need for Leadership
Effective leadership gives direction to the efforts of workers.
leadership guides organizational efforts towards achievement of
organizational goals.
It has been said that without leadership an organization is a muddle of
men and machines.
Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined goals
enthusiastically, and it is the leader who triggers the power of
motivation in people and guides them towards goals.
Leadership transforms potential into reality.
Leadership is indispensable if an organization is to be successful.
workers need to know how they can contribute to organizational
goals.
Power and Leadership
The foundation of leadership is power. Leaders have power over their
followers and they wield this power to exert their influence. There are
five basic types of power that can be used by leaders.
i. Legitimate Power
This is based on the perception that the leader has the right to
exercise influence because of his position and roles. It is power
created and conveyed by the organization.
ii. Reward Power
The power to grant and withhold various types of rewards. These
rewards may include pay increases, promotion, praise, recognition,
etc. The greater and the more important the reward, the more
power a leader has.
iii. Coercive Power
The power to force compliance through psychological, emotional or
physical threat. In industrial organizations coercion may be subtle
through oral reprimands, fines, layoffs, demotion. In military
organizations coercion could actually be physical.
iv. Expert Power
Power based on knowledge and expertise. The more knowledge one
has and the fewer the people who are aware of it, the more power
he has.
v. Referent Power
Power based on subordinates identification with the leader, it
usually distinguishes leaders from non leaders. The leader exerts
influence because of charisma and reputation. The follower wishes
to be like the leader or to be associated with him.
Approaches to Leadership
There are three basic approaches to studying and describing leadership:
trait, behavioural and contingency approaches.
(a) Leadership traits
Assumes that great leaders possess a set of stable and enduring
traits or characteristics that set them apart from followers.
Adherents of this theory attempted to identify these traits so that
they could be used as a basis for selecting managers. Attention was
focused on the search for traits and researchers. Studied common
traits such as intelligence, height, self confidence and
attractiveness. However, traits proved to be ineffective bases for
selection of leaders because the known good leaders had such
diverse traits that it was impossible to draw a list of common traits.
(b) Behavioural Approach
This approach sought to define behaviours that set effective leaders
apart from ineffective leaders. A leader may have either job
centered leader behaviour or employee centered leader behaviour
(Michigan Studies).
Two critical leader behaviours were also identified by the Ohio
State studies i.e. initiating structure behaviour similar to job
centered behaviour and which focuses on the job being done, and
the consideration behaviour similar te employee centered
behaviour and which focuses on employee satisfaction.
(c) Contingency Approaches
Contingency approaches to leadership suggest that situational
factors must be considered. One kind of behaviour may work in one
setting but not in another. The goal of contingency approaches is to
identify the situational variables that managers need to consider in
assessing how different forms of leadership will be received. There
are four popular contingency theories of leadership; the LPC
model, the path goal model, the participation model and lifecycle
theory of leadership
(1) The LPC Model
Called the Least Preferred Co-Worker. This model was developed
by Fred E. Fieldler. According to him leaders become leaders not
only because of their personality but also because of the various
situational factors that they face. He came up with three critical
dimensions of leadership situations that affect a leader's style.
These were:
i. Position Power—the degree to which a position enables a
leader to get enough members to comply with his directions.
ii. Task Structure—degree to which tasks are spelled out clearly
and people held responsible i.e. how much each person
knows his roles.
iii. Leader-Member Relation—the extent to which group
members like, and trust a leader and are willing to follow
him. From these situations Fieldler identified two types of
leadership style:
Task-oriented whereby a leader gains satisfaction from seeing tasks
performed.
People-oriented where the leader aims at achieving good interpersonal
relations. Fieldler concluded that "Leadership performance" depends
both on the organization and the situation. One cannot speak of effective
leaders but only of leaders who tend to be effective in one situation and
ineffective in another situation. Effective leadership requires both
training and a conducive organizational climate. The LPC model sees
appropriate behaviour as a function of the favourableness of the situation
as defined by the three situations.
(2) PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
by Martin G Evans and Robert J. House (1971)
Manager
clarifies
‘paths’
for ‘reward’
Goal
Goal (reward)(reward)
This theory was developed by the above said persons in 1971. The Path-
goal approach to leadership effectiveness is based on the
expectancy/valence model that states that “An individuals motivation
depends on his or her expectation of the reward and the valence or
attractiveness of that reward.”
This theory focuses on the leader as the source of rewards.
It attempts to predict how different types of rewards and different
leadership styles affect motivation, performance and satisfaction of
subordinates. Managers have at their disposal a number of ways to
influence subordinates. According to Evans the most important are the
managers ability to provide rewards and to clarify what subordinates
must do to earn them. Thus managers determine the valibility of “goals”
(rewards) and make clear the “paths” to be taken to reach them. Evans
suggests that a managers leadership style influences which rewards will
be available to subordinates as well as subordinates perceptions of what
they have to do to earn those rewards. An employee centred manager for
example will offer a wide range of reward to subordinates not only pay
and promotions but also support encouragement, security and respect.
A task oriented manager on the other hand will offer less set of rewards.
However according to Evans such a manager will usually be much better
at linking subordinates performance to rewards than an employee
centred manager.
(3) The Participation Model
Involves a much more narrow segment of leadership than the other
two models. It addresses the question of how much subordinates
should be allowed to participate in decision making. The model
includes five different degrees of participation.
AI The manager makes the decision alone with no input
from subordinates [A = Autocratic].
AII The manager asks surbodinates for information that she
or he needs to make the decision but still makes the decision
alone.
CI The manager shares the situation with selected
subordinates and asks for information and advice the
manager still makes the decision but keeps subordinates
actively involved [C = Consultative].
CII The manager meets with subordinates as a group to
discuss the situation information is freely shared although the
manager still makes the decision.
GII The manager and surbodinates meet as a group and
freely share information and the entire group makes the
decision [G = Group].
This model suggests that managers need to consider several
factors in choosing the degree of participation in decision
making.
• is there quality required?
• do I have enough information to make a high quality
decision?
• is the problem structured?
• is acceptance by subordinates critical to implementation?
• do subordinates share the organizational goals to be achieved
by making this decision?
• is conflict among subordinates likely in the preferred
solution?
(4) Lifecycle Theory of Leadership
This theory was developed by Paul Hersey & Kenneth Blanchard
The theory holds that most effective leadership styles varies with the
“maturity” of subordinates.
Hersey and Blanchard defined maturity not as age or emotional stability
but as desire for achievement and willingness to accept responsibility.
They believed that the relationship between a manager and subordinates
moves through four phases as subordinates develop and mature
Phase1:
When subordinates enter the organisation a high orientation by the
manger is most appropriate. Subordinates have to be instructed in their
tasks and familiarise with the organisation rules and procedures. At this
stage a non-directive manager may cause anxiety and confusion among
employees. A participatory employee relationship approach would be
inappropriate at this stage because according to Hersey and Blanchard
employees cannot yet be regarded as colleagues.
Phase2:
As subordinates begin to learn their tasks, task orient leadership remains
essential because subordinates are not yet willing or able to accept full
responsibility. However, the mangers trust in and support of
subordinates can increase as the manager becomes familiar with
subordinates and willing to encourage further effort on their part. At this
stage mangers can start using employee oriented behaviour.
Phase 3:
At this phase the subordinates ability and achievement motivation are
increased and subordinates actively begin to seek greater responsibility.
The manager will no longer need to be directive (close direction might be
resented). Mangers will however continue to be supportive and
considerate inorder to strengthen the subordinates residue for greater
responsibility.
Phase 4:
As subordinates gradually become confident self- directing and
experienced the manger can reduce the amount of support and
encouragement. Subordinates can then be left on their “own” and no
longer need directive relationship with the manger.
5.3.5 Leadership Styles
The method or style of leadership a manager chooses to use greatly
influences his effectiveness as a leader. An appropriate leadership style
coupled with a proper external motivational technique can lead to the
achievement of both individual and organizational goals. If the style is
inappropriate goals could suffer and workers may feel resentful,
aggressive, insecure and dissatisfied.
There are three main styles of leadership:
(a) Autocratic Style
All authority and decision making is centered in the leader.
He makes all decisions, exercises total control by use of
rewards and punishment. An autocratic leader requires
conformity from his subordinates and always considers his
decision to be superior to those of his subordinates. One
advantage of autocratic leadership is that it allows faster
decision making but it can easily cause workers to experience
dissatisfaction, dependence on the leader or passiveness
towards organizational goals.
(b) Democratic or Participative Style
This style of leadership seeks to obtain cooperation of
workers in achieving organizational goals by allowing them to
participate in decision-making.
It does not relieve the leader of his decision-making
responsibilities or of his power over subordinates, but it
requires that he recognise subordinates as capable of
contributing positively to decision making. Participative
decision-making can lead to improved manager-worker
relations, higher morale and job satisfaction, decreased
dependence on the leader and better acceptance of decisions.
However, it also has certain limitations, delayed decision-
making, `group think', time consuming and diluted decisions
due to compromising.
(c) Laissez Faire Style (Free Reign)
This style does not depend on the leader to provide external
motivation but, the workers motivate themselves based on
their needs, wants and desires. They are given goals and left
on their own to achieve them. The leader assumes the role of
a group member.
This approach increases worker independence and expression and forces
him to function as a member of a group. The main disadvantage is that,
without a strong leader the group could lack direction or control, which
may result into frustration in the workers. For laissez faire to work the
subordinates must be competent, reliable and well versed with the goals
of the organization.
5.3.6 Continuum of Leadership
In reality there is not only three leadership styles but styles could be
many ranging from highly boss centered styles to highly employee
centered leadership. According to Tannenbaum and Schmidt the leader
has flexibility in choosing the most appropriate style. The choice of the
style depends on three factors:
(a) Forces in the leader which include his value system, confidence in
own leadership inclinations, feelings of insecurity and uncertainty,
and confidence in his subordinates.
(b) Forces in subordinates—each employee has different needs, wants,
desires, experience, training abilities, skills etc. It is therefore
beneficial for the manager to understand the forces at work within
his employees. A manager could for instance allow participation in
decision making if the employees are competent, well trained,
ready to assume responsibility, have high needs for independence,
understand and identify with the goals of the organization and
necessary knowledge. If these are absent then the leader may be
forced to lead autocratically.
(c) Forces in the situation
Include environmental pressures such as type of organization,
effectiveness of work group, type of problem and urgency of the
problem. For example production workers may work better under
one style while professionals may work better under a different
style.
5.3.7 The Managerial grid
In considering the leadership orientation that a manager can take, it
appears that he can either be people oriented or production oriented.
A people oriented leader is concerned with the human aspects of the
organization. A production oriented leader's main concern is the tasks—
seeing that work is accomplished. The best managers are both people
and production oriented. By combining his people and production scores
a manager will obtain his managerial score according to the grid. The
managerial grid was developed by Blake and Mouton and its objective is
to bring about a managerial style that maximises concern for both people
and production.
A low score in either area is a good indication of a poor approach to
management. The points on the grid give these types of management.
1 Impoverished Management
Has no concern for people and also little concern for production.
Effective production cannot be achieved because people are lazy,
apathetic and indifferent. Sound and mature relationships are
unobtainable.
2 Task Management
Maximum concern for production and low concern for people.
People are seen as a commodity just like machines. The manager
aims to plan direct and control peoples activities.
3 Country-Club Management
Highest concern for people but little concern for production.
Production is incidental to lack of conflict and good interpersonal
relations.
4 Dampened Pendulum (middle of the road)
"Be fair and firm", push for production but not all the way, "give
some but not all attitude of management".
5 Team Management
Highest concern for both people and production. Production is seen
as a function of the integration of task and human requirements.
Better managers are described by points towards this type of
management.
5.3.8 Personal Qualities of Leaders
i. Ability to inspire others
ii. Ability to understand human behaviour
iii. Similarity with the group
iv. Verbal assertiveness
v. Willingness to communicate honestly
vi. Dedication to the goals of the organization
vii. Ability to inspire through example
ix. Willingness to take risk
x. Willingness to assume full responsibility for the group
xi. Skill in the art of compromise
xii. Ability to tolerate criticism
5.3.9 Factors Influencing Leadership effectiveness
Identification of situational factors within the work environs and the
choice of appropriate leadership style is the essence of effective
leadership.
The following factors influences leader effectiveness in different work
situations: -
1. Leader personality and past experiences:- managers value
background and experiences will affect his or her choice of
leadership styles. A manager who has had success in exercising
little supervision or values the self-fulfilment needs of subordinates
may adopt an employee-oriented style of leadership. A manger who
distrusts subordinates or who simply likes to manage all work
activities may adopt a more authoritarian role.
2. Expectation of superiors:- a superior who favours task oriented
leadership may cause a manager to adopt that style of leadership.
A superior who favours an employee-oriented style on the other
hand may encourage the manager to adopt the employee-oriented
leadership.
3. Subordinates characteristics and expectations:- the response of
subordinates to managers will be subordinates characteristics in
terms of skills and training influence the mangers choice of style.
Highly capable employee would normally require less directly
approach. The expectation of subordinates is another factor in
determining how appropriate a particular style will be.
Subordinates who have employee centred managers in the past
may expect a new manager to have similar style and may react
negatively to authoritarian leadership.
4. Tasks requirements: Jobs that precise instructions are to be
followed demand more task oriented style than jobs whose
operating procedures can be left largely to the individual
employees e.g. University teaching.
5. Organisational climate and policy the “personality” or climate of an
organisation influences the expectations and behaviours of
organisation members.
In organizations where climate and policies encourage strict
accountability for expenses and results, managers usually
supervise and control subordinates tightly.
6. Peer expectation and behaviours: - Ones fellow managers so as not
to appear odd. Also conformance to their expectations is required.
