JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY, DELHI

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

CENTRE FOR HISTORICAL STUDIES

MASTERS IN MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

PAPER- GENDER & SOCIETY WOMEN IN MEDIEVAL INDIA 13th-18th

Century

SEMESTER- 2nd

SUBMITTED BY – AMRITA

SUBMITTED TO – Prof. JOY L. K. PACHUAU

Consider the following four authors. In what ways are their works similar or
different from each other in the way they write about gender/women’s history.
1. K.M. Ashraf: Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan

2. Rekha Misra: Women in Mughal India 1526-1748.

3. R. Lal- Rethinking Mughal India: Challenge of a princess' memoir.

4. A. Gabbay- In Reality a Man: Sultan Iltutmish, His Daughter, Raziya, and

Gender Ambiguity in Thirteenth Century Northern India.
Gender history, as outlined by Sonya O. Rose, is not simply the study of women in the past, but a
deeper exploration of how gender as a social construct shapes history and power dynamics. Gender
historians examine differences between men and women, their relationships with each other and among
themselves. They study how these differences and relationships are created by society, how gender
connects with things like class, caste, and religion and how they change overtime. Feminist scholars
uses the word "gender" to mean the ‘cultural interpretation of sex’.i
Aparna Basu; on highlighting the development of women historiography in India; argues that
traditional history writings only deals with women “who either successfully performed male roles or
whom great men loved.”ii Early works often relied on limited sources. However, as feminist scholarship
developed, historians began to employ new methodologies and sources, including oral histories,
folklore, and material culture, to uncover the story of women in the past. This evolution has led to a
more holistic understanding of women's history, recognizing their diverse roles and understanding the
‘totality of women’s lives’ in history.iii
This essay will analyze the works of four authors – K.M. Ashraf, Rekha Misra, Ruby Lal, and Alyssa
Gabbay – who have contributed to the study of gender and women's history in medieval India. By
examining their approaches, methodologies, and interpretations, we can gain insights into the diverse
ways in which this field has evolved and the ongoing debates that shape it.
K.M. Ashraf: In Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, attempts to reconstruct a social and
economic history of medieval India. His work, touches upon various aspects of daily life, including the
roles of women in rural society and their participation in household economies. While he acknowledges
women's contributions, his analysis is often limited by the available sources and tends to depict women
within traditional patriarchal frameworks.
Rekha Misra: Women in Mughal India 1526-1748 offers a more focused study of women during the
Mughal period. Misra utilizes a variety of Persian, Sanskrit and English primary sources, including
chronicles and travelogues to explore the lives of women in different social strata, from royal women to
those in the lower classes. She examines roles of aristocratic women; within the family, their
participation in economic activities, their access to education, political influence and everyday lives.
Ruby Lal: In "Rethinking Mughal India: Challenge of a Princess' Memoir," critically examines
Gulbadan Banu Begum’s Ahval-i Humayun Badshah. Lal argues that this memoir, written by a Mughal
princess, offers a unique perspective on Mughal history and provides insights into the lives of women
within the royal household. Her work highlights the importance of considering women's voices and
perspectives in the writing of history.
A. Gabbay: "In Reality a Man: Sultan Iltutmish, His Daughter, Raziya, and Gender Ambiguity in
Thirteenth Century Northern India" explores the complexities of gender identity and “female
sovereignty” through the case of Sultan Raziya. Gabbay challenges traditional interpretations of
Raziya's reign by arguing that her gender presentation and assumption of male titles were not simply a
matter of ambition, but also reflected a broader understanding of gender fluidity and the potential for
individuals to surpass the conventional gender roles.
Let’s see in details how these authors write about the gender:
Based on the selected readings of Ashraf's work, we can understand the economical and
social conditions of the people of Hindustan in medieval period. He takes a primarily social history
approach. While he describes the lives of people in Hindustan, including women, his focus is on the
material conditions and daily life. He doesn't explicitly analyze gender roles or power dynamics,
offering a more descriptive rather than analytical perspective. He discusses women as part of the
overall social picture but not as the central focus; this reflects the limitations of early historical
scholarship on women. He acknowledges women's roles in various aspects of life, particularly in rural
economies and household production. On the distribution of labor in the poor peasant family, he argues
that the whole family including women (wives); were engaged in the agricultural activities.
On dealing with the domestic life of people of Hindustan in medieval period; Ashraf begins by
discussing the joint family system and its economic significance. He notes the preference for male
children and the subordinate position of women in both Hindu and Muslim societies. He describes
women's lives as marked by dependence on men and confinement to the domestic sphere, to their roles
as daughters, wives, and mothers. He portrays women as a homogeneous group defined by their
biological functions and subordinate roles; he says; “From her birth to her death, the position of a
woman was most unpleasant.”iv However a different picture is presented by A. Gabbay, where she talk
about the scope of gender fluidity in the medieval period (though her study is based on elite women).
Ashraf discusses the practice of Purdah (seclusion), suggesting it became a measure of respectability
among the higher classes. He links it to the control of marriage choices and the emphasis on female
chastity. Ashraf provides detailed accounts of Sati (widow immolation) and Jauhar (mass self-
immolation), highlighting the social pressures and the brutality of these customs.
Ashraf presents a patriarchal perspective, reinforcing stereotypes about the women's inferiority and
dependence on men and the women’s role limited to the domestic sphere; their agency is not fully
explored by him. His analysis is primarily descriptive, lacking a critical and analytical examination of
gender roles, power dynamics, and women's agency. His focus is primarily on economic activity and
less so on social and cultural aspects of gender.

Rekha Misra's work represents a step forward in the study of women's history in medieval
India. By focusing specifically on women in the Mughal period, she is able to provide a more nuanced
account of their lives. She examines the diverse experiences of women across different social classes,
highlighting the variations in their roles, access to resources, and opportunities for asserting their
agency.
In her book, she not only discusses the Mughal aristocratic women but even the position of women
before the advent of the Mughals. She gives examples of women as administrators; like Rajyashri and
Rajput women in the early medieval period. She describes diverse role played by the women; where
they acts as royal bodyguards, administer the royal kitchen, joined the kings on the hunting expeditions
and even in the wars.v
With respect to the economic sphere; she holds similar views as K.M. Ashraf; where women had a
‘joint ownership’ over her husband’s property, however there is no mention of any inheritance claimed
by woman, though she holds full ownership over the property and wealth she received as the dowry;
‘stridhan’. Lower class women equally participated into the agricultural activities and production
activities like- weaving, embroidery, weapons and basket-making.vi
In Mughal period; she provides examples of women holding properties (also Zamindari rights) and
getting land grants as charity by the emperor (‘Madad-i-Maash’).
On analyzing the women agency with the coming of Turks and establishment of Delhi Sultanate; Misra
provides a detailed and chronological description of the politically ambitious women of royal families;
including- Shah Turkan; wife of Iltutmish and Razia (daughter); who was appointed successor by
Iltutmish. Razia Sultan was able to get hold of the throne on basis of her competence and carried on the
administration of Delhi for four years (1236-40 A.D.). Misra; providing the analysis over the question
of ‘female sovereignty’; points out that though there was the opposition from some section of nobility
over choosing Razia as successor instead of her brothers but there was not any ‘constitutional or legal
objection’ over her claim as a sovereign.vii This idea of female sovereignty is also discussed in detail by
Alyssa Gabbay.
With the establishment of Mughal foothold in Indian subcontinent, Misra argues that women played
important role in polity but the idea of ‘female sovereignty’ was not as acceptable as it was in the
Turkish rule. Ehsan Daulat Begum; Babur’s grandmother, Mahim Begum and Bibi Mubarika; his
wives, played important role in the politics during the times of Babur. In the times of Humayun;
Khanzada Begum (his aunt) played important role in reconciliation and negotiation between Humayun
and his brothers. Misra not only talks about the women of the imperial harem but also about the
powerful women outside the harem; like- Haram Begum; wife of Humayun’s cousin, in 1549 A.D.
gathered a strong force to assist Humayun in his Balkh expedition and played important role in the
politics of Kabul. Other contemporary powerful women includes; Lad Malika, who established her
dominance over Chunar and Rani Karmavati, wife of Rana Sanga, had a great influence over politics of
Mewar.viii
During the reign of Akbar, Maham Anaga (his chief nurse), Mariam Makani (his mother), Gulbadan
Begam (aunt) and Salima Sultan Begum (wife) played very important political role in the reign of
Akbar. These ladies played very important role in the conciliation when the rebellions occurred against
the emperors by their family members; like in 1601 prince Salim rebelled against his father, Akbar and
in 1606 A.D.; prince Khusru rebelled against his father, Jahangir.
Similarly in the reign of Jahangir, the most influential lady was Nurjahan Begum (wife). She was very
active in administration and acted as an adviser to her husband. On her request, Jahangir pardoned
Shahjahan after his rebellion in 1623 A.D.. She played important role in handling rebellion of Mahabat
Khan against Jahangir.
Under Shahjahan, Mumtaz Mahal held a prominent position in the harem, but after her death, their
daughter Jahanara Begum became a key mediator, maintaining influence even under Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb's sister Raushnara Begum and his daughters, Zebunnisa and Zinatunnisa Begum, also
impacted the political sphere during his reign.
Titles like ‘Mariam Makani’; given to Akbar’s mother, ‘Maryamus-Zamani’; Jahangir’s mother and
‘Bilqis-Makani’; to Shahjahan’s mother and other titles like ‘Nurjahan’, ‘Mumtaz-Mahal’, etc. shows
the respects royal women had in times of Mughals. The ladies in harem used to get regular allowances
and gifts from the emperor; allowances were given in cash and in form of land assignment. Nurjahan
and Jahanara owned many jagirs. Jahanara was even granted the revenue coming from Surat. Each lady
had an official called Nazir; to look after her property and incomes.ix
Besides the political ambitions of these ladies; Mishra also highlighted the commercial activities of the
royal ladies. She gives details of ships maintained by the ladies, Nurjahan maintained good trading
relations with English, while Jahanara had the good commercial relation with the Dutch.x
Talking about imperial harem, she argues that; emperors used to visit frequently to the ladies of harem
and used to get daily reports about the activities of the imperial harem. Capable women were appointed
as Daroghahs (Superintendents) of harem. Mahaldar was the highest female servant who controlled the
harem. The Imperial Harems were guarded with layered protections; first layer consists of the women
guards, followed by eunuchs, then followed by Rajput guards.xi During time of Delhi Sultanate, the
supervision and protection of the royal harem were the duties of ‘Hakima’ and ‘Khawaja Sara’,
respectively.
She also discuss the socio-cultural activities of the royal ladies, she argues that; the imperial ladies
followed a strict seclusion inside the walls of harem and behind the parda. Yet, they were engaged in
lots of recreational activities; like playing chess, chauper, flying kites, swimming, fireworks, drinking
and smoking, etc.. They were also engaged in the religious pursuits like reciting prayers and reading
Quran. Female education was also given priority, educated ladies were appointed to teach the girls.
Akbar is said to have promoted female education; established a girls school at Fatehpur Sikri. Ladies of
Mughal harem also used to engage actively in the literary pursuit; Glbadan Begum was well-versed in
Persian and Turki, Jahanara wrote the biography of Muinuddin Chisti and his descendants; titled
‘Munis-ul-Arwah’. Many of the royal women also established the madarsas and colleges to promote
education.xii
The imperial women also used to organize feasts and decorations on the special occasions like the
accession of the king to the throne, new year party, marriages, etc.. Khanzada Begum organized a grand
celebration Hindal’s marriage, similarly Dildar Begum organized a grand feast on the marriage of
Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum, Nurjahan also used to give grand feasts.xiii
Talking about the lives of middle and lower class women in the Mughal period; she discusses existence
of many social evils that made lives of women miserable; the evils includes: Dowry (dahej); Child
Marriage, Sati, miserable conditions of Hindu widows, practice of Jauhar (among rajput elites). Parda
system was popular among the Muslim ladies; a practice of veiling the face strictly and living a
secluded life. These practices became more prevalent as the common folks started imitating the royal
practices.xiv K.M. Ashraf have also highlighted these social evils as the part of lives of common folks of
Hindustan.
She argues that during the Mughal period, girls from the poor and middle class families did not
received much education, they were left illiterate, from a young age they were taught to be proficient in
domestic work and respecting elders of family, taught to be a good wife and to follow her ‘pativrata
dharma’; complete devotion to her husband, most of her life was surrounded around domestic sphere
and household works.xv
Still there were some women who made a crucial contribution into the literary activities; these women
includes the women devotees of the Bhakti movement and other women who composed verses and
poems on various subjects. Mira Bai and Bavri Saheb; composed verses and padas in praise of lord
Krishna, poetesses like; Praveen Rai Patur, Rup Mati, Teen Tarang, etc. made important contribution
in field of ‘shringar poetry’. There were also some Sanskrit poetess like Priyamvada; who wrote
‘Shayam Rhashya’.xvi
Misra's work, while still largely descriptive, moves beyond simplistic portrayals of women as either
victims or idealized figures. She gives multi-dimensional roles of Mughal aristocratic women; she talk
about political, social, cultural and the economic sphere of their lives, she even gives detailed
description of the prevalent ornaments, dresses and cosmetics of these women. And she also touches
upon the lives of non-elite women; however her description is very less with respect to the women
from subaltern group.

Ruby Lal in her work, criticize the traditional historiography on Mughals; where much
emphasis was laid on the political aspect and a little over the socio-cultural aspect of the Mughal rule;
with negligible focus over the question of the gender. Lal's analysis of Gulbadan Begum's memoir
marks a significant shift towards a more holistic and informed approach to women's history. By
focusing on a woman's own account of her life and experiences, she gives voice to a previously
marginalized perspective and tries to provide an ‘alternative history’; by using the sources generally
ignored by traditional scholars in studying about Mughals. She argues that the popular histories that we
know today regarding the political landscape during Mughal period particularly, of the reign of Babur,
Humayun and Akbar; are the result of the looking at certain ‘preferred’ primary texts by different
scholars over time. She further argues that, by examination of the range of wider but neglected sources
of Mughal period, we can explore different dimensions of the Mughal history. These sources includes;
minor texts like Gulbadan’s memoir, Mughal miniature paintings also the Mughal architecture. She
uses microhistorical lens, by focusing on specific princess’ memoir to explore the gender and women’s
role in Mughal context.
Gulbadan Begum was the daughter of Babur; wrote her memoir; Ahval-i Humayun Badshah during the
reign of Akbar. ‘She spent her childhood under Babur, youth under Humayun and her later years under
Akbar’s protection.’ She has witnessed the making of the state and powerful monarchy, therefore her
account provides a holistic picture of Mughals from the very beginning; which is usually ignored by the
state sponsored texts like; Akbarnama; who talks about fully formed institutionalized empire.xvii
Her memoir, offers a unique perspective on Mughal history, particularly regarding women's roles. She
focuses on the domestic sphere, providing details absent in other chronicles of the time. Unlike other
chroniclers who concentrated on battles and politics, Gulbadan illuminates the ‘domestic’ life of the
Mughal court. She details Babur's marriages, his relationships with wives and children, and especially
with the senior women of the lineage.xviii
The memoir demonstrates that women were not merely passive figures. They held influence and
agency, even in the political realm. One striking example is Khanzadeh Begum's role in advising Mirza
Kamran regarding the khutba (decree for kingship). Her intervention highlights the power senior
women could wield. Gulbadan describes the varied roles women played. They participated in court life,
organized celebrations and feasts (like on; Humayun's accession and Mirza Hindal's wedding), and
managed household affairs. The story of Humayun's marriage to Hamidah Banu Begum reveals that
even in royal marriages, women had a degree of agency. Hamideh initially resisted the marriage,
demonstrating that her consent was not simply assumed. This episode challenges the idea of women as
mere objects of exchange, this provides an alternative to the subordinate and miserable conditions of
women as highlighted by Mishra and Ashraf.
Ruby Lal argues that, Gulbadan's memoir provides a valuable window into the lives of Mughal women,
highlighting their agency, influence, and diverse roles within the family and the court. Her memoir
provides a new perspective to look at the existing sources and prompts us to ask new questions. Even
well-known texts can reveal hidden details about social life and struggles, when approached with fresh
perspectives. For example; Akbarnama details a women's hajj led by Gulbadan, an exceptional event
that historians have largely ignored (though Rekha Mishra have mentioned this episode in her book),
similarly European travelers’ accounts also consists of valuable details; as Moserrate mentions
Hamideh Banu Begum's regency (over Delhi; in 1570s); such instances shed light on the agency of
women in Mughal empire.xix

A. Gabbay's study of Sultan Raziya represents the most explicitly gender-focused approach
among the four authors. By examining Raziya's gender presentation and her assumption of male titles,
Gabbay challenges conventional understandings of gender and power. She argues that Raziya's case
demonstrates the fluidity of gender in the 13th century and the possibility for individuals to surpass
traditional gender roles. She doesn't simply document Raziya's actions; she analyzes their meaning
within the 13th-century context of the Delhi Sultanate.
She suggests that within Perso-Islamic culture, a ‘metaphorical space’ existed where women could be
identified as men, allowing them to access male-dominated spheres of power. This space was created
through symbolic acts like adopting male attire, titles, and behaviors. For example; Raziya used to ride
out in public with male attire on and her coins had both her and her father’s name on them; this shows
how a ‘female sovereign’ tries to carve out a legitimate position for herself in the medieval period. She
acknowledges the contradictions and tensions inherent in Raziya's position. While Raziya's
performance of masculinity allowed her to gain power and influence, it also created anxieties and
challenges to established hierarchies. Her preference to the Abyssinian amir; Jamal al-Yaqut and
discarding away of the female attire; caused her supporters to rose against her.xx
A contradiction is visible in her work where she highlights the existence of some flexibility towards the
female sovereigns in the medieval Islamic society but on other the hand, she discusses how,
Muhammad Prophet had criticized such states where the ruler is a female and he also condemns the
cross-dressing between males and females, she also discusses Islamic perception of the females as evil
and less-intelligent.xxi
Similarities and Differences:
Along with the connections highlighted above, there are some crucial similarities and differences in the
above works. The authors utilize a variety of sources, including textual sources (chronicles,
travelogues), memoirs, and artistic representations. However, their approaches to these sources differ.
Ashraf and Misra incorporates a wider range of materials and textual sources. Lal's work highlights the
importance of women's voices through the analysis of a memoir, and Gabbay uses a variety of sources
to analyze the construction of gender.
The authors' works vary in their focus and scope; Ashraf attempts a broad social and economic history,
while Misra concentrates on women in the Mughal period, Lal focuses on a specific individual and her
memoir, and Gabbay examines a particular case study to understand broader issues of gender and
power. While Ashraf's work is largely descriptive, Misra's work begins to move towards a more
analytical approach. Lal and Gabbay explicitly engage with theoretical frameworks of gender,
demonstrating a greater understanding of gender as a social construct. Gabbay's work, in particular,
draws on contemporary gender theory to offer a sophisticated analysis of historical evidence.
The authors' portrayals of women's agency also vary; Ashraf's work tends to depict women within
traditional roles, Misra acknowledges women's agency trying to explore it through examples of many
important imperial women, Lal and Gabbay; on the other hand, emphasize women's agency and their
ability to shape their own lives and challenge social norms.
All three works of- Lal, Misra, Gabbay; are elite-centric, focusing on the lives, challenges and agencies
of the royal women in medieval period; on the other hand, Ashraf has touched upon the domestic lives
of the women of common folks. Both Rekha Misra and Ruby Lal, have laid a good emphasis over the
Mughal domestic life.
There are a lots of common examples used by these authors while studying gender; Gulbadan’s
pilgrimage, role of elder Mughal women in politics; has been discussed by both Lal and Misra,
similarly the idea of ‘female sovereignty’ has also been discussed by Misra along with Gabbay with
respect to Raziya sultan.

Conclusion:
The works of these four authors reflect the evolution of gender and women's history in the study of
medieval India. From Ashraf's descriptive account of women's roles to Gabbay's sophisticated analysis
of gender and power, we can see a gradual shift towards a more nuanced and theoretically informed
approach. These authors, through their diverse methodologies and interpretations, have contributed to a
richer and more complex understanding of the past, highlighting the importance of considering gender
as a crucial category of historical analysis. Their works demonstrate the ongoing debates and
challenges in the field of gender history and the potential for new research to further illuminate the
diverse experiences of women in medieval India. Further research, utilizing a broader range of sources
and engaging with contemporary theoretical frameworks, will continue to expand our understanding of
gender and role of women in medieval Indian history.
i
Sonya O. Rose, What is Gender History? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010). p. 2-3
ii
Aparna Basu, “Women’s history in India: An historical survey,” in Writing Women’s History: International Perspectives
(London: Palgrave Macmilian UK, 1991), p. 181
iii
Ibid. p. 182
iv
K.M. Ashraf, Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan, 2nd ed. (New Delhi, 1970). p. 134
v
Rekha Misra, Women in Mughal India 1526-1748 (New Delhi, 1967). p. 1-2
vi
Ibid. p. 5
vii
Ibid. p. 6-8
viii
Ibid. p. 16-23
ix
Ibid. p. 59-63
x
Ibid. p. 68-70
xi
Ibid. p. 78-9
xii
Ibid. p. 84-92
xiii
Ibid. p. 96-99
xiv
Ibid. p. 131-35
xv
Ibid. p. 129-30
xvi
Ibid. p. 138-45
xvii
R. Lal, "Rethinking Mughal India: Challenge of a Princess' Memoir," Economic and Political Weekly 38, no. 1 (2003):
p. 55
xviii
Ibid. p. 56
xix
Ibid. p. 59-60
xx
A. Gabbay, "In Reality a Man: Sultan Iltutmish, His Daughter, Raziya, and Gender Ambiguity in Thirteenth Century
Northern India," Journal of Persianate Studies 4, no. 1 (2011): p. 45-8
xxi
Ibid. p. 51

Bibliography

Rose, Sonya O. What is Gender History? Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.

Basu, Aparna. "Women’s history in India: An historiographical survey." In Writing Women’s

History: International Perspectives, 181-209. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1991.

Ashraf, K.M. Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (New Delhi, 1970, 2 nd edition).

Misra, Rekha. Women in Mughal India 1526-1748, (Delhi, 1967).

Lal, R. "Rethinking Mughal India: Challenge of a princess' memoir." Economic and Political
Weekly 38, no. 1 (2003): 53-65.

Gabbay, A. "In Reality a Man: Sultan Iltutmish, His Daughter, Raziya, and Gender Ambiguity
in Thirteenth Century Northern India." Journal of Persianate Studies 4, no. 1 (2011): 45-63.