THE ANONYMOUS

INSTITUTE
THE PROJECT OF PAKISTAN EDUCATION NETWORK
OUR COMMUNITY:
ALL EDUCATIONAL UPDATES & NEWS ALL OVER THE
PAKISTAN.
IX-X-XI-XII SSC & HSC EXAMS PREPARATION GROUPS.
DISCUSSION GROUP SCAN HERE
KARACHI UNIVERSITY STUDY GROUP.
MDCAT/ECAT GROUP
PUNJAB+FEDRAL BOARD GROUP
DAE

HOW TO GET STARTED?

JOIN OUR GROUP AND BE A PART OF A SUPPORTIVE
LEARNING COMMUNITY.
SHARE THIS WITH YOUR CLASSMATES, FRIENDS, AND
ANYONE WHO COULD BENEFIT.
ADD MORE STUDENTS TO OUR COMMUNITY TO MAXIMIZE
THE IMPACT.

FOLLOW OUR OFFICIAL OUR WEBSITE

CHANNEL

CLICK ON THE ICONS AND YOU WILL BE REDIRECTED

IF THE LINK DOES NOT WORK YOU CAN CONTACT ME
03368089166
MR.ANONYMOUS
‫ بڑھے گا پاکستان‬،‫پڑھے گا پاکستان‬#
Prof. Umair khan

CHAPTER # 15
MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

TEMPERATURE:

Temperature is the quantitative determination of degree of hotness or coldness of a body and it

determines the direction of flow of heat from one body to other in contact.

“Temperature is the average translational kinetic energy of molecules.”

THERMOMETER:

“It is a device by which temperature is measured correctly.”

PRINCIPLE:

“The thermometer is based on thermometric property of substance.”

Commonly thermometer based on the expansion of liquid.

CONSTRUCTION:

Common thermometer is consisting of a long capillary tube having uniform and narrow bore.
One end of the tube is closed and second end is fitted with mercury or any liquid filled bulb.

MERCURY IS BEST BECAUSE:

i. It is not clear solution

ii. It has uniform linear expansion
iii. Its melting point is-300C and boiling point is 3570C i.e. has wide range.
iv. It does not wet the tube.
v. It is good conductor of heat.
vi. Its specific heat is low.
FIXED POINTS OF THERMOMETER:

There is two fixed points of thermometer.

1. A lower fixed point:

It is the melting point of water at standard atmospheric pressure of 760mm of Hg.
2. Higher fixed point:
It is the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure of 760mm of Hg.

SCALE OF THERMOMETER:

There is three scale of temperature commonly used.

i. Celsius or centigrade scale ii. Fahrenheit scale iii. Kelvin or absolute scale

1
Prof. Umair khan
CELSIUS SCALE OR CENTIGRADE SCALE:

In it melting point of ice is denoted by 00C and boiling point of water as 1000C. The distance
between the two points is divided in100 Parts and each part is known as one degree centigrade.

FAHRENHEIT SCALE:

In it melting point of ice denoted by 320F and boiling point of water as 2120F. The distance
between the two points is divided in 180 parts and each part is known as one degree Fahrenheit.

KELVIN SCALE:

In it melting point of ice is denoted by 273K and boiling point of water as 373k. The distance
between the two pints is divided in 100 parts and each part is denoted as one degree kelvin.

COMPARISON OF SCALE:

SCALE MELTING POINT BOILING POINT PARTS

1 Celsius 0 0C 1000C 100

2 Fahrenheit 320F 2120F 180

3 kelvin 273k 373k 100

CONVERSION OF C0 AND K:

In centigrade and Kelvin scale parts are similar that is the size of one degree is same, the
difference is only that of melting point of ice therefore we can write as:

K=C0 + 273
And――――――――――
C0 =k + 273

CONVERSION OF C0AND F0:

It is clear that 1000C=1800F

0
That is C (F-32)

2
Prof. Umair khan
And 0F =

The increase of size of a sample as solid, liquid or gas due to change of its temperature is
known as thermal expansion.

TRIPPLE POINT OF WATER

The triple point of water is the unique temperature and pressure at which water can exist
simultaneously in three phases: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (vapor). At this point, the three
phases are in thermodynamic equilibrium.

The exact triple point of water occurs at:

 Temperature: 0.01°C (273.16 K)

 Pressure: 611.657 pascals (about 0.00604 atmospheres)

This point is significant in thermodynamics and is used to define the Kelvin temperature scale. The
triple point of water is also a standard reference point in the calibration of thermometers.

GAS LAWS:

This relation between mass, volume, pressures and temperature of a gas is known as gas
law.

BOYLE’S LAW:

Robert Boyle’s developed it in 1660.

DEFINITION:

It states that the volume of given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure if
temperature is kept constant.

FORMULA:

Let V is the volume of a gas at pressure P then

Vα1/p

Or PV=constant

This law also may be stated that the product of pressure and volume of a given mass of a gas at
constant temperature.

INTERMS OF MASS
3
Prof. Umair khan

GRAPH:

The graph between P and V is a curve.

DEFECT:

The graph shows that if pressure is increases to infinity the volume become zero, which is
impossible because

i. Gas is consisting of molecules and molecule occupies space.

ii. When molecules comes near to each other inter atomic Coulomb repulsive forces
are create.
CONCLUSION:

Therefore it is conclude that this law fails at very high or low pressure but it agrees at
normal pressure.

CHARLES LAW: (1746-1823)

DEFINITION:

It states that volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional its absolute
temperature if the pressure on gas is kept constant.

FORMULA:

Let V is volume of gas, which is heated to then temperature difference of T k

VαT or

V/T=constant

It may also state that ratio between volume and temperature is always a constant quantity
at constant pressure.

INTERMS OF MASS

4
Prof. Umair khan
=

GRAPH:

The graph between V and T is a straight line which shows that at -273 k the volume of gas
become zero and negative volume is impossible therefore this temperature is consider
absolute zero (0k). As zero volume is impossible because

i. Gas is consist of molecules and molecules occupies space.

ii. When molecules comes near to each other inter atomic coulomb repulsive forces
are create.

CONCLUSION:

Therefore it is conclude that this la is valid above the freezing point of gas or for higher
temperature.

GENERAL GAS EQUATION:

From Boyle’s law V α 1/p

From Charles law V α T

Comparing the two relations we get

V α T/P

Or PV/T=constant

For one mole of gas constant is denoted by R i.e.

PV/T=R

PV=RmT

The value of Rm for same mass of different gases is different because in same mass of different
gases the number of molecules is different.

If mass of gas is ‘n’ mole, which is enclosed in container then R1 will be constant and in S.I system
its value is 8.314J.mole-1k-1

PV=nRT

This equation is known as general gas equation.

5
Prof. Umair khan
DEFECT:
This law agrees at normal pressure and temperature but at very low temperature and very high pressure it
fails because
Gas is consisting of molecules and a molecule occupies space.
When molecules comes near to each other inter atomic Coulomb repulsive forces are create.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

Kinetic theory of gases explains the behavior of a gas in term of the interaction of molecules
and the energy they possess. The fundamental assumptions of theory are as under.

i. Shape and size of molecule:

Every gas consists of a large numbers of molecules which are identical and similar
having diameter of 3A0 which is negligible as compare the volume of gas. For
example there are 3x1025 molecules of a gas are present in one cubic meter at S.T.P
ii. Distance between molecules:
iii. The molecules are at large distance as compare to their size.
iv. Velocities of molecules:
The molecules move with different velocities.
v. Random motion:
The molecules have Brownian (random) motion.
vi. Collision between molecules:
The molecule collides with each other and with the walls of container elastically.
vii. Forces between molecules:
The attractive forces between molecules are very small.
viii. Newton’s mechanics:
The molecule obeys the laws of mechanics.

PRESSURE OF GAS:

Consider a cube having length ‘L’. Let mass of a molecule is ‘m’ and has velocity ‘V’ at any point,
therefore it may be written as

V=Vx + Vy + Vz

The magnitude of velocity is given as

V2=Vx2+Vy2+Vz2

Let Vx = Vy = Vz then

V2=3Vx2

Or Vx2=1/3V2

Let us consider motion along X-axis only

6
Prof. Umair khan
Then momentum of body before collision=mVx

And momentum of body after collision=mVx

Therefore total momentum=m Vx-(-m Vx) =mVx+mVx=2mVx.

The distance covered by the body in one collision is

‘2L’ which is covered in time‘t’ then t=2L/Vx

The rate of change of momentum is called force therefore

Maxwell gave the idea of distribution of velocities among molecules graphically

If velocities of molecules are V1x,V2x,and V3x…Vnx then

Total force from then =

But and A=L2 therefore

As number of molecules in container is N therefore the number in unit volume is

But = mass of molecules x number of molecules per unit volume =density=p

Or , where is the average velocity of molecules moving

Along X-axis and Vx2=1/3V2

Substituting we get P=1/3pV2

7
Prof. Umair khan
Note: here Vrms=√

Prove that Tα translational K.E:

From kinetic theory P=1/3pV2 where p=mnv

Substituting we get P = 1/3mnvV2 but N/V=nv

Or P= 1/3 m N/V V2

Or PV=1/3 m N V 2 ………………….. (1)

For gas laws PV=nRT but n=N/Na

Therefore PV=N/Na RT

Comparing the two relations we get

Therefore

Or

Or ( )

Or

As

Therefore

I.e. translational kinetic energy of molecules of gas Is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.

BOYLES LAW:

As

But

For Boyles law T is constant therefore (1/2 mV2) =constant

Or

Or

Which is Boyle’s law.

8
Prof. Umair khan
CHARLE’S LAW:

As

Or

For Charles law pressure of system is kept constant therefore

Or ( ) but

Comparing we get

Which is Charles law.

9
Prof. Umair khan
CHAPTER 16
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. CLASSICAL THEORY:
According to classical theory heat is a weightless fluid known as caloric and is present in
each substance. The material having more heat has more caloric. If two bodies are in
contact to each other than caloric is transfer from a body having high caloric to a body
having low caloric.
2. MECHANICAL THEORY:
Count Rumford in 1798 challenge classical theory and said that heat is a form of energy
and is able to do mechanical work.
Foule also says that transfer of heat is not as a flow of caloric but is transfer of energy.
3. MODERN THEORY:
It states that heat is a form of energy associated with the motion of molecules. In a
substance molecules have three types of K.E
1) Rotational kinetic molecule
2) Vibrational kinetic molecule
3) Translational kinetic molecule
The average of K.E of molecules in a substance is the sum of all three kinds of energies.

UNITS OF ENERGY:

1) Calorie:
It is the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of one gram of water
from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
2) British thermal unit (BTU):
It is the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1/32 slug of water
from 63oF to 64oF.
3) Modern unit (joule):
As heat is form of energy therefore unit of energy is taken as joule which is also unit of
work.
1 calorie=4.1868 Joule=1/800 watt-hour
1BTU =251.996 calorie=1254.87 Joules.

HEAT FLOW:
It flows spontaneously from a region of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. The rate at
which heat is transferred can be quantified using the eq Q = mc∆T

THERMODYNAMICS:
The branch of physics, which deals with the transformation of heat energy into mechanical energy, is known
as thermodynamics.

SYSTEM:

The collection of matter with distinct boundary is called a system.There is three types of system.

CLOSE SYSTEM:
The system in which there is no transfer of mass across boundary is called closed system.
Exp: A hot cup of tea

OPEN SYSTEM:

10
Prof. Umair khan
The system in which mass and energy both can transfer from its boundary is called open system.
Exp: A pt with lid.

ISOLATED SYSTEM:
The system in which there is no transfer of mass and energy across boundary is called isolated system.
Exp: Thermos flask.

WORK IN THERMODYNAMICS:

Consider a system consist of a cylinder whose walls are perfectly insulator and
conducting base and ideal gas is enclosed in it by means of a friction less and insulating moveable
piston.

Let the ‘A’ is area of cylinder and ‘P’ is the pressure per unit area then force on piston
will be ‘PA’ when heat is supplied to the system then temperature of gas is increases and piston is
pushed outward through a distance Δy, then work done on it may be written as

But AΔy=ΔV
therefore
but

Therefore

This gives the work

done in thermodynamics.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

It is a second form of law of conservation of energy written by Helium Hold in 1847. It

states that when heat energy is transformed into any other form of energy or when other forms of
energy into heat energy then total amount of energy always remain constant.

EXPLANATION:

Whenever heat is supplied to a system, the system

1. Absorb heat (ΔQ)

2. Do some mechanical work (ΔW)
3. Its internal energy is increase by (ΔU)
Therefore according to law

INTERNAL ENERGY:

11
Prof. Umair khan
We know that all the matters are consist of molecules, which moves in it and have
kinetic energy. The sum of kinetic energies of molecules is known as its internal energy and it
never be zero. If heat energy is given to the system kinetic energies of molecules are increases i.e.
the internal energy is increases.

The Ui is internal energy before heating and Uf is internal energy after heating then the
difference of two is known as change in internal energy

Then according 1st law

If in a system change in internal energy is zero then according to first law of

thermodynamics

That is if all the energy is converted into work or maximum work may be equal to
supplied energy but cannot exceed from it. Due to friction between various parts of an engine we
cannot construct an engine, which convert all the energy in work.

An engine, which converts all the energy in to work, is known as perpetual motion
machine of first kind is impossible.

SIGN. CONVERSION:

In the equation ΔQ=ΔU+ΔW the sign. Are as under.

1. ΔQ is positive if heat flows toward system.

2. ΔQ is negative if heat comes out of system.
3. ΔU is positive if internal energy is increases.
4. ΔU is negative if internal energy is decreases.
5. ΔW is positive if work is done by the system.
6. ΔW is negative if work is done on the system.

APPLICATION OF 1ST LAW:

The first law of thermodynamics can be explain in detail by the following four process.

ISOBARIC PROCESS:

It is the process in which pressure of system remains constant.

12
Prof. Umair khan
EXPLANATION:

Consider a system consist of a cylinder whose walls are perfectly insulator and
conducting base and ideal gas is enclosed in it by a means of a friction less and insulating move
able piston.

Let ΔQ heat energy is given to the system due to which piston moves outward through a distance
ΔX. If P is the pressure per unit area of cylinder then force on it will be PA. The work done by gas
may be written as

But

Substituting in equation of first law of thermodynamics we get

. The graph between P and ΔV is a horizontal line and shows that constant

pressure volume is increases.

ISOCHROIC PROCESS:

It is the process in which volume of the system remains constant.

Explanation:

Consider a system consist of a cylinder whose walls are perfectly insulator and
conducting base and ideal gas is enclosed in it by means of a fixed and insulating piston.

Let ΔQ heat energy is given to the system, but due to fixed piston there will be no work (ΔW=0)
i.e. all the energy is consumed to increase the internal energy, substituting we get

Or

The graph between P and V is vertical straight line and shows that pressure on the walls

of container and temperature is increases when volume remain constant.

13
Prof. Umair khan
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS:

It is the process in which temperature of the system remains constant.

EXPLANATION:

Consider a system consist of a cylinder whose walls are perfectly insulator and
conducting bases and ideal gas is enclosed in it by means of a friction less moveable and insulating
piston.

Let ΔQ heat energy is given to the system, due do which temperature start to rise but by reducing
the pressure gas is allowed to expand due to which temperature remain constant i.e. ΔU=0
substituting in equation of first law we get

Or

The equation shows that all the energy is converted into work. It is example of Boyle’s
law in which gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature.

Similarly the process may be explain for isothermal compression.

Graph:

The graph between P and V is a curve like hyperbola.

ADIBATIC PROCESS:

It is the process in which no heat flows into or out of system.

Explanation:

Consider a system consist of a cylinder whose walls and base are perfectly insulator and
ideal gas is enclosed in it by means of a friction less moveable and insulating piston.

In the process no heat flows into the system i.e. ΔQ=0 therefore to take work pressure from
piston is decreases due to which gas expand without energy. Substituting we get

Or

Or

The equation shows that work done on the basis of internal energy, which is a decrease.

14
Prof. Umair khan
If pressure is increases the work is done on the system and ΔU will be positive.

Graph:

The graph between P and V is a curve but thus curve is deeper than isotherm and shows
that with the change of pressure, volume and
temperature both are changes.

HEAT CAPACITY:

It is define as the rate of change of heat absorbs by a body.

If ΔQ is heat required to rise the temperature of one mole of substance through ΔT 0 then specific
heat capacity
SPECIFIC HEAT:

The heat energy required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through one
degree Celsius is known as specific heat capacity.

Formula:

If ΔQ is heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass “m” of substance through ΔT0C
then

Or

From experiments it is observed that the value of ‘C’ for same mass of different substance is
different because the same mass of different substance have different numbers of molecules this
problem may be solved by taking the mass in moles because in one mole of any substance
number of molecules is same may solve this problem.

Unit:

The unit of specific heat is joule/Kg0C

Molar specific heat:

The heat energy required rising the temperature of one-gram mole of a substance through one
degree Celsius or Kelvin is known as molar specific hear capacity.

If ‘n’ moles of a substance required ΔQ joules of energy to rise the temperature through ΔT
degree Kelvin then

15
Prof. Umair khan
Unit:

The unit of molar specific heat is joule/mole0C

RELATION BETWEEN MOLAR AND COMMON SPECIFIC HEAT:

But ‘n’ one mole is define as quantity of matter m in gram is equal to molecular weight M then

Putting this value

Or

Or

LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE"

Heat lost by hot body = heat gained by cold body

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES:

The gases may be heated under two conditions:

I. At constant volume
II. At constant pressure
In both cases heat energy required to rise its temperature through same temperature is
different, therefore the gases have two types of specific heat.

a) Molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv).

b) Molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
a) MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT VOLUME (Cv):
It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of one mole of a gas
through one degree Kelvin at constant volume is known as molar specific heat of gas at
constant volume.
If ΔQv is the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of ‘n’ mole of a
gas at constant volume through ΔTK then

b) MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE (Cp):

It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of one mole of a gas
through one degree kelvin at constant pressure is known as molar specific heat of gas at
constant pressure.

16
Prof. Umair khan
If ΔQp is the amount of heat energy required increasing the temperature of ‘n’ mole of
a gas at constant pressure through ΔTK then

Prove that Cp-Cv=R:

Consider a system of a cylinder whose walls are perfectly insulator and conducting base and
ideal gas is enclosed in it by means of a friction less and insulating piston.

When the gas is allowed to expand heat is given at constant pressure.

In this case piston moves outward therefore work done will be PΔV, but according to gas laws
PΔV=nRΔT, putting this value in equation of first law of thermodynamics we get

When the gas is not allowed to expand heat is given at constant volume therefore for the case
specific heat may be written as

In this case volume remain constant therefore piston does not moves forward and work done will
be zero. Putting this value in equation of first law of thermodynamics we get

The values are taken for same temperature therefore ΔU is same there fore

Or

It means that the difference of Cp and Cv is equal to universal gas constant and Cp is greater than
Cv.

VALUES OF Cp AND Cv:

Consider a monatomic gas having temperature TK then the kinetic energy of one molecule of gas
may be written as

17
Prof. Umair khan
Or ( )

Or

Where is kinetic energy of one mole of molecules therefore?

If

But at constant volume the rise of temperature through 1K is known as molar specific heat at
constant volume therefore

Or

As

Or

18
Prof. Umair khan
CHAPTER 17
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
HEAT ENGINE

A machine which convert heat energy into mechanical energy is known as heat engine.

There are three parts of an engine.

1. A hot body (furnace of source of energy)

2. The working part (engine)
3. A cold body (sink)
The heat flows from hot body toward cold body, between them engine convert a part of
heat energy into work i.e. for an heat engine two different temperature are necessary therefore
the second law is defined by different scientist in different ways all of which are equivalent from
which two are popular.

KELVIN STATEMENT:

Kelvin stated the second law of thermodynamics as “no heat engine operating in a cycle
can extract heat from a hot reservoir and convert it into work without a heat sink to which heat
flows”.

Or

“It is impossible to drive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a temperature

lower than that of the coldest of its surrounding”.

LORD CLAUSES STATEMENT:

“Ii is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body without the
expenditure of energy.”
It is the example of refrigerator in which heat flows from cold body to hot body with the help of
compressor to which energy from outside is given.

REVERSIBLE PROCESS
The process in which can be retraced in exactly reverse order without producing any
change in the surrounding called reversible process.
Exp: Irothermal expansion.

IRRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
The process in which can not be retraced in the backward direction by reversing the
controlling factors known as arreversible process.
Exp : Explosion

PETROL ENGINE
A petrol engine (also known as a gasoline engine) is a type of internal combustion engine that
uses petrol (gasoline) as its fuel to generate power. It operates by burning a mixture of petrol and
air inside the engine's cylinders, producing high-pressure gases that drive the movement of
pistons and generate mechanical work. Petrol engines are widely used in cars, motorcycles, and
other vehicles.

19
Prof. Umair khan
WORKING OF PETROL ENGINE
The petrol engine follows the four-stroke cycle, which includes four stages: intake,
compression, power (combustion), and exhaust. This cycle is known as the Otto cycle, after
Nikolaus Otto, who developed it.

1. INTAKE STROKE:
The intake valve opens, and the piston moves down the cylinder.A mixture of air and petrol (fuel)
is drawn into the cylinder.

2. COMPRESSION STROKE:
The intake valve closes, and the piston moves up the cylinder.This compresses the air-fuel
mixture, increasing its pressure and temperature.

3. POWER STROKE (COMBUSTION):

At the top of the compression stroke, a spark plug ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture.
The explosion of the fuel creates high-pressure gases that push the piston down, generating
mechanical power.

4. EXHAUST STROKE:
The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves back up the cylinder.This pushes the burned
gases (exhaust) out of the cylinder, preparing it for the next intake stroke.

DIESEL ENGINE
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that operates by compressing air to a high
temperature and then injecting fuel (diesel) into the compressed air. The high temperature causes
the fuel to ignite, producing combustion, which drives the pistons and generates mechanical
power.

WORKING
Like petrol engines, diesel engines also follow the four-stroke cycle (intake, compression, power,
and exhaust) but differ in how combustion is initiated. Diesel engines do not use spark plugs;
instead, they rely on the high temperature created by compressing air to ignite the fuel.

1. INTAKE STROKE:
The intake valve opens, and the piston moves down the cylinder.Only air (not a fuel-air mixture)
is drawn into the cylinder.

2. COMPRESSION STROKE:
The intake valve closes, and the piston moves up, compressing the air inside the cylinder.
The air is compressed to a much higher pressure than in a petrol engine, reaching very high
temperatures (often over 500°C).

20
Prof. Umair khan
3. POWER STROKE (COMBUSTION):
When the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the
highly compressed, hot air inside the cylinder.
The heat from the compressed air ignites the fuel, causing it to combust and produce high-
pressure gases, which push the piston down.

4. EXHAUST STROKE:
The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves back up, expelling the burnt gases (exhaust)
from the cylinder.The cycle then repeats.

CARNOT ENGINE:

It is an imaginary engine having 100% efficiency. It is based on the principle that

efficiency of an engine never be increases from 100%. A French scientist Sadi Carnot gave the
theory.

The Carnot engine is consist of a cylinder whose walls is perfectly insulator and
conducting base and ideal gas is enclosed in it n=by means of a friction less and insulating
moveable piston.

One complete engine is consist of a Carnot engine is consists of four steps.

ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION
The engine is places on a hot reservoir and gas is allowed to expand under isothermal
expansion. Let Q1 is the energy absorbed by the system due to which volume of gas is increases
from V1 to V2. The process can be represent by curve AB as graph.

ADIABATIC EXPANSION
The engine is placed o0n insulator and gas is allowed to expand under adiabatic expansion then
volume of gas is increases from V2 to V3. The process can be represented by curve BC as graph.

21
Prof. Umair khan
ISOTHERMAL COPMRESSIO
The engine is placed on a cold body at temperature T2 which absorb heat Q2 due to which
volume of gas is decreases from V3 to V4. This process is isothermal compression, represented by
curve CD. As in graph.

ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
The engine is again placed on insulator and gas is pressed such that its volume and temperature.
The work is done on the system under adiabatic compression, represented by curve DA as in
graph.

EFFICIENCY:

As Q1 is heat absorb by system and Q2 is heat rejected to cold body then the work done
in the cycle may be written as

And

Or

This equation shows that as the ratio Q2/Q1 is decreases the efficiency is increases and if
Q2=0 then efficiency will be 100% but this condition disobey the laws of thermodynamics i.e. the
efficiency of an engine in never be 100% even of a Carnot engine.

As Q depends upon the temperature and Q α T i.e. Q=KT

Therefore and

Therefore

Or

( )

22
Prof. Umair khan

ENTROPY

Entropy means the disability or disorder of a system. The law of entropy states that during any
process the entropy of system is increases of remain constant, i.e. it is never be decreases.

For example consider a box containing white and red balls placed side by side, then a red
or black ball may be pick out easily. If the box is shacked well then the ball will be mixed and it will
be difficult to pick out a ball of correct color. It is because the disorder or entropy is increases.

According to second law of thermodynamics, if a system undergoes spontaneous

change, it will change in such a way that its entropy will increases or at least remain constant.

Explanation:

According to second law of thermodynamics engine operate in a cycle when heat is

transfer from a hot body to cold body. We also know that as the difference of temperature
between hot and cold body is increases its efficiency is increases.

We also know that when heat is transfer from a hot body to cold body the difference of
temperature is decreases or the entropy is increases.

Formula:

If ΔQ is the transfer of energy at constant absolute temperature T then change in

entropy is the ratio of ΔQ and T i.e.

Unit:

The unit of entropy in S.I system is JK-1.

REFRIGRATOR
A refrigerator is a household appliance that uses a refrigeration cycle to cool the interior
compartment and keep food and beverages fresh by maintaining a lower temperature. The
cooling process works by removing heat from the inside of the refrigerator and releasing it to the
surrounding environment.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A REFRIGERATOR:

1. COMPRESSOR: This is the heart of the refrigeration system. It compresses the refrigerant,
increasing its pressure and temperature. The compressor is powered by an electric motor.
2. REFRIGERANT: A special fluid (e.g., R-134a, R-600a) that absorbs and releases heat as it
changes between gas and liquid states.
3. EVAPORATOR COIL: Located inside the refrigerator, it allows the refrigerant to absorb heat
from the interior, cooling the compartment.
4. CONDENSER COIL: Located outside the refrigerator (usually at the back or bottom), the
condenser releases the heat absorbed from the interior to the surrounding environment.
5. EXPANSION VALVE: This reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant, causing it to cool
down and allowing it to absorb heat as it re-enters the evaporator.

23
Prof. Umair khan

WORKING OF A REFRIGERATOR

The refrigeration cycle consists of the following:

1. EVAPORATION (COOLING PHASE):

Inside the refrigerator, the refrigerant passes through an evaporator coil. As it evaporates (changes from a
liquid to a gas), it absorbs heat from the interior of the refrigerator.
This absorption of heat cools the air inside the refrigerator, lowering the temperature.
2. COMPRESSION:
The refrigerant gas is then sucked into a compressor, located at the back or bottom of the refrigerator.
The compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant gas, which raises its temperature.
3. CONDENSATION:
The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant gas moves into the condenser coils (usually on the back
or bottom of the refrigerator). As the refrigerant flows through the condenser coils, it releases the absorbed
heat to the surrounding air, and the refrigerant condenses back into a liquid.
4. EXPANSION (PRESSURE DROP):
The liquid refrigerant then passes through an expansion valve or a capillary tube, which causes it to
expand and drop in pressure.As a result, the refrigerant cools down and returns to the evaporator, where the
cycle repeats.

EFFICIENCY OF A REFRIGERATOR
The efficiency can be evaluated in various ways, such as through the coefficient of
performance (COP).
It is defined as the ratio of the heat removed from the refrigerator's interior to the electrical
work input required to drive the refrigeration cycle.

Since, W = Qh - Qc

Interms of temperature

Where, Tc= Cryogenic temperature

Th= temperature at which heat is rejected.
A good refrigerator should have a high COP,typically 5 or 6.

24
Prof. Umair khan

CHAPTER 18
MAGNETIC FIELD

MAGNETISM:

The branch of physics which deals with moving charge is called magnetism.

MAGNETIC FIELD:

The field associated with moving charge is called magnetic field .

Or
Field around a Magnet is called magnetic field .

APPLICATIONS

Electric motors
Transformers
MRI machines
Magnetic levitation trains
Magnetic compasses
Magnetic data storage

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE OF INDUCTION:

The strength of magnetic field represented by magnrtic field of induction , denoted by ‘B’.

FORCE ON A CHARGE PARTICLE MOVING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD.

Consider a charge particle “q” moving in a uniform magntic field of induction “B”
with Velocity “v” making an angle “Ɵ” with the magnetic field as shown in figure.

It was experimentally found that force “F” experience by a charge “q” depends
upon following factors

Force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

25
Prof. Umair khan
F α q -------(i)

Force is directly proportional to the Velocity of the charge.

F α v -------(ii)

Force increase with the strength of magnetic field i.e. force varies directly to the magnetic field of
induction B

F α B-------(iii)

Force increase with the angle between v and B i.e. force varies directly to the sin of angle between
v and B.

F α sinƟ-------(iv)

Combining equation (i),(ii),(iii),(iv)

F α q v B sinƟ

Or

F = k q v B sinƟ

Here k is constant of proportionally. The units are so adjusted that value of k become 1.

F = q v B sinƟ

Since v and B are vector therefore force F scan be represented as the cross product of v and B.

F = q (v x B) : ( v B sinƟ = V B)

Since F is the cross product of v and B therefore the direction of F will be perpendicular (l) to both
v and B

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FORCE :

If v and B are perpendicular to each other then force will be maximum.
i.e. Ɵ = 90
F = q (v x B)
If v and B are parallel to each other then force will be minimum
i.e. Ɵ = 90
F = q v B sinƟ
F = q v B sin(0)
F=0
FOR ELECTRON:
If an electron moving with velocity v enter in magnetic field of induction B making in angle Ɵ
then force experienced by the electron.

26
Prof. Umair khan
UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD OF INDUCTION:
The unit of magnetic field of induction are tesla, weber / m2

DEFINITION OF B :
The magnetic field of induction is said to be 1 weber / m2 when a charge of 1c
moving with a velocity of 1 m/s enters perpendicularly in uniform magnetic field and expression a
force of 1N.

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:

Consider a conductor of length I and area of cross section A placed a uniform magnetic
field of induction B making an angle α with magnetic field as shown in figure.

We know that a charge particle experience a force when moves in a magnetic field.
When current is passed through the conductor , it will also experience the force due to the
movement of electron from one end to another.
The volume of conductor is given by:
V=AL

If n are the number of charge per unit volume and e is the charge on electron then total charge
on electron then total charge flowing through the conductor will be given by.
q=nALe

we know that the force experienced by a charge particle moving in magnetic field is given by
F = q (V x B)
Here
F = n A I e (V x B)

If a^ is the unit vector along the direction of velocity then

{ v = v a^}

Therefore
F= n A e v (La x B)
(1a^=1)
F= n A e v (L x B)

Lets t is the time in which electron moves from one end of conductor to other .
Since
S=vt
Here
1 =V I

27
Prof. Umair khan
1/t= v

Put value in above equation

But q = n A I e

Also I= q/ t
F = I ( I x B)

F = ILB sinƟ

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM FORCE :

If L and B are perpendicular to each other then force will be maximum.
i.e. Ɵ = 90
F = ILB sinƟ

=ILB sin90

F = ILB (1)

F = ILB

If L and B are parallel to each other then force will be minimum

i.e. Ɵ = 0
F = q v B sinƟ
F = q v B sin(0)
F=0

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is commonly used in electric motors to determine the direction of the force that
causes the rotation of the motor's rotor.

TORQUE ON A RECTANGULAR COIL CARRY CURRENT IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:

Whenever a current carrying in placed in a magnetic field it experience a
magnetic torque.
Consider a rectangular coil ABCD A placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction B carrying a
current I such that the plane of the coil is paraelle to the field.
The Length of side AB and CD is “b” and the length of side BC and AD is “I” . Since the side AD
and CD are parallel to the magnetic field therefore no force will act on the side.

28
Prof. Umair khan

Ꚍ = BINA cos α

CHARGE TO MASS RATIO OF ELECTRON:

The charge to mass ratio of a particle is a characteristic of a charge particle.The

charge to mass ratio of a particle (electron) was determined by sir J.J. Thomson.

THEORY:

When a beam of charge particle is subjected in a uniform magnetic field, it

experiences a magnetic force under the influence of which its moves in a circular path

STRUCTURE OF APPARATUS :

The apparatus used to determine the charge to mass ratio of a electron

(charge particle) consists of a cathode ray tube in which two electrodes are ceased which are
connected to a high potential difference. The tube contains two slits S1 and S 2 which pencils the
beam of electron emerging from the cathod . a uniform magnetic field is applied in the glass tube
with the help of a house shoe magnet (unshaped). The arrangement are made the apply electric
field to magntic field the other end of the tube contains a photo graphic plates to locate the
position oa a charge particle.

The systematic arrangement of a apparatus is shown in the figure given below

29
Prof. Umair khan

WORKING:

When potential difference is applied a beam of electron emerge from the cathod,
passes through the slit S1 and S2 and enters in a magnetic field in the form of pencil beam. It
experience a magnetic force due to which it deviate and strikes the photographic plates.

DERIVATION OF (e/m)

When eletron beam enter the magnetic field it experience a magnetic force
as Fm = evB

This magnetic force produce a centripetal force in the electron

Fc = mv2/r

Here v is velocity of electron

B is magnetic field of induction
R is the radius of circular path

Comparing two forces

Fm = F c
e v B = mv2/r
e B = m v/r
e/m = v/Br
in the above equation r and B are know and if V is calculated then e/m also be calculated .

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS

If r is the raidus of curvature of circular path , ‘a’ is the distance b/w o and o’ and ‘b’ is
the distance b/w electron gun and screen then by using the property of chord:

AD x OD = BD x DO

(2r-a) (a) = b . b

2ra-a2 = b2

Since a is very small so neglecting a2

2ra = b2

r=b2/2a

VALUE OF e/m

The e/m of electron is found to be 1.7588 x 10 11 c/kg

30
Prof. Umair khan
MAGNETIC FLUX :

It is the number of magnetic lines of forces passing through a vector area

OR It is the dot product of magnetic field of induction “B” and vector are A
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION

Φ=B.A

Φ=B A cos Ɵ

MAXIMUM FLUX:

If the surface is placed perpendicular to the field then maximum magnetic lines of
force will pass through the surface . Consequently maximum magnetic flux will pass through the
surface.

Φ=B A cos 0

Φ=B A cos (1)

Φ=B A

MINIMUM FLUX:

If the surface is placed parallel to the magnetic field then no magnetic lines of force will pass
through the surface. Consequently no magnetic flux will pass through the surface.

31
Prof. Umair khan

Φ=B A cos 90
Φ=B A (0)
Φ=0
Its unit is Weber.

FLUX DENSITY:
Flux per unit area is called flux density.
Flux density = magnetic flux /Area
F.D = B A / A
F.D = B
BIOT SAVART LAW:
Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I. Then magnetic field is in
thr form of circle.
Biot Savart found that the magnetic of field B is directly proportional to twice
of current I and inversely proportional to the distance r.
B α 2I
And
B α 1/B α 2I/r
B = µ0/4π. 2I/r
B = µ0. I/2πr

Here

µ0 is called permeability of free space.

µ0 / 4π is proportionally constant. It value is 10 -7 .

APMERE’S LAW:

Ampere’s Law given the relation between the sun of the product of tagent
component of the magnetic field of induction and length of the element taken is closed curved of
the current passing through the close path.

DEFINITION:

The sum of the product of tangential component of magnetic field of induction

and the length of an element taken in the closed curve is µ0 times total current passing through
the area bounded by the curve.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION:

∑ µ0 I

32
Prof. Umair khan

PROOF:

When a current “I” passes through a conductor a magnetic field in produced around it
in the form of concentric circle with center at the conductor. The direction of magnetic field is
tangent to the circle and its magnitude is same at all point in circle.

Boit and savat experimentally found the magnetic field”B” around the
conductor carry current is directly proportional to the twice of current and inversely propoetional
to the radius of circle representing the magnetic field .
B α 2I
And
B α 1/r
B α 2I/r
B = µ0/4π. 2I/r
B = µ0. I/2πr
Consider a current carrying conductor which produces a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of
force are circular having center at the center ue divide the circle into number of elements each of
length AL and find their product with the tangential component of the magnetic field.
Bx = BCOSƟ
Multiplying length element AL with tangential component of B, we have,
B. Al = B CosƟ. l
But, Ɵ is negligible i.e. Ɵ =0
B. Al = BCos(Ɵ). I
B. Al = B (1) . l
B. Al = B. I
For the complete curve , the sum of their products will be.

∑ =∑

∑ = ∑

But , B = µ0/4π. 2I/r

and

∑ = 2πr

∑ = µ0/4π. 2I/r x 2πr

∑ = µ0 x I

APPLICATION OF AMPERE LAW:

FIELD DUE TO SOLENOID:

A solenoid is made of insulated copper wile tightly wounded on a

cyclinderical support.Its has large number of turns and current is a passed through this coil. A
magnetic field is set up around the solenoid.

The field due to solenoid is such that, it is strong and uniform inside solenoid but weak
and negligible outside solenoid.

33
Prof. Umair khan

CURRENT ENCLOSED IN THE SOLENOID

Consider a solenoid in which

Length of solenoid = L
No of turns per unit length = n
Current in one turn = I
Total current enclosed in solenoid = n I L
DETERMINATION OF B:
To calculate B consider a rectangular path a, b, c, and d.
The path consists of for length elements l1 , l2 , l3 and l4. Lets us calculate the product (B. L) for
each element

FOR ELEMENT I1:

(B I)1 = BI1 cos Ɵ
Since B is along the axis of l1. i.e Ɵ=0
(B I)1 = BI1 cos Ɵ
(B I)1 = BI1 cos (1)
(B I)1 = BI1

FOR ELEMENT I2:

(B I)2 = BI2 cos Ɵ
Since l2 is perpendicular to B i.e. Ɵ=90
(B I)2 = BI2 cos (90)
= BI2 (0) = 0

FOR ELEMENT I3:

(B I)3= BI3 cos Ɵ
Since B is negligible i.e. B=0 outside the coil
(B I)3= 0.I3 cos Ɵ
(B I)3= 0

FOR ELEMENT I4:

(B I)4= BI4 cos Ɵ
Since l4 is perpendicular to B i.e. Ɵ=90
(B I)4 = BI4 cos (90)
= BI4 (0) = 0.
Now ,applying ampere’s circuit law:

∑ = µo x (current enclosed )
B.I1 +0+0+0 = µo (current enclosed)
B.I1 = µo
B.I = µo

34
Prof. Umair khan
But Total current in solenoid is n l I
B.I = µo (n l I)
B = µo n I

This is the expression for flux density of solenoid. Its shows

B is uniform with in a long solenoid
The direction of B is along the axis of solenoid

FIELD DUE TO TOROID

DEFINITION:
A Toroid is like a solenoid in which the support is circular i.e. the wires are
wounded on circular support .
The field due to Toroid is weak and negligible outside Toroid but
uniform . Circular and Strong inside Toroid

Consider a Toroid in which

Radius of Toroid = r
Total Number of turns = N
Current through each turn = I
Total current in Toroid = NI
Since magnetic lines of forces are circular we divided them into small patches each of length
L and determine its product with the magnetic field of induction.
Now for each element
(B. I) = B. I cos Ɵ
But as B is circular and its direction is parallel to I . i.e. Ɵ = 0
(B. I) = B. I cos Ɵ
(B. I) = B. I cos (1)
(B. I) = B. I
Now applying Amphere’s law
∑ = µo Current enclosed
As B is constant for all elements L
B∑ = µo Current enclosed

But ∑ = total length of circular loop =2πr

B.2 πr = µo Current enclosed
B.2 πr = µo . N I
B = µo NI / 2πr

The above equation shows that field inside a toroid increase with increase in number of terms and
the current wheres it decrease with the increase in the radius of toroid
35
Prof. Umair khan

GALVANOMETER:

Galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument which is used for the detection of electric

currents (µA, mA) through electric circuits.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
When a current flows in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic torque. If it is free to rotate
under a controlling torque, it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through
it.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF GALVANOMETER:

There are five essential parts of a Galvanometer.

1. A U-shaped permanent magnet with concave poles.
2. Flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated wire ‘C’.
3. A soft iron cylinder 'B'. 4. Pointer 5. A scale

CONSTRUCTION:

The flat rectangular coil of thin enameled insulated wire of suitable number of turns wound on a
light nonmetallic or aluminum frame is suspended between the cylindrically concave poles of magnet by a
thin phosphor bronze strip. One end of the wire of the coil is soldered to strip. The other end of the strip
fixed to the frame of the galvanometer and connected to an external terminal. It serves as one least
current lead through which the current enters or leaves the coil. The other end of the wire of the coil is
soldered to a loose and soft spiral of wire connected to another external terminal. The soft spiral of a wire
serves as the other current lead. A soft-iron cylinder, coaxial with the pole pieces, is placed within the
frame of the coil and is fixed to the body of the galvanometer.

WORKING:

When a current passes through the galvanometer coil, it experiences a magnetic deflecting
torque, which tends to rotate it from its rest position. As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the
suspension strip. The twist in the strip produces an electric restoring torque. The coil rotates until
the elastic restoring torque due to the strip does not equal and cancels the deflecting magnetic
torque, then it attains equilibrium and stops rotating any furthers.

Deflecting torque = BINA Cosα

Where
B = Strength of the magnetic field.
I = Current in the coil.
A = Area of the coil.
N = Number of turns in the coil.
α = The angle of deflection of the coil.
36
Prof. Umair khan
The restoring elastic torque is proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension strip

Restoring torque = C ɵ
Where
ɵ = Angle of twist.
C = torque per unit twist.

Under equilibrium condition :

Td = TR

BINA Cos α = C ɵ
I = C ɵ /BNA Cosα

If the magnetic field were uniform (as with flat pole pieces α would continuously increase with
ɵ and Cosα factor would not be constant. Then the current "I" would not be proportional to " ɵ "
and the scale of the galvanometer not linear. However, due to the radial magnetic field the
plane of the coil is always parallel to the field irrespective of the position of the coil rotates. So
"α" the angle between the plane of the coil and direction of the field is always zero. Hence
Cos α = I. The equation (i) therefore, reduces to:
I = C ɵ /BAN
Since C, B, A and N are constant for a galvanometer, therefore,
Iαɵ
Thus current through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension (or
deflection).

SENSITIVTY OF GALVANOMETER:

Sensitivity of galvanometer is defined as the current in micro ampere required to consume one
millimeter deflection on a scale placed 1m away from the mirror.

TO INCREASE SENSITIVITY OF GALVANOMETER:

Now we know that :

I = C ɵ /BNA
Sensitivity will be large if for small value of current (I) in large. To increase " ", we should
decrease C/BNA. So,
(i) "C" should be small: For this long wire of small area of cross section should be used. But "C"
constant is too small.
(ii) Area of coil should is large: But this makes size of galvanometer large.
(iii) "N" Number of turns of coil should be increased: But this increases the weight of coil.
(iv) "B" should be large: This is achieved by:
(a) Using powerful magnet.
(b) Introducing iron core in coil.

DAMPING

Reduction of amplitude of vibration of the coil before coming to rest is called damping.

37
Prof. Umair khan
AMMETER:

Ammeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure electric current through
the circuit. It is the modified form of galvanometer.

CONNECTION OF AMMETER IN CIRCUIT:

An ammeter is always connected in series to a circuit.

SYMBOL:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER:

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument therefore it can’t measure heavy currents. In
order to convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter, a very low resistance known as "shunt"
resistance is connected in parallel to Galvanometer. Value of shunt is so adjusted that most of the
current passes through the shunt. In this way a Galvanometer is converted into Ammeter and can
measure heavy currents without fully deflected.

VALUE OF SHUNT RESISTANCE:

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and it gives full-scale deflection when current Ig is passed
through it. Then,
Vg = Ig Rg -------(i)
Let a shunt of resistance (Rs) is connected in parallel to galvanometer. If total current through
the circuit is I.

Then current through shunt:

Is = (I-Ig)
potential difference across the shunt:
Vs= IsRs
or
Vs = (I – Ig)Rs -------(ii)
Since Vs =Vg
(I - Ig)Rs = IgRg

VOLTMETER:

Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure potential difference

between two points in a circuit.

CONNECTION OF VOLTMETERIN CIRCUIT:

Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit.

38
Prof. Umair khan
SYMBOL:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER:

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, therefore it cannot measure high potential
difference. In order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as
"series resistance" is connected in series with the galvanometer.

VALUE OF SERIES RESISTANCE:

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in series to it. Then
combined resistance = (Rg + Rx).

If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full-scale

deflection, when current "Ig" passes through it. Then,
V = Ig (Rg + Rx)
V = IgRg + IgRx
V – IgRg = IgRx
Rx = (V – IgRg)/Ig

CHAPTER 19
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

Phenomenon is which a current is produced in a due to charge in the

magnetic flux of the coil is called electromagnetic induction.
The current thus produced is called induced current and the E.M.F is called
induced E.M.F.

METHODS OF CHANGING FLUX:

 Changing the relative position of coil with respect to magnetic.
 Changing the current in the neighboting coil.
 By changing the current in the coil itself
 By changing area of a coil placed in the magnetic field etc

39
Prof. Umair khan

LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

There are two laws of electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
 Lenz laws of electromagnetic induction

FARADAY LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETICE:

Faraday perform various experiments about electromagnetic induction and put forward
following results laws
 Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux coil and induced current is produced in
the coil and induction current is last as long as the magnetic flux keeps on changing
 The magnetic of the induced E.M.F depends upon the no of terms of the coil and the rate
of change of magnetic flux.

MATHEMATICALLY
E = -d/dt (N Φ)
or
E = - (N Φ)/ t
E= -(N Φ)/ t
Here N Φ is called flux linkage and is the product of no. of turns in the coil and magnetic flux

LENZ LAW
Lenz studied the direction of the induced current and put forward a law known as
lenz law.

STATEMENT :
The direction of induced current in such that it always opposes the cause which
is produce it.

EXPLANATION:
Consider ea bar magnet and a coil of wire . When the N-pole of magnet is
approaching the face of the coil. It become a north face by the induction of current in
anticlockwise direction to oppose forward motion of the magnet.

When the N-pole of the magnet is reading the face of the coil become a south pole due to a
clockwise induced current to oppose the backward motion.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF EDDY CURRENTS

The magnetic effect of eddy currents arises when a conductor is exposed to a changing
magnetic field. Eddy currents are loops of electric current that are induced within the conductor
due to Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. These circulating currents create their own

40
Prof. Umair khan
magnetic fields, which oppose the change in the magnetic field that caused them, as per Lenz’s
Law.
When a conductor moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field around a
conductor changes, an electric current is induced in the conductor. However, instead of following
a specific path like a wire circuit, the current forms swirling loops (like eddies in water), hence the
name "eddy currents."

OPPOSITION TO MOTION (MAGNETIC DAMPING):

The magnetic fields produced by eddy currents oppose the relative motion between the
conductor and the magnetic field. This results in a damping effect or resistive force.

HEATING EFFECT (JOULE HEATING):

Eddy currents cause energy dissipation in the form of heat due to the resistance of the material
in which they flow. This heating effect is used in applications like induction heating (e.g., cooking
stoves and industrial metal heating processes).

MAGNETIC LEVITATION:
In systems like maglev trains, the interaction between induced eddy currents and magnetic
fields is used to levitate and propel objects without physical contact. The currents create magnetic
fields that push back on the magnets, lifting the object.

SCREENING EFFECTS:
Eddy currents can create magnetic fields that shield or oppose the effects of changing
magnetic fields in certain materials, a phenomenon used in devices like transformers and metal
detectors to limit unwanted inductive effects.

SELF INDUCTION
When the current flowing through a coil is changed , it cause the change in
the magnetic flux linked with the coil and an e.m.f is induced in the coil. This phenomenon is
called self induction and the e.m.f induced is called self induced e.m.f and back e.m.f.

EXPLANATION
Consider a coil connected to a battery through a rheostat as shown in figure . the current
through the coil produce a magnetic flux which link with the coil itself . if we vary the resistance in
the circuit , current through the coil changes and the magnetic flux through the coil also change.
This change in flux indicates an e.m.f in the coil itself. Such an e.m.f. is called self-induced e.m.f
and the phenomenon is called self induction.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTAION:

41
Prof. Umair khan
The self induced e.m.f. in a coil a directly proportional to the rate of change of
electric current in the coil.
Eα- I/
E = -L I / ------ 1
Where L is called self inductance of a coil and can be defined as
The ratio of the self induced e.m.f. to the rate of change of current in the coil is called self
inductance.
The unit of self inductance is called Henry.
The self inductance of a coil is one Henry if a current change of one ampere per
second through it produces an e.m.f. of one volt in it.

1 Henry = 1 volt / 1 apm/sec

According to faraday Laws of Electromagnetic
E=-(N Φ)/ t ------ 2
Comparing 1 and 2

-(N Φ)/ t = L I/
Or
(N Φ) = L I

ENERGY STORED IN INDUCTOR

The energy stored in an inductor is due to the magnetic field generated around it when current
flows through the coil. Just as a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, an inductor stores
energy in the form of a magnetic field.

Formula : E = LI2

PROOF
Let an inductor connected to a DC power source thorugh a switch.
By changing the current in inductor voltage is induced which is given by
=ℇ=L I/
Battery must perform work on the charges to buildup the current
W=

W= E= q / L I
Since q/ = =
2
So, E = ½ LI

MUTUAL INDUCTION:
The phenomenon in which the change in one coil causes an induced e.m.f. in
another coil placed near to it due to cause an induced e.m.f. in another coil placed near to it due
to electromagnetic induction is called mutual induction.
The coil through which current is passed is called primary coil and the coil in which
e.m.f. is induced is called secondary coil

EXPLANATION
Consider two coil placed near each other as shown in a figure .when current is passed
through the primary coil. Magnetic flux is produced . This magnetic flux is also linked with

42
Prof. Umair khan
secondary coil. If the current is changed by varying the resistance in the primary circuit . the
magnetic flux also change. As this changing flux is linked with the secondary coil.it induces an
e.m.f in it . This phenomenon of inducing e.m.f. in a coil by changing current in another coil is
known as mutual inductance.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION:

The mutual induced e.m.f. in a coil a directly proportional to the rate of change of
electric current in the primary coil.

E α - I p/
E = -M I p/ -----1
Where is called mutual inductance of a coil and can be defined as
The ration of the mutual induced e.m.f. to the rate of change of current in the primary
coil is called mutual inductance

The unit of mutual inductance is called Henry

The mutual inductance of a coil is one Henry if a current change of a one ampere
per second through primary coil produces an e.m.f of one vlot in it.
1 Henry = 1 volt /1 ampere/sec

According to faraday law of Electromagnetic

E= -(Ns Φs ) / ------2
Comparing 1 and 2
-(Ns Φs ) / = -M I p/
Or
Ns Φs = M I p

43
Prof. Umair khan

MOTIONAL E.m.f:
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field a potential difference is set
up across its ends.this potential difference is called motional e.f.m.

DERIVATION:
Consider a conductor of length l moving across the magnetic field of
induction B with velocity v.

Each free Electron of the conductor experiences a force F as given by.

F=-e(vx B)
These electrons gradually accumulate at the end 'a' of
conductor leaving the other end b. In this way point 'a' acquires a
negative charge whereas point b acquires a positive charge. This
accumulation of elections continues till the force of electric field
balances the forces due to the motion of wire. Thus a potential
difference is setup between the ends 'a' and 'b' the conductor and is
called Motional EMF.
We know that.
Potential Difference=Work Done/Charge
V=F.l/q{q=e}
Putting value of F
V＝·e(vxB).1/e
v＝·(vxB).1

This potential Difference is called Motional EMF

Motional EMF =(v x B) .I
Motional EMF= v B I Sin θ

Where θ is the angle between conductor and magnetic field

If conductor is moving perpendicular to the magnetic field then
Motional EMF=vBI

A.C GENERATOR:
Advice which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy iscalled A.C generator.

PRINCIPLE:
When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field a current is induced in the coil due to continuous
change in its magnetic flux.
44
Prof. Umair khan

CONSTRUCTION:
The essential parts of an AC generator are as follows.

FIELD MAGNET:
It is a strong house shoe magnet which produces a strong and uniform magnetic field B.

ARMATURE:
It is a soft iron cylinder mounted on an axil which rotates on ball
bearings, thus rotates the cylinder between the poles of magnet. A coil
of Insulated copper wire of large no. of terms is wounded on the
cylinder in the grove cut length wise.

SLIP RINGS:
The ends of the coil are point to two separate copper rings fixed on
axle. These rings rotates along with coil

COLLECTING BRUSHES:
Two carbon rushes remains pressed with the slip rings which form
terminals of the extemal circuit.
An A.C generator is shown in the given below.

WORKING
In order to determine the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f. let
us consider the different positions of the coil which has 'N' tums of wire. In one revolution
following positions can be considered
When initially coil is vertical, the length arms AC and BD are moving parallel to the lines of
force maximum number of lines link the coil, but rate of change of flux is zero, hence e.m.f is zero.
As the coil moves from this position, sides AC and BD begin to cut the lines of force and
induced e.m.f is setup till is maximum, when the coil is horizontal. It has rotated 90°, Iast quarter
is completed
Further rotation decreases the value of e.mf, until at the end of 2 nd quarter, when coil
is vertical, it has rotated 180°, the e.m.f is again zero.
As the coil rotates further from position 3 to position 4, an e.m.f is again induced, but in
reverse direction, because AC and BD are cutting the magnetic lines in opposite direction. The
reverse e.m.f reaches to negative peak value at the end of 3rd quarter. The coil is horizontal and
angle of rotation is 270°.
On further rotation, the e.m.f again decreases and becomes zero when the coil returns
back to its original position after rotating 360°.
This shows that the coil of generator produces induced e.m.f which reverse its direction 2 f
times in one cycle. Where f=frequency of rotation of coil.

45
Prof. Umair khan

EXPRESSION FOR E.M.F IN A.C.GENERATOR

Consider a coil ABCDA of N turns rotating in a uniformmagnetic field B with a constant
angular speed o. Let the iength of the coil is I and its breadth is b.
To calculate e.m.f in sides AC and BD we proceed as follows:

Motional e.m.f = Bvl SineƟ

E.m.f inside AC= Bvl SineƟ = E1

E.m.f inside BD = Bvl Sin Ɵ= E2

E.m.f induced in the coil = E1 + E2

E.m.f induced in the coil = Bvl Sine Ɵ + Bvl Sin Ɵ

E= 2 Bvl Sin Ɵ

If coil has N turns, e.m.f will increase N times

E=2 BvlN Sine Ɵ ------(1)

If angular velocity of coil is o and it takes time t to cover Ɵ angle then Ɵ=Ɯt also

V=r ω and r = b/2

v= (b/2) ω

Putting the value of q and V in eq. (1)

E= 2B (b/2) ω lN Sin(ω t)

E= ω B(b*l) Sin(ω t)

E= NB ω b.l) Sin ω t

But b.l =A

E= NB ω Asin ω t -----(2)

This is the expression for the induced e.m.f in the coil of an

A.C generator at any instant.

If f= no. of rotation per sec. Then we have ω =2πt

46
Prof. Umair khan
E= NB ω A Sin(2πft) ---- (3)

for maximum e.m.f Ɵ = 90 or 270° or 2πft = π2 or 3π/2

and Sin90 = sin π/2 =+1

Sin270°= sin3π/2=-1

E0= NB ω A(1)

E0=++NB ω A

+ shows direction of induced current

Relation b/w E and E

E= NB ω A Sin(2πft)

E= E0 Sin(2πft)

TRANSFORMER

DEFINITION:

It is a device which is used to convert high alternating potential difference into low alternating
voltage and vice versa.

PRINCIPLE:

Transformer works on the principle, of mutual induction of two coils.

When current in the primary coil in changed the flux linked to the secondary coil also
changes therefore an e.m.f is induced in the secondary coil.

CONSTRUCTION:

A transformer consists of a rectangular core of soft iron, two separated coils of insulated wires, a
primary coil and a secondary coil are wounded on the core. Thee coils are well insulated from one
another and from the core. The coil on the input side is called primary coil and the coil on the
output side is called secondary coil.

47
Prof. Umair khan
WORKING:
The e.m.f induced across each, turn in the secondary coil is equal to the e.m.f across each
turn of the primary coil because the same flux is linked through primary and secondary coil
therefore the included.
Suppose an alternating voltage source Ep is connected to primary coil. Current in
primary will produce magnetic flux which is linked to secondary. When current in primary
changes, flux in secondary also changes which results an EMF Es in secondary.
According to Faradays law EMF induced in a coil depends upon the rate of change of magnetic flux
in the coil. If resistance of the coil is small then the induced EMF will be equal to voltage applied.

According to Faradays law

Ep = Np Φ / ----- (1)

Where Np = Number of turns in primary coil.

Similarly, for secondary coil
Es = Ns Φ / - - - - - (2)
Where Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
Ep /Es = Np /Ns
This expression shows that the magnitude of EMF depends upon the number of turns in the coil.
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
It converts low Voltage into high yoltage. In this transformer number of turrns in secondary is
greater than no. of turns in primary coil i.e. Ns is greater that Np and Es > Ep.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

This transformer converts high potential difference into low potential difference. In this.
transformer the number of turns in secondary coil is less than number of turns in primary coil
i.e. Ns < Np and Es < Ep.

EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
The Power dissipated in the circuit is given by P=VI
Where V is the potential difference
Therefore power input in primary coil is power iput = Vp Ip
Power output in secondary coil is power output = Vs ls
ῃ = Vs ls/ Vp Ipx 100

APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER

Step-Up/Step-Down Transformers: Power transmission and distribution.

Isolation Transformers: Safety and isolation of circuits.
Autotransformers: Voltage regulation and impedance matching.
Current and Potential Transformers: Power system measurement and protection.
Pulse and RF Transformers: Communication and signal transmission.
Rectifier Transformers: AC to DC conversion in power supplies.

AC MOTOR:
An AC motor is a device design to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by using
alternating current.

CONSTRUCTION
An AC (Alternating Current) motor consists of two primary parts: the stator and the rotor.

48
Prof. Umair khan
STATOR:
The stator is the stationary part of the motor.It consists of primary windings.Its main role is to
produce a rotating magnetic field when AC current is applied.

Rotor:
The rotor is the rotating part inside the stator.
There are two main types of rotors used in AC motors Squirrel Cage Rotor or wound

Rotor. When stator produces a rotating magnetic field the rotro experiences a torque due to
interaction with field.

BEARINGS AND SHAFT:

The rotor is supported by bearings to reduce friction, and a shaft is used to transmit mechanical
power to the external load.

WORKING :
AC motors work on the principle of electromagnetic induction and the rotating magnetic field.
Here's how it operates:

Back EMF (also called counter EMF) is the voltage or electromotive force that is induced in the
armature (rotor) of an electric motor as it rotates within a magnetic field. The term "back" refers to
the fact that this EMF opposes the applied voltage that is driving the motor, as per Lenz's Law.

INDUCTION IN ROTOR:
The rotating magnetic field induces a current in the rotor (Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic
Induction).

TORQUE PRODUCTION:
Due to the interaction of the rotor’s magnetic field and the stator’s rotating magnetic field, a
torque is generated, causing the rotor to rotate.

CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL TO MECHANICAL ENERGY:

As the rotor rotates, it turns the shaft connected to it, converting electrical energy supplied to
the stator into mechanical energy to drive a load, such as a fan, pump, or conveyor.

49
Prof. Umair khan
CHAPTER 20
ALTERNATING CURRENT
INTRODUCTION:
Alternating current is the back bone of electrical engineering and physics. In addition, we will
explore the dynamic nature of AC current, which is quite different when comparing with its
counterpart, Direct Current (DC).

CYCLE:
One complete set of both positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as a
cycle.

TIME PERIOD (T):

The time period of an alternating current (AC) or voltage wave I the duration takes to complete
one full cycle.

FREQUENCY (F):
It refers to the number of complete cycle of the current waveform that occur in one second.

INSTANTANEOUS PEAK VALUE:

The instantaneous peak value refers the maximum amplitude of the alternating current or
voltage at any specific point in time.
For a sine wave, this is the highest positive or negative value reached during a cycle. It is usually
denoted as Ipeak for current of Vpeak for voltage.

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE:

The average value of voltage or current is not used in electric power calculations. The reason
being that the AC cycle consists of positive and negative half cycles so the average value is zero.

However, there exists a mathematical relation between the peak value Vo of alternating voltage
and direct current (d.c) voltage that yields an equivalent average electrical power. This constant
d.c voltage is referred to as the root-mean-square (r.m.s)

Value of the alternating voltage Vrms- The d.c voltage is approximately 70% of Vpeak as shown in
figure.

For a sinusoidal wave, the rms value is approximately 0.707 time the peak value.
Mathematically,
Vrms = 0.707 x Vpeak for voltage
and Irms = 0.707 x Ipeak for current

50
Prof. Umair khan

ALTERNATING CURRENT OR VOLTAGE EQUATION:

Alternating Current (AC) or Voltage refers the type of electrical flow or potential difference that
periodically changes direction and magnitude over time.
The fundamental equation describing AC voltage or current in sinusoidal waveform is:

Where,
V, I represent the instantaneous value of the voltage and alternating current respectively.
Vo.Io is the amplitude of the waveform, which represents the maximum value of alternating
voltage and alternating current respectively.
is the angular frequency, given by w = 2 f

PHASE OF AC:
The phase difference between two waves carries more important than their magnitudes. The
phase describes the relative positions of these waveforms.

Hence in alternating current (A.C.) circuits, the concept of phase refers to the relationship
between different waveforms as time passes.

Now we discuss different states of phase within AC circuit.

IN-PHASE:
When two waveforms have the same frequency and reach their peak values or zero values \ the
same time, they are said to be in phase.

PHASE LAG:
If one waveform reaches its peak or zero value after the other, there is a phase difference, and the
second waveform is said to lag the first.

PHASE LEAD:
Conversely, if one waveform reaches its peak or zero value before the other, the second
waveform is said to lead the first.
The representation of phase lead and lag between two alternating quantities is effectively
demonstrated by showing the two AC quantities as vectors also know as “Phasor”.

AC THROUGH A RESISTOR:
Consider a circuit comprising a pure resistor (R) connected to an alternating voltage source, as
depicted.
The alternating voltage induces oscillatory motion of free electrons within the resistor,
constituting the alternating current. At any given time ‘t’, the potential difference across the
resistor’s terminals is expressed.

Where Vo signifies the peak value of the alternating voltage. The circuit’s current (I) is governed
by Ohm’s law:

Or
51
Prof. Umair khan

The current achieves its maximum value when

PHASOR DIAGRAM OF RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:

The current IR flowing through a resistor R is in phase with the voltage VR across the resistor. This
alignment can be visually represented on a phasor diagram by depicting a vector (I R) that coincides
with the voltage (VR)

The power loss in a resistor in an AC circuit is a result of the conversion of electrical energy into
heat due to the resistance of the resistor. The instantaneous power in the resistance is can be
expressed using the formula.

A.C THROUGH CAPACITORS:

Now consider a capacitor connected to the AC
source as shown in figure. During the positive half
cycle of alternating voltage, the electrons flow from
upper capacitor plate to the source leaving it as
positively charged +Q and source supplies equal
number of electrons to the lower plate making it as
negatively charged -Q as shown in figure 20.9.
During the negative half cycle of alternating
voltage, the direction of motion electrons is also reverted resulting in the capacitor plates
becoming charged in the opposite manner and current flows in opposite direction, hence
capacitor charges and discharges. In this way the alternating current flows through the capacitor.
If alternating source voltage is applied to the capacitor the charge on any plate of
capacitor is given by:
----- 1
from above equation it is clear that q and V are in phase. Due to the applied current flows through
the capacitor as given by
----- 2
Substitute equation (1) in (2), we get

OR ----- 3
Multiply and divide right side of equation (3) by

52
Prof. Umair khan
( ) ----- 4
Equation (4) shows that in pure capacitive circuit the current exhibits sinusoidal variation and it
leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

REACTANCE OF CAPACITOR:
In a purely capacitive circuit, capacitive reactance represents the opposition to alternating
current flow. Similar to resistance, reactance is measured in Ohms, but it is denoted by the symbol
Xc to differentiate it from purely resistive values.

Since,

Similar to ohms law the term in

denominator of equation represents the
opposition to flow of current; in this case it is
called reactance of capacitor.

Hence,

Since

The capacitive reactance shows an inverse relationship with the frequency of the applied
alternating voltage.

Consequently, for lower frequencies, the reactance of capacitor increases, while at high
frequencies, the reactance decreases.

A.C THROUGH INDUCTOR:

An inductor is a passive electrical component which can be formed by wounding a conducting
wire over an insulating object, such as pencil. The primary purpose of an inductor is to oppose
changes in current. It resists the flow of alternating current (AC) and stores energy in its magnetic

53
Prof. Umair khan
field during the on time of the AC cycle and releases it during the off-time. Solenoid is an example
of inductor.
Consider an inductor in form of solenoid connected with A.C source.
When the switch is closed current start to flow through the inductor, notice that the magnitude
and direction of current is changing hence associated magnetic field also varies due to which an
induced emf is set up in the inductor so as to oppose the change in accordance with the Lenz law.
The magnitude of induced emf is given by

Therefore, to sustain the current, the applied voltage must match the back electromotive force
(EMF). Thus, the magnitude of voltage supplied to the coil is expressed as

The alternating voltage produces a sinusoidal current given by

Hence above equation becomes

Or
Where wLIo = Vo

Using that Cos t = Sin ( )

( )

CHOKE COIL:
A choke coil, commonly known as choke, is an inductor used in electronic circuits. It is used to
block high frequencies above a certain frequency, while allowing the direct current to pass
through.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE:
The term inductive reactance refers to the opposition that an
inductor offers to the flow of alternating current. It is denoted by X L. It is
measured in ohms. The inductive reactance can be calculated by
following the method.
The formula for inductive reactance is given by:
XL = wL
Or XL = 2 fL
Where:
XL is the inductive reactance,
F is the frequency of the AC signal,
L is the inductance of the inductor.

RLC CIRCUITS:
An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C),
connected in series or parallel.
RLC circuits are fundamental in electronics for filtering signals, tuning circuits, and resonant
applications due to their ability to manipulated frequencies and impedance.

54
Prof. Umair khan

IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE:
A circuit containing resistor, inductor and capacitor offer opposition to flow of current due to all
these circuit elements known as impedance. It is denoted by Z. the impedance triangle.

√
Where
Z = impedance
R = Resistance in circuit
= sum of capacitive

AC THROUGH RC SERIES CIRCUITS:

Consider a circuit containing resistor and capacitor connected in series with an alternating voltage
source as shown in figure 20. 16. Due to series circuit same current will flow through each circuit
element. While voltage across resistor will be VR and V, across capacitor.

The phasor diagram is drawn taking current as reference direction.

From the phasor diagram, using Pythagoras theorem

√
Substituting voltage across resistor = IR and across capacitor = IXc in above equation
√
√

Comparing equation ( √ ) and ( √ ), we find that quantity V represents

the impedance of Z series circuit.
Phase angle between current and voltage as shown in figure 20.19 is calculated by

OR
( )

AC THROUGH RL SERIES CIRCUITS:

Next in order to calculate the impedance of RL series circuit, consider a circuit containing inductor
and resistor connected in series with an alternating voltage as shown in figure. The voltage across
resistor and inductor in VR and VL respectively.

55
Prof. Umair khan

When an inductor is connected with alternating voltage then due to generation of back EMF
current lag the voltage by 90o it is represented by line perpendicular to the reference phasor i-e
current / as shown in figure. Also as discussed in section 20.31 in resistor the current and voltage
are in phase. In phasor diagram it is VR line.
To calculate the impedance of RL circuit, apply Pythagoras theorem on phasor
√
and √ represents the impedance of the RL circuit.
Phase angle between current and voltage as shown in figure is calculated by Figure 20.20
OR ( )

RLC SERIES AC CIRCUIT:

An RLC series circuit consists of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C) connected in series
to an AC voltage source as shown. In such circuit, the electrical components influence the
behaviour of the current flowing through the circuit.

POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS:

Power dissipation in AC circuit is expressed as follows

Where represents power factor.

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
For a certain frequency the capacitive and inductive reactance becomes equal, X c = XL. This
frequency is called resonant frequency fr and circuit is said to be in resonance state. To calculate
the resonant frequency, use the fact that

PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT:
In some respects, the circuit of figure is similar to the purely inductive parallel circuit.
For instance, applied voltage V is still the quantity which is common to both components and is
therefore plotted in standard position in the phasor diagram. Also the magnitude of the individual
branch currents is determined by the opposition (reactance) of the individual branches. The figure
shows a composite diagram of waveforms and phasors.
Since the phasor diagram shows that the two branch currents are not in phase, it will be necessary
to use phasor addition in order to determine the total current.

56
Prof. Umair khan

PARALLEL RC CIRCUITS:
Parallel RC circuits may be resolved in much the same way as are parallel RL circuits.
The figure illustrates a parallel RC circuit.
The figure shows a composite diagram of waveforms and phasors as per circuit conditions. The
current phasors IR and IC are out of phase; therefore, phasor addition must be used to determine
total current. The solving of an RC circuit follows the method previously applied to LR circuits.

PARALLEL RLC AC CIRCUIT:

A Parallel RLC AC Circuit one where the
resistor, inductor, and capacitor are connected
in parallel to each other and the AC source. In
this configuration, the voltage across each
component is the same, but the currents
through them differ. The parallel arrangement
affects the overall impedance and current
distribution in the circuit, making it distinct
from its series counterpart. In a parallel circuit,
the voltage V (RMS) across each of the three elements remains the same. Hence, for convenience,
the voltage may be taken as a reference phasor.

In the parallel RLC circuit, the supply voltage Vs is common to all three components, while the
supply current is consisting of three parts: the current through the resistor (R), the current
through the inductor (IL), and the current through the capacitor (IC). The current flowing through
each branch, and therefore through each component, will differ from one another and from the
supply current IS.

The total current drawn from the supply is not simple the arithmetic sum of the three individual
branch currents but their vector sum.

Similar to the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method.
However, in this case, the vector diagram will use the voltage as its reference, with the three
current vectors plotted relative to this reference voltage.

57
Prof. Umair khan
The phasor diagram for an AC RLC parallel circuit is created by combining individual phasors for
each component and adding the currents vectorially.

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, we can use it as the
reference vector, with the three current vectors drawn relative to this reference at their
corresponding angles. The resulting vector current Is is obtained by first adding the vectors IL and
IG and then adding this sum to the vector IR. The angle between V and Is.

RESONANCE OF PARALLEL RLC AC CIRCUIT:

A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce a
parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the
parallel combination in phase with the supply voltage. At resonance there will be a large
circulating current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations,
then parallel circuits produce current resonance.

A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and the
electric field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth between
the inductor and the capacitor which results zero current and energy being drawn from the
supply.
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits, we know that the supply voltage is common for
all branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be treated
separately as with series circuits so that the total supply current taken by the parallel circuit is
vector addition of the individual branch currents.

Therefore, IT = vector sum of (IR + IL + IC)

√
At resonance, current IL and IC are equal and cancelling giving a
net reactive current equal to zero. Then at resonance the above
equation becomes.
√

Therefore, the circuit current at this frequency will be at its

minimum value of V/R and the graph of current against frequency
for a parallel resonance circuit is shown in figure.

The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit

shows that the magnitude of the current is function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph
shows us that the response starts at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the
resonance frequency.
When IMIN = IR and the increases again to maximum as f becomes infinite.

The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at resonance
but as they are equal and at opposition (180o out-of-phase) they effectively cancel each other out.

58
Prof. Umair khan
As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also
known as an rejecter circuit because resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its maximum
thereby suppressing or reject the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency. The
effect of resonance in a parallel circuit is also called “current resonance”.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

According to this theorem, maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the
impedance of the source matches with the impedance of the source matches with the impedance
of the load.

Mathematically, suppose R, denotes the resistance of load and R, is source resistance.

METAL DETECTORS:
The oscillator circuit is used in metal detectors. Metal detectors used for security checks operate
on the principle of electromagnetic induction. A simplified explanation of working of metal
detector is described below:

1. GENERATING AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD:

The metal detector contains a coil of wire through which an electric current flow, creating a
magnetic field around the coil. This coil is often housed in a special arrangement, such as a loop or
wand.

2. INTERACTION WITH METALS:

When a conductive metal object is brought into the vicinity of the electromagnetic field, it
disturbs the field. This disturbance induces a secondary magnetic field in the metal object.

3. EDDY CURRENTS:
The changing magnetic field induces circulating electric currents within the metal object,
known as eddy currents. These currents, in turn, generate their own magnetic fields.

4. DETECTION OF CHANGES:
The metal detector has a receiver coil or coils that are in close proximity to the transmitter
coil. The receiver coil(s) detect changes int eh magnetic field caused by the presence of the metal.

5. ALERT MECHANISM:
When the metal detector senses a significant change in the magnetic field indicating the
presence of a metal object, it triggers an alert. This alert can be in the form of an audible sound, a
visual signal, or both, depending on the design of the metal detector.

THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
The electrocardiograph (ECG) is a medical diagnostic tool used to record the electrical activity of
the heart over a period of time.

OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT:
An oscillator circuit is an electronic circuit that generates a continuous periodic signal at a specific
frequency.

59
Prof. Umair khan
RESONANCE IN TUNING CIRCUIT OF RADIO:
In Radio tuning circuits resonance is a important phenomenon that enables the selective
reception fo a desired radio frequency while rejecting others.

IMPORTANCE OF BROADCASTING:
Broadcasting remains a powerful medium with far-reaching impacts on society. It informs
educates, entertains, and connects people, playing a crucial role in cultural preservation,
economic development, and social cohesion. Its ability to reach a wide audience makes it an
indispensable tool for communication in the modern world.

60
Prof. Umair khan
CHAPTER 21
PHYSICS OF SOLID

PHYSICS OF SOLID:
Physics of solids is a branch of physics that deals with the study of physical properties of solid
materials, including their electric, magnetic, thermal, optical and mechanical properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID:
Solids are classified on the basis of their structures. There are mainly three types of solids.
1. Crystalline Solids
2. Amorphous Solids
3. Polymeric Solids
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS:
The solids in which the atoms, ions and molecules are arranged periodically are called crystalline
solids.
Unit Cell: A crystalline solid consists of three-dimensional pattern that repeat itself over and over
again. This smallest three-dimensional basic structure is called unit cell.
Crystal Lattice: The whole structure obtained by the repetition of unit cell is known as crystal
lattice.
AMORPHOUS OR GLASSY SOLIDS:
The solids in which the atoms, ions and molecules are not arranged in a regular manner are called
amorphous solids.
KEY DIFFERENCES:
 Glassy solids are a subset of amorphous solids that undergo a glass transition.
 Amorphous solids may not necessarily have a specific glass transition and include materials
other than glassy substances.
POLYMERIC SOLIDS:
Polymeric solids are formed by polymerization reaction in which relatively simple molecules are
chemically combined into massive long chain molecules. Polymers may be said to be more or less
solid materials with a structure that is intermediate between order and disorder.

DEFORMATION:
Any change in shape, volume and length of an object when it is subjected to some external force
is called deformation.
Stress:
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in the shape, volume or length of a body is
called stress. Mathematically,

The SI unit of stress is newton per square meter, which is given the name pascal (Pa).
TYPES OF STRESS: there are three types of stress.
1. Tensile Stress: A stress that causes the change in length of an object is called tensile stress.
2. Volume Stress: A stress that causes the change in volume of an object is called volume
stress.
3. Shear Stress: A stress that causes the change in shape of an object is called shear stress.
STRAIN:
Strain is the measure of deformation of a solid when stress is applied to it.
TYPES OF STRAIN: there are three types of strain.
1. Tensile Strain: If the strain is due to tensile stress, then the change in length per unit length
is called tensile strain.

61
Prof. Umair khan
2. Volumetric Strain: If the strain is due to volumetric stress, then the change in volume per
unit volume is called volumetric strain.

3. Shear Strain: A strain produced in the object when it is subjected to shear stress, when the
opposite faces of a rigid body are subjected to shear stress, the shear strain produced.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:
The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material, provided the external applied force
is not exceed the elastic limit, called modulus of elasticity. Mathematically,

Since the strain is a dimensionless quantity, the units of modulus of elasticity is same as that of
stress, that is Nm-2 or Pa.
TYPES OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS:
there are three types of elastic constants.
1. Young’s Modulus
2. Bulk Modulus
3. Shear Modulus
YOUNG’S MODULUS:
The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is a constant called young’s modulus (Y). It is a
mechanical property of solids that measures the stiffness or elasticity of a solid material and it
computes how much a material will deform (stretch or compress) under a given force.
Consider a rod of length “L” having uniform cross sectional area, when subjected to force “F” it
will undergo longitudinal deformation and its length increases to “L + L” as shown in figure.
According to Hook’s Law the Young’s Modulus can be define as,

62
Prof. Umair khan
CONCLUSION:
If we compare rods made of the same material having different lengths and cross-sectional areas,
it is found that the longer the object, the more it elongates for a given stress; and the thicker it is,
the less it elongates because strain is directly proportional to the original length and inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area.

BULK MODULUS:
The ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is a constant called Bulk modulus (K). It is a
mechanical property of a material that describes the resistance of a material under uniform
external pressure.
According to Hook’s Law the Bulk Modulus can be define as,

SHEAR MODULUS:
The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is a constant called shear modulus (G). It is a mechanical
property of a material that describes the resistance of a material to shear deformation when a
force is applied perpendicular to the material surface, it measures the rigidity of a material so also
known as Modulus of Rigidity.
Consider a rod of length “L” having uniform cross sectional area, when subjected to force “F” it
will undergo shear deformation and its shape is changed as shown in figure.

According to Hook’s Law the shear Modulus can be define as,

FORCE EXTENSION GRAPH:

In material science, the force extension graph for a material gives the relationship between stress
and strain. This is obtained by gradually applying a load to a test component and measuring its
deformation according to tensile standards. The curves obtain are used to describe many
properties of materials, such as the young’s modulus, the yield strength, the ultimate tensile
strength and strain energy.

63
Prof. Umair khan

BRITTLE MATERIAL:
The substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached, are known as brittle substances.
DUCTILE MATERIAL:
Substances that undergo plastic deformation until they break are called ductile substances.
PLASTIC MATERIAL:
plastics in a force-extension graph show an initial elastic behaviour followed by a pronounced
plastic deformation stage, highlighting their ability to undergo significant permanent changes
under stress before eventual fracture.
KEY FEATURES ON THE GRAPH:
 Elastic Limit: The maximum force the material can take while still behaving elastically.
 Yield Point: The transition from elastic to plastic behaviour.
 UTS: The maximum force the material can sustain.
 Fracture Point: The point at which the material breaks.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS:
The electrical properties of solids describe how materials respond to the application of an electric
field and how they conduct or resist the flow of electric current. These properties are primarily
determined by the material's atomic structure, bonding, and the availability of free charge carriers
(electrons or holes). Solids can be broadly classified into three categories based on their electrical
properties: conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
Resistivity (ρ): Resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric
current. It quantifies the intrinsic property of a material to resist the movement of charge carriers
(such as electrons) when a voltage is applied. Its S.I unit is Ω⋅m.
Conductivity (ς): Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity and measures a material's ability to
conduct electric current. It indicates how easily electrons can flow through the material under an
applied electric field. Its S.I unit is siemens per meter, S/m.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (α): The temperature coefficient of resistivity is a measure
of how much a material’s resistivity changes with temperature. It indicates whether the resistivity
increases or decreases as temperature changes. Its S.I unit is °C−1.
Quantity of Charge carrier (n): The number of charge carrier per unit volume in a material. Its S.I
unit is m−3.
ENERGY BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS:
The energy band theory of solids is a crucial concept in solid-state physics that describes how
electrons behave in materials based on their energy levels. It explains the differences between
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators, as well as the effects of temperature and doping on
electrical conductivity.
Formation of Energy Bands: When atoms come together to form a solid, their atomic orbitals
interact and overlap, the energy levels of their atomic orbitals split and broaden into energy bands
due to the interactions between electrons of adjacent atoms. Each band can contain many energy
levels corresponding to the allowed states for electrons.
64
Prof. Umair khan
The two most important bands are:
Valence Band: The highest energy band that is fully or partially filled with electrons. It contains
the electrons that are involved in bonding.
Conduction Band: The band above the valence band that is typically empty or partially filled. It
contains the energy levels that electrons can occupy when they gain enough energy to move
freely and conduct electricity.
Forbidden Gap (Energy Gap): The band gap is the energy difference between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. It determines the electrical conductivity of
the material.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS:
Conductors: Conductors are those which have plenty of free electrons for electrical conduction.
In terms of energy bands, conductors are those materials in which valence and conduction band
largely overlap each other. There is no physical distinction between the two band which ensures
the availability of free electrons. That is why, the conductions are good conductors of electricity.

INSULATORS:
Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons are bound very tightly to their atoms and
are not free. In terms of energy bands, it means that an insulator has an empty conduction band
(no free electron), full valence band and large energy gap (several eV) between them.

SEMICONDUCTORS:
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those materials which at room temperature have a
partially filled conduction band, a partially filled valence band and a very narrow forbidden energy
gap (of the order of 1 eV) between the conduction and valence bands.

65
Prof. Umair khan
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:
on the bases of electrical properties there are two types of semiconductors.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS: Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconducting materials
without any significant impurities. Their electrical properties are determined solely by the atoms
that make up the material, typically silicon or germanium.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS: Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconducting materials that have
been intentionally doped with small amounts of impurities (trivalent or pentavalent) to enhance
their electrical conductivity. This doping introduces extra charge carriers (either electrons or
holes), which makes extrinsic semiconductors more conductive than intrinsic ones.

SUPER CONDUCTORS:
A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity with zero electrical resistance when
cooled below a certain critical temperature, called the critical temperature (Tc). In this state, the
material allows electric current to flow without any energy loss, making it highly efficient for
applications requiring sustained electrical conduction.

APPLICATIONS OF SUPER CONDUCTORS:

1. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI): Superconductors play a crucial role in Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines, which are widely used in medical diagnostics to create
detailed images of organs, tissues, and other structures inside the human body. The use of
superconducting magnets is essential for producing the powerful and stable magnetic
fields required for MRI.
The MRI Process and Role of Superconductors:
 When a patient undergoes an MRI scan, they are placed inside a large, cylindrical magnet
that generates the magnetic field.
 The body's hydrogen atoms (especially in water and fat) align with this magnetic field.
 Radiofrequency pulses are then used to temporarily disrupt this alignment, and as the
atoms realign, they emit signals that are detected and converted into detailed images by
the MRI machine.
 The superconducting magnets ensure that the magnetic field remains stable throughout
this process, which is essential for producing clear and accurate images.
2. MAGLEV TRAIN SYSTEM: Superconductors in maglev trains enable frictionless, high-speed
travel by creating strong magnetic fields that lift the train off the tracks. The Meissner
Effect in superconductors repels magnetic fields, allowing the train to levitate, eliminating
mechanical contact and friction. Superconducting magnets also provide efficient
propulsion by interacting with electromagnets on the guideway, pushing the train forward.
3. SMALL ELECTRIC MOTORS: Superconductors in small motors improve efficiency by
eliminating electrical resistance, enabling stronger magnetic fields for higher power in
compact designs. They reduce energy loss, provide more torque, and allow for quieter,
smoother operation. This makes them ideal for compact, high-performance applications
like electric vehicles, drones, and medical devices.
4. SUPER COMPUTERS: Superconductors enhance supercomputers by providing high-speed
processing, energy efficiency, increased component density, and advancements in
quantum computing. These benefits lead to faster, more powerful, and more efficient
computational systems.

66
Prof. Umair khan
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS:
The magnetic properties of solids are determined by their atomic and electronic structures and
can be classified into several categories:
1. Diamagnetic Substance
2. Paramagnetic Substance
3. Ferromagnetic Substance
MAGNETIC DOMAIN THEORY:
Magnetic Domain Theory explains the behaviour of ferromagnetic materials in terms of
microscopic regions, called magnetic domains. Initially the domains are randomly oriented hence
produces weak or zero field. When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains aligned with
the field direction, as more domains align with the external field, the overall magnetization of the
material increases. The process continues until most of the domains are aligned, resulting in a
strongly
vibrations in ferromagnetic solids tends to disturb the orderliness of domains. Ferromagnetic
materials preserve the orderliness at ordinary temperatures. When heated, they begin to lose
their orderliness due to increased thermal motion. This process begins to occur at a particular
magnetized material.

CURIE TEMPERATURE:
The thermal temperature called Curie temperature.
CURIE LAW:
Curie Law states that the magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a paramagnetic material is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature (T). Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

where:
 Χ = magnetic susceptibility,
 C = Curie constant (a material-specific constant),
 T = absolute temperature in Kelvin.
Curie Law describes the inverse relationship between the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic
materials and temperature, highlighting how thermal energy affects the alignment of atomic
magnetic moments. This relationship is crucial for understanding the magnetic behaviour of
materials in various applications.

DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Diamagnetic substances are materials that are weakly repelled by magnets due to their paired
electrons. They do not have a magnetic field of their own and remain diamagnetic regardless of
temperature.

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Paramagnetic substances are materials that are weakly attracted to magnetic fields due to the
presence of unpaired electrons. Their magnetic properties depend on temperature and disappear
when the external magnetic field is removed. In these solids, each atom behaves like a tiny
magnet.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Ferromagnetic substances are materials, such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, that exhibit a strong
attraction to magnetic fields and can become permanently magnetized due to the alignment of
unpaired electrons in their atomic structure. They consist of small regions called magnetic
domains that align in the direction of an external magnetic field, leading to strong magnetism.
These materials possess a specific temperature, known as the Curie temperature, above which

67
Prof. Umair khan
they lose their ferromagnetic properties and behave like paramagnetic substances. There are two
types of ferromagnetic substances.
1. Soft ferromagnetic substances: In soft ferromagnetic substances, the domains are easily
oriented on applying an external field and also readily return to random positions when
the field is removed. This is desirable in an electromagnet and also in transformers. Iron is
a soft magnetic material.
2. Hard ferromagnetic substances: In hard ferromagnetic materials, domains are no so easily
oriented to order. They required very strong external fields, but once oriented, retain the
alignment. These solids are used to make permanent magnet. Steel is an example of hard
ferromagnetic material.

HYSTERESIS LOOP:
The hysteresis loop is a graphical representation of the relationship between the magnetic field
strength (H) applied to a ferromagnetic material and the magnetic flux density (B) that results
from it. This loop illustrates how the material responds to changing magnetic fields and highlights
key properties such as magnetization, retention, and loss. To investigate a ferromagnetic material,
a bar of that material such as iron is placed in an alternating current solenoid. When the
alternating current is at the positive peak value, it fully magnetizes the specimen in one direction
and when the current is at its negative peak, it fully magnetized it in opposite direction. Thus, an
alternating current changes from its positive peak value to its negative peak value and then back
to its positive peak value, the specimen undergoes a complete cycle of magnetization, called
hysteresis loop.

KEY FEATURES OF THE HYSTERESIS LOOP:

1. MAGNETIZATION CURVE:
When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, its magnetic domains align
with the field, causing the material to become magnetized. The initial increase in flux
density (B) with applied field strength (H) forms the rising part of the loop.
2. SATURATION:
As the applied magnetic field strength increases, the material eventually reaches a point
where all magnetic domains are aligned, called saturation. At this point, increasing the
magnetic field further does not significantly increase the magnetic flux density.
3. REDUCTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD:
When the external magnetic field is reduced back to zero, the material retains some
magnetization, known as remanence (Br). This is represented by the vertical distance on
the left side of the loop, showing that the material still has some magnetic properties even
without an external field.

4. COERCIVITY:
To completely demagnetize the material (bring it back to zero magnetization), a negative
magnetic field must be applied. The strength of this field is called coercivity (Hc),
represented by the horizontal distance on the left side of the loop. It indicates the
material's resistance to being demagnetized.
5. ENERGY LOSS:
The area inside the hysteresis loop represents energy loss due to magnetic hysteresis
during a complete cycle of magnetization and demagnetization. This energy loss is usually
converted to heat and is an important consideration in magnetic materials used in
applications like transformers and motors.

68
Prof. Umair khan
CHAPTER # 22
SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS

SOLID STATE ELECTRONICS

Flowing of electrons through semiconductors devices

SEMI CONDUCTORS:
In pure semi conductors (Intrinsic semi conductor) this forbidden gap is narrow few free
electrons can jump from valence bond to conductors bond. If impurity is added more
electrons will migrate from valence band to conduction band thus the conductivity of semi
conductors increases Semi conductors are the member of IV-A group

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMI CONDUCTOR

INTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR

The pure semi conductor is called intrinsic semi conductor

EXTRINSIC SEMI CONDUCTOR

The impure semi conductor is called estrange semi conductor.

DOPING
Adding of impurities is called doping. The doped semi conductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.

TYPES OF DOPING
DONOR DOPING
If an extrinsic Semi conductor is doped with a pentavalent element like arsenic or antimony four
of its electrons are bounded with 4 neighboring germanium atom the fifth electrons remains as
the, charge carrier and easily jump to conduction band. Thus allows electric
current to pass through it. The pentavalent element is called Donor- impurity and the substance
this formed is called N types semiconductor.

Note: N-type semi conductor have electrons as charge carrier.

69
Prof. Umair khan
ACCEPTOR DOPING
The member of group III A is added as an unpurity in an intrinsic semi conductor three electrons
are bounded with the semi conductor and a deficiency of electrons is created in the
semiconductor. This deficiency of electrons is called hole and the semiconductor is called p-type
semiconductor.

Note: p-type semi conductor have charge carrier are holes

PN JUNCTION OR SEMI CONDUCTOR DIODE

A PN - junction diode is an electronic device formed from combination of a P-type and an N-type
substance semiconductor
A semiconductor diode has the property of one way conduction ie. it allows electric
current to flow in only one direction.

WORKING OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE

The N-type semi conductor contains high concentration of free electrons whereas P-type
substance contains holes therefore the junctions has tendency for the free electrons to move
towards P-side and holes towards N-side. This process is called diffusion. Due to the
movement of these electrons and holes a barrier in produced between the junction which stops
the further movement of electrons and holes and is called potential barrier which is in order of 1
to 0.7 volt. The region b/w the layer where crossing of electrons and holes takes place is called
depletion layer.

FABRICATION OF PN-JUNCTION
A PN-junction is fabricated by placing a small amount of indium on a plate or wafer of n -type
germanium. Indium on heating at 550C melts and diffuses through a small part of the N-type
germanium. Indium being a N-type impurity, converts the part of the N-type germanium to N-
type material. Thus a junction is formed between-type section and an n-type section of
germanium.
A brass-base is used to fix the PN-junction to which leads are attached as shown:

70
Prof. Umair khan

BIASING
The phenomenon of connecting a P-N junction diode to a voltage source is called biasing.

FORWARD BIASING
When n-type end of PN-junction is connected to negative. terminal and P-type end with
positive terminal of a (DC) supply, then the height of potential barrier reduces and provides easy
flow of electric charge that is PN-junction conducts electricity. In this condition PN-junction is said
to be Forward Biased

FORWARD BIAS
Charge carriers flows towards the junctions and hence resistance of the junctions is very
Small.
REVERSE BIASING
When p-type end of PN -juncation is connected to the negative terminal and N-type end in
positive terminal of a (DC) supply the height of potential barrier increase to maximum and the
flow of electric charge across the junation will become zero. In this condition a PN- junction diode
is called Reverse biasing.

REVERSE BIASED:
Charge Carriers flows away from the junctions and hence the resistance of the junctions is
infinity

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification.

RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is a device which is used to convert alternating Current (AC) into direct current (DC).
PN-junction diode is used as a rectifier.

71
Prof. Umair khan
DIODE AS A RECTIFIER:
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is call rectification . alternating
current flows in the form of wave in which half of it cycle it is positive and in the other half it is
negative it is also called bi-directional current the number of time its changes it direction is called
frequency .it usually obtained from generator.
DC flow only in one direction (straight line ) and its frequency is zero.
A semi conductor diode is used to convert AC into D.C .hence it is rectifer

Rectification can be classified into two types

HALF WAVE RECTIFER:

In half wave rectification a rectifier conduct s current only during the positive half cycle is
suppressed i.e. no current passes during negative half cycle
A singe diode act as a half wave rectifier . The diode is connected to a A.C. source through
a high resistance R as shown in figure.

When an A.C is pass through it the diode becomes forward bias for positive cycle of the current,
the resistance of junction decreases and current passes through it. Whereas for negative cycle of
current it he comes reverse bias thus the resistance of the junctions become infinite and no
current passes. Thus diode allows only one cycle of the current pass through it i.e. half of the
wave is rectified.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

In full wave rectifier current flows through the diode in same directions for both half cycles of
input AC voltage. This can be achieved by using two diodes working alternately.
During one half cycle one diode D1 becomes forward biased and allows current to pass through
it where as the second diode D2 becomes reversed biased and current cannot pass through it.
During the second half cycle first diode D1 becomes reversed biased and second diode D2
becomes forward biased and current passed through diode D2
Thus for the positive half cycle of input voltage the one diode supply current to the load and for
the negative half cycle the other does So. The current is always in same directions to the road
therefore a ful1 wave rectification takes place and both half cycles of input A.C voltage is
converted into D.C output

72
Prof. Umair khan
LED
An LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a type of diode that emits light when an electric current passes
through it. LEDs are a major application of solid-state electronics, converting electrical energy
directly into light through a process called electroluminescence.

PHOTODIODE
A photodiode is a type of semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. It
operates in reverse to an LED, as it detects light rather than emitting it.
Photodiodes are widely used in light-sensing applications, including cameras, solar cells, and fiber-
optic communication
systems.

TRANSISTORS:
A three terminal semiconductor electronic device is called transistor.
Transistor is combination of two words transfer and resistance
Transistor are widely used in electronic appliance such as computers, radio, audio video
equipment ,bio medical instrument etc.

CONSTRUCTION:
A transistor is a three layer semiconductor which consist a very thin central layer of one
type semiconductor material sandwiched between two relatively thick layer of second type.

TYPE OF TRANSISTORS

PNP-TRANSISTOR :
In this type of transistor n-type semi-conductor piece is sandwiched between two pieces of
p-type semiconductor layers.

73
Prof. Umair khan

NPN-TRANSISTOR:
In this type of transistor p-type semi conductor piece is sandwiched between two piece of n-
type semiconductor layers.

ESSENTIAL PART OF TRANSISTORS:

There are the three essential parts of a transistor
Base: it is the central layer denoted by b
Emitter: it is the Outer layer denoted by e
Collector: it is the outer layer denoted by c

TRANSISTOR OPERATION:

The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased where as collector base junction is
reversed biased. If we ignore the presence of emitter-base junction no current would flow in
collector circuit because of reverse biasing. However the presence of emitter- base junction and
forward biased on it causes the emitter current to flow. Thus the current in collector circuit
depends upon the emitter current

WORKING OF A PNP-TRANSISTOR
Consider a PNP-transistor. Let the two P-ends are connected to two batteries as shown in the
diagram. The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base which
constituen le current. These holes cross into the n-type base, they try to combine with electrons
but the base is lightly doped and is very thin.

74
Prof. Umair khan

Therefore only few holes combine with electrons and the remaining holes cross into the collector
and generates collector current Ic. In this way almost the entire emitter current flows in the
collector circuit. From the above description it is clear that:
le = Ib + Ic
Thus there are two current paths through a transistor. One is the base-emitter path or input and
the other is the collector-emitter path or output.

WORKING OF NPN TRANSISTOR

Consider an NPN transistor in which emiteer -base junction is forward baised and collector base
junction is reverse baised as shown in figure

The forward biased causes the electrons in N-type emitter to flow towards the base they tend to
combine with the holes. The base is lightly doped and is very thin therefore only few electrons
(less than5%) combines with the holes to constitutes collector current Ic. In this
way almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.
It is clear that
Ie = Ib + Ic
The ratio of Ic and Ie is called current gain represented by a
α =Ic/Ie

I-V CHARACTERISTICS

BJT OPERATION REGIONS:

A BJT operates in three main regions:
Active Region: The transistor acts as an amplifier.
Cutoff Region: The transistor is turned off (no current flows).
Saturation Region: The transistor is fully on, acting as a closed switch.

75
Prof. Umair khan

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION

The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.

COMMON BASE CBCB CONFIGURATION

The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to
contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.
As the output resistance is of very high value, a large change in VCB produces a very little
change in collector current IC.
NOTE:
This Configuration provides good stability against increase in temperature.
The CB configuration is used for high frequency applications.

COMMON EMITTER CECE CONFIGURATION

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is
as shown in the followng figure.

76
Prof. Umair khan

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the
base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.

COMMON COLLECTOR CC CONFIGURATION

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.

OPERATIOPNAL AMPLIFIER
Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance output
port. The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign, and the non-inverting input uses a
positive (+) sign. Operational amplifiers work to amplify the voltage differential between the
inputs, which is useful for a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and control
applications.

Because most op amps are used for voltage amplification, this article will focus on voltage
amplifiers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMS
The characteristics are described in greater detail below.

77
Prof. Umair khan

Figure 1: Operational Amplifier Schematic

OPEN-LOOP GAIN:
The open-loop gain (“A” in Figure 1) of an operational amplifier is the measure of the gain
achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the circuit. This means the feedback path, or
loop, is open. An open-loop gain often must be exceedingly large (10,000+) to be useful in itself,
except with voltage comparators.
Voltage comparators compare the input terminal voltages. Even with small voltage
differentials, voltage comparators can drive the output to either the positive or negative rails.
High open-loop gains are beneficial in closed-loop configurations, as they enable stable circuit
behaviors across temperature, process, and signal variations.

INPUT IMPEDANCE
Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high input
impedance (“ZIN” in Figure 1). Input impedance is measured between the negative and positive
input terminals, and its ideal value is infinity, which minimizes loading of the source.

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (“Z OUT” in Figure 1). However, the
output impedance typically has a small value, which determines the amount of current it can
drive, and how well it can operate as a voltage buffer.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND BANDWIDTH (BW)

An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to maintain a high
gain regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational amplifiers have a finite bandwidth,
generally called the “-3dB point,” where the gain begins to roll as frequency increases.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AND CLOSED-LOOP GAIN

In an operational amplifier, negative feedback is implemented by feeding a portion of the
output signal through an external feedback resistor and back to the inverting input (see Figure 3).

78
Prof. Umair khan

Figure 3: Negative Feedback with Inverting Operational Amplifier

Negative feedback is used to stabilize the gain. By using a negative feedback, the closed-loop gain
can be determined via external feedback components that can have higher accuracy compared to
the operational amplifier’s internal components.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION TOPOLOGIES

The most common op amp used in electronic devices are voltage amplifiers, which
increase the output voltage magnitude. Inverting and non-inverting configurations are the two
most common amplifier configurations. Both of these topologies are closed-loop (meaning that
there is feedback from the output back to the input terminals), and thus voltage gain is set by a
ratio of the two resistors.

INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

In inverting operational amplifiers, the op amp forces the negative terminal to equal the
positive terminal, which is commonly ground. Therefore, the input current is determined by the
VIN / R1 ratio (see Figure 5).

Figure 5: Inverting Operational Amplifier

In this configuration, the same current flows through R2 to the output. Ideally, current does not
flow into the operational amplifier’s negative terminal due to its high Z IN. The current flowing from
the negative terminal through R2 creates an inverted voltage polarity with respect to V IN. This is
why these op amps are labeled with an inverting configuration. Note that the op amp’s output can
only swing between its positive and negative supplies, so creating a negative output voltage
requires an op amp with a negative supply rail.
VOUT can be calculated with Equation (3):
VOUT = - R2/R1 x Vin

NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input signal from the source is connected to the
non-inverting (+) terminal .
79
Prof. Umair khan

Figure 6: Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier forces the inverting (-) terminal voltage to equal the input voltage,
which creates a current flow through the feedback resistors. The output voltage is always in phase
with the input voltage, which is why this topology is known as non-inverting.
Note : a non-inverting amplifier, the voltage gain is always greater than 1, which is not always the
case with the inverting configurations. VOUT can be calculated with Equation (4):
VOUT=1+R2/R1×VIN

80
Prof. Umair khan

CHAPTER # 23
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS:
Digital electronics deals with those circuits that have discrete signals called
digital signals. Digital electronics uses only two digits ‘0’ and ‘1’ and the whole data is
provided in binary form. Example: Computers, calculator, MP3 players e

LOGIC GATES:
In digital electronics, logic is implemented by logic gates which are the basic building
blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit having one or more than one input and
only one output. The relationship between input and output is based on some logic. Logic
gates will make decisions based on a combination of digital signals coming from its inputs.
There are mainly three basic logic gates:

AND GATE:
It has two or more inputs and only one output. Output of AND gate will be '1' only
when all of its inputs are at logic '1' and for all other situations, output of AND gate will
be '0'. BOOLEAN

EXPRESSION: AND gate operates on logical multiplication rules symbolized by dot (.) The
Boolean expression of AND gate is
Y=A.B

TRUTH TABLE: The truth table of a two input AND gate is

A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Three input AND gate is

A B C Y=A.B.C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

81
Prof. Umair khan

Four input

Input A Input B Input C Input D Output (A AND B AND C AND D)

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

OR GATE: It has two or more inputs and only one output. Output of OR gate will be '1' if either
or all of the inputs are '1'.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION: OR gate operates on logical addition rules symbolized by (+)
The Boolean expression of OR gate is
Y=A+B
TRUTH TABLE: The truth table of a two input OR gate is
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Three input OR gate is

A B C Y=A+B+C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

82
Prof. Umair khan
An OR gate with 4 inputs

Input A Input B Input C Input D Output (A OR B OR C OR D)

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

NOT GATE: It has a single input and a single output and also called as inverter because it
reverses the logic state. If the input is '1' then the output is ‘0’. If the input is ‘0’ then the
output is ‘1’.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION: NOT gate operates on complement or invert rules
symbolized by complement sign (‘) or bar sign (-) on top of the variable. The Boolean
expression of NOT gate is Y = A’ or Y=
TRUTH TABLE: The truth table of NOT gate is

A Y=𝑨
0 1
1 0

NAND GATE: NAND gate operated as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The output is
‘0’ if both inputs are ‘1’ otherwise the output is ‘1’
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION: It acts in the manner of the multiplication rules followed by
inversion. The Boolean expression of NAND gate is
Y = (A . B)’ or Y = A.B

TRUTH TABLE:
The truth table of NAND gate is
A B Y =𝑩
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

83
Prof. Umair khan

4-input NAND gate:

Input A Input B Input C Input D Output (A AND B AND C AND D)

0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

NOR GATE: NOR gate operated as an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The output is ‘1’ if both
inputs are ‘0’ otherwise the output is ‘0’
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION: It acts in the manner of the addition rules followed by inversion.
The Boolean expression of NOR gate is
Y = (A + B)’ or
Y=A+B
TRUTH TABLE: The truth table of NOR gate is

A B Y = A+B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR GATEE (EXCLUSIVE -OR GATE)

An XOR gate, or "exclusive OR" gate, is a digital logic gate that outputs true or "1" only when the
inputs are different from each other. It compares two binary inputs and outputs the following:

If both inputs are 0 (false), the output is 0.

If both inputs are 1 (true), the output is 0.
If one input is 0 and the other is 1, the output is 1.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION:
Y =A.B’ + A’

84
Prof. Umair khan
TRUTH TABLE FOR XOR
Two input
Input A Input B Output (A XOR B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Three Input

A B C Y = A.B’.C’ +
A’.B.C’ + A’B’.C
A.B.C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 Input
Four 1 1 1

Input A Input B Input C Input D Output (A Ꚛ BꚚ CꚚ D)

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

XNOR GATE:
An X-NOR gate (exclusive-NOR gate), also called an XNOR gate, is a digital logic gate that
outputs true (1) when the number of true inputs is even.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION:
Y = (A. B+ A’B’)

85
Prof. Umair khan
TRUTH TABLE:
Two Inputs

A B Y = AꚚB
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Three Inputs

Input A Input B Input C Y= A’.B’C’ +A.B.C

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Four Inputs

Input A Input B Input C Input D Output (A’.B’C .D+ A.B.C.D

0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

86
SEAT BELT ALARM SYSTEM:
A three input AND gate is used to design a
simple seat belt alarm system as shown in figure.
If the ignition is on, a HIGH is produced in input
A. Timer also get started for 30 second when
ignition is on which produced a HIGH on input C.
If the seat belt is not properly buckled, a HIGH is
produced on input B. If all inputs are HIGH, the
output of AND gate is HIGH and an audible alarm
is energized to remind the driver.

INTRUSION DETECTION ALARM SYSTEM:

A three input OR gate is used to design a simple intrusion
detection alarm system. Magnetic switches are used as input
and are installed on windows and door. They produce a HIGH
output when open. When one of the windows or door is open,
a HIGH is produced on that input and the gate output goes
HIGH. It then activates and latches an alarm circuit to warn of
the intrusion.

87
 CHAPTER # 24
RELATIVITY
RELATIVE MECHANICS:
The branch of physics which deals with the relative motion of observer and object is
called Relative Mechanics.

FRAME OF REFERENCE:
Frame of reference is a co-ordinate system in which measurement is carried out.

INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCES:

The framne of reference moving with constant velocity i.e. zero acceleration is
called inertial frame of references.
Newton laws of mechanics are applicable in inertial frame of references.

NON INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCES:

The frame of references having acceleratory motions are called non-inertial frame of
references
Newton laws of mechanics are not applicable in non-inertial frame of references.

SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

The part of relative mechanics that deals with the inertial frame of references is called special
theory of relativity.

GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

The part of relative mechanics that deals with non inertial frame of references is called general
theory of relativity.

GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION
“All physical laws must be valid in all inertial frame of reference.”
The Galilean transformation equations are used to relate the coordinates of an event as
observed from two different inertial reference frames. These transformations assume that the
speed of light is infinite, which means they apply only at speeds much lower than the speed of
light and do not account for relativistic effects (which are handled by Lorentz transformations in
special relativity).
Consider two reference frames:
S: stationary or inertial reference frame
S′: reference frame moving at a constant velocity v along the x-axis relative to S.
Galilean transformation equations:

88
POSITION:
x′=x−vt
y′=y
z′=z
t′=t
The above set of equations is known as Galilean transformation equations

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

> The motion of a body can be represented by same equation of motion for all the inertial
frame of reference whatever is their velocity.
> For all the inertial frame of reference the velocity of light remains constant. i.e. c =3 x 10° m/s.

RESULTS OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

We observe that in the development of special theory of relativity, frames of reference in
relative motion with a constant speed V have been used. If the speed V becomes large enough
to approach the velocity of light C, then the Galilean's transformations are found to be
noticeably wrong. To correct the state of affairs it will be necessary to introduce a factor
called 'Lorentz Factor' or 'Relativistic factor.
Lorentz Factor ϒ = √ (1-v2/ c2).

This factor is in fact a measure of departure of Galilean’s transformer .if it is much smaller than
as it is in our common situation ,then is so small that the relativistic factor is essentially equa;
to unity. Under these conditions the classical and the relativistic physics predict nearly identical
results. However when V approaches C (e.g.: V =C/5), Then the Galilean transformation will be
incorrect.
Now summarize the important consequences of the theory of special relativity which are as
under:

MASS VARIATION:
According to the special theory of relativity, the mass of an object in a frame of reference
at rest is called its rest mass mo. if this mass is measured by an observer moving with a constant
speed v relative to the object, then it will not remain constant if the speed v is comparable to c.
The mass m in the moving frame will very according to the mass variation given by:

89
 m=
√
LENGTH CONTRACTION
In the theory of special relativity it has been found that the measurement of length
of a rod in a stationary frame of reference is not the same when the rod is measured by the
observer in the moving frame of reference with the velocity relative to the rod, provided that
the measurement is made along the direction of motion.
If Lo is the length of a rot for an observer at rest and L is the length for a observer
moving with relative velocity then it is given by
L=Lo x √
The development of special theory of relativity it became apparent that there is no physical
contraction of the moving objects.There is, however, an apparent contraction of body for an
observer.

TIME DILATION
The time interval between two events taking place at the same point in space as timed
with a clock at rest with respect to that point is called the proper time interval and is denoted
by To. Time measured with a clock in motion with respect to the events is known as relativistic
time it is represented by t. Both of the time intervals to & t refer to the time elapsed between
the same pair of events occurring in the two frames moving with a relative speed v.
According to special relativity the two times are related by the formula
t=
√
Above equation represents, what we call as the time dilation phenomena. According to the
time dilation formula we mean that from the point of view of an observer at rest, the time of
the observer in motion is dilated i.e. the clocks in moving frame run slowly and the Lorentz
factor gives us the ratio of the rates of clocks for normal speeds.

MASS ENERGY RELATION

According to special theor of relativity ,mass can be converted into energy and energy can be
converted in mass by E=mc2
E is the energy,
m is the mass of the object,
c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
Even a small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy because the
speed of light squared (c2) is a very large number.

LIMITATIONS:
If V=C then,
M become infinity
t become infinity
L become zero

90
RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS
The relativistic effects in space travel become significant when spacecraft approach speeds
close to the speed of light. These effects are described by Einstein’s theory of special relativity,
and they dramatically alter how time, distance, and mass behave. The most important
relativistic effects in space travel include time dilation, length contraction, and relativistic mass
increase.

TIME DILATION
As the speed of a spacecraft approaches the speed of light, time on the spacecraft slows
down relative to an observer on Earth. This means astronauts traveling at high velocities would
experience time much more slowly than people remaining on Earth.

LENGTH CONTRACTION
According to special relativity, objects moving at speeds close to the speed of light experience
length contraction. From the perspective of an observer on the spacecraft, distances in the
direction of travel would appear to shrink.

RELATIVISTIC MASS INCREASE

As an object moves closer to the speed of light, its relativistic mass increases. The mass of
the spacecraft increases.

NAVIGATION AND SATELLITE TIMING AND RANGING (NAVSTAR)

Navigation and Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) is the global positioning system
(GPS).
The GPS system consists of a constellation of at least 24 satellites in orbit, which continuously
transmit signals.
Each GPS satellite is equipped with highly accurate atomic clocks that are synchronized with the
GPS system time.

EINSTEIN'S GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, published in 1915, is a theory of gravitation that
describes gravity not as a force (as in Newtonian physics), but as the curvature of spacetime
caused by mass and energy. It is one of the most fundamental pillars of modern physics and

91
provides an accurate description of the behavior of objects in strong gravitational fields and
over long distances.

POSTULATES
1.Tthe effects of gravity are indistinguishable from acceleration, and all objects fall at the same
rate in a gravitational field.
2.The laws of physics should be formulated so that they hold true in any coordinate system,
ensuring that physical laws apply universally in all regions of spacetime, whether inertial or
accelerated.

CONSEQUENCES:
Below are the major consequences of the theory:

GRAVITATIONAL TIME DILATION:

Time passes more slowly in stronger gravitational fields, a phenomenon known as
gravitational time dilation. This effect is directly tied to the curvature of spacetime caused by
mass.

GRAVITATIONAL LENSING:
Light does not travel in straight lines when it passes near a massive object. Instead, the
curvature of spacetime causes the light to bend. This bending of light by gravity is called
gravitational lensing.

BLACK HOLES:
General relativity predicts the existence of black holes, regions of spacetime where gravity is
so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes form when massive stars collapse under
their own gravity at the end of their life cycle. At the center of a black hole lies a singularity, a
point where spacetime curvature becomes infinite.

EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE
General theory predicts that the universe is expamding. This has been confirmed by
astronomical observation.

92
 CHAPTER 25
QUANTUM PHYSICS

BLACK BODY OR CAVITY RADIATOR

A body which can absorb the entire heat radiation incident on it is called black body

APPROACH TO BLACK BODY:

A perfect black body is one which can absorb all the radiation falling on it. Actually a perfect
absorber does not exist. But of a cavity with a hole is made in a block and the inner surface of
the cavity coated with lamp black behaves like a perfect black body

BLACK BODY RADIATION:

When the wall of black body are heated to a uniform temperature radiation emits from the
hoel of black body and is know as black body radiation or cavity radiation or full temperature
radiation.

CHARACTERISTIC OF E BLACK RADIATIONS

1. A wide range of wavelength is present in radiation.
2. The wavelength f the radiations depends upon the temperature f the black body and not on
the nature of natural
3. All the part of the wall of black body emits and absorbs same amount of radiation per unit
area per unit area per second.

LAWS GOVERNING ON BLACK BODY RADIATIONS

WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW:

STATEMENT:
The maximum wavelength of radiation emitted from black body is inversely
proportional to the absolute Temperature of the black body.
MATHEMATICALLY :
λMax α 1/T
λMax = constant 1/T
λMax T = constant
The value of constant is 0.0029m-K

STEFAN BOLTZMANN LAW:

STATEMENT :
The total energy radiated per unit area per second from the surface of black body is
directly proportional to the 4 th power of absolute temperature.
MATHEMATICALLY:
Eα T4
E = constant x T4
E= σ x T4
Here σ is called bolt man constant and its value is 5.67x 10-8 watt/m2 k4

93
 RAYLEIGH -JEANS LAW:
The energy radiated from the black body is inversely proportional to the 4 th
power of wavelength.

MATHEMATICALLY:
E 1/λ4
E= constant / λ4

PLANKS LAW
The energy radiated from the black body is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation.

MATHEMATICALLY:
Eα v
E =h v
Here h is the plank's Constant ant its vale is 6.63 x 10 -34 J.s.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

When a light of suitable frequency falls on a metal surface electrons are emitted from metal
surface. This phenomenon is called photo electric effect. OR
The emission of electrons from a metal surface under the influence of electromagnetic
radiation (light) of suitable frequency is called photo electric effect.
The electrons emitted are called photo electrons.

EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION:

The apparatus to demonstrate photo electric effect consists of highly evacuated glass tube
sealed with two electrodes plate P and plate C. The plate P is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery whereas plate C is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
When light of suitable wavelength fall on plate P photo electrons are emitted from P. These
electrons are collected at plate C thus current passes and can be detected by galvanometer.
When light is disconnected galvanometer shows no current. It
means that electrons are emitting under the influence of light

94
MAXIMUM K.E:
K.E. max = ½ mv2 = voe
Where v is the velocity photo electron where V, is the Stopping
Potential.

STOPPING POTENTIAL
The negative potential difference between the plates in photo electric effect, when no current
passes through galvanotmeter or no current flows in the circuit, is called Stopping Potential.
It is represented by Vo

RESULTS OF PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

INTRODUCTION:
The phenomenon of photo electric effect is repeated several times by changing the
nature of plate, changing the frequency and integrity of light . the following are the results
obtained.
1) The phenomenon of photo electric does not place until the frequency of Iight is greater
than particular value called this should frequency denoted by.
2) The value of the threshold frequency depends upon the nature of plate P.
3) If Frequency of light is increased by photo electric threshold frequency the KE of photo
electro increases.
4) How low is the intensity of light the photo electron will emit, if its frequency is greater
than threshold frequency.
5) How intense is the light the photo electron will not emit if its frequency is less than
threshold frequency.
6) The number of photo electrons depends upon the intensity of light, if its frequency is
greater than threshold frequency.

OBJECTIONS PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT ACCORDING TO WAVE THEORY

 According to classical theory there should be no threshold frequency because at a given

time electrons might absorb enough energy from the incident light to escape from the
metal surface at any applied frequency.
 The velocity of photo electron should depend upon the amplitude of wave incident on
the metal and therefore upon the intensity rather than the frequency.

PLANKS QUANTUM THEORY:

According to max plank the light consists of packets of energy called photon
The energy of photon is directly proportional to the frequency of light.
Eα v
E = hv

Where h is called planks constant and its value is 6.625 x 10-34JS

95
WORK FUNCTION:
The minimum amount of energy required to emit electron from metal surface as a result of
photo electric affect is called work function.
It corresponds to the energy of threshold frequency. It is denoted by Vo

EINSTEIN PHOTO ELECTRIC EQUATION

According to Einstein "When a photon of energy hits the metal surface it disappears and
energy is transferred to the electrons in metal surface. Some part of energy is used in ejecting
the electron and remaining energy will appear as the. K.E of
Energy of photon = work function + K.E of photoelectron

The above equation show that photon having energy less than h. a beam of light having
frequency less than fails to eject electrons.

PHOTO CELL
The photo cell or photo emissive cell consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with an
anode plate and a concave metallic cathode of appropriate surface.We have to select the
natural of cathode according to frequency range which the photo cell has to operate. The
response should be proportional to the intensity of light source.

96
USES OF PHOTO CELL
A photocell can be used in any situation where beam of lightfalling on cell is interrupted.
 To operate Alarms.
 To øpen door automatically in a building.
 To count vehicles passing a road or items running on conveyer belt.
 Lightening systems of streets.
 Sound tracks of motion pictures.

TYPES OF PHOTO CELL

PHOTO CONDUCTIVE CELL

In photo conductive cell an intemal photo electric effect may liberate a free charge carrier in a
material which is other wise an insulator and increase its conductivity by 10,000 increase its
conductivity by 10,000 times when it is illuminated by a ligħt source. Such materials are called
photo conductive cell.

USES:
 Detection and measurement of infrared radiation which are in order 10-6 m.
 As a relay for switching on a different lightening or artificial lightening such as street
light.

PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL

It consists of a sandwich of copper and then layer of translucent volt. An emf capable
of producing 1 Ampere can be generated when the film is illuminated.

USES:
 Photo voltaic cell are used an exposure meter.
 The exposure meters are to set the aperture of camera to make it comfortable with the
intensity of light.
 Photoelectric effect whole
 Thermal expansion
 Amperes law.

COMPTON EFFECT
INTRODUCTION:
Compton studied the collision of photon with electron and justified that photon is
particle in nature. His achievement is known as Compton Effect.
DEFINITION:
The Scattering of a photon when made to collide with a stationary electron resulting
an increase in the wavelength of photon is called Compton effect.

97
EXPLANATION:
Consider a photon of freguency , and wavelength λi collides with a stationary
electron of rest mass mo. On collision the photon loses some energy which is gained by the
electron.After collision the photon scattered with frequency v2 at an angle θ with its original
line of action where as electron scattered at an angle Φ.

COMPTON'S OBSERVATION
Compton observed that the energy and the momentum of photon is conserved.

ENERGY OF PHOTON
Energy of incident photon=hv1
Energy of scattered photon =h v2

ACCORDING TO LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy before collision = energy after collision.
hv1 + mo c2 = hv2 + mc2
hv1 - hv2 = mc2 - mo c2
h( v1 -v2) = c2( m- mo)

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Momentum of incident photon = h/λ1
Momentum of scattered photon＝ h/λ2
Momentum of stationary electron＝0
Momentum of scattered electron＝ P
Since momentum is a vector quatity hence its conservation will be different along x-axis & y
axis

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM ALONG X AXIS

h/λ1 + 0 = h/λ2 cos Ɵ + mv cos Φ
h/λ1 = h/λ2 cos Ɵ + mv cos Φ

98
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM ALONG Y AXIS
0 + 0 = h/λ2 sin Ɵ + (-mv sin Φ)
h/λ2 sin Ɵ + (-mv sin Φ) = 0

solving above equations , we get following result

1/v2 - 1/v1 = h/mo c2 (1- cos Ɵ)
C( 1/v2 - 1/v1 ) = hc/ mo c2 (1- cos Ɵ)

1/v2 - 1/v1 = h/ mo c (1- cos Ɵ)

But c/v = λ therefore,

Λ2 -λ1 = Compton ‘s shift in wavelength

h/mo c is called compton’s wavelength (λ0) and its value is 2.462 x 10 -12 m.

CONCLUSION:
The frequency of the scattered photon is always less than the energy of incident
photons.

PAIR PRODUCTION:

DEFINITION :
When an x photon having high energy strickes with the nucleus of an atom it produce
two anti particles positron and electron . the process is caleed pair production or
materialization.

According to Einstein Equation mass and energy are inter convertible to each other If mois the
rest mass of electron then it can produce energy moc2. Similarly the energy required to produce
electron is moc2.
Likewise the energy required to produce positron is moc2.
Therefore the total energy which a photon should possess to produce electron positron pair i.e.
pair production is given by
E=moc2+moc2
E=2 moc2
Here E is energy of photon which can produce pair production thus energy of photon must
be greater than 2 moc2 . When a photon having energy greater than 2 moc2 , strickes a heavy
nucleus a pair of electron and positron is produced .

ACCORDING TO LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

hv = 2( mo c2) + K.E (-e) + K.E (+e)
hv = 2 (0.51 Mev) + (k) e- + (k) e+
hv = 1.02 Mev + (k) e- + (k) e+

99
Here. (mo c2) = 0.511 MeV is the rest energy of an electron, which is equal to that of the
pOsitron, so the factor of 2 represents the fact that two particles of identical rest mass are
created. K(-e) and K(+e) represent the kinetic energy of the electron and positron, immediately
after their creation.
If the photon energy were exactly 2 mo Cc= 1.02 MeV, the two particles would be created
at rest (with zero kinetic energy) and this would be an example of the complete conversion of
energy into mass. For photon energies below 2m0c 2, the process cannot occur; in other words,
1.02 MeV is the threshold energy for pair production. For photon energies above the
threshold, a photon has more than enough energy to create a particle pair and the surplus
energy appears as kinetic energy of the two particles.

The role of nucleus in this process is just to share some energy and momentum in order to
conserve these quantities.

PAIR ANNIHILATION
There exists an inverse process to pair production called pair annihilation, in which a
particle and its antiparticle collide and annihilate each other, the total energy of the two
particles appearing as electromagnetic radiation. In the case of an electron and positron, the
energy balance can be represented as:
2mo c2 + k(e-) + k(e+) = 2 hv

The first term represents the rest energy of both particles, the second and third terms are the
kinetic energies just before the collision, and the term on the right-hand side of the equation
represents the creating of two photons, each having a the same frequency f and energy h v. The
equation indicates that hf must be at least equal to mo c2 =0.51 MeV, so the photons
produced correspond to g -ray radiation. Like pair production, this process usually takes place
inside a solid, which provides the electrons which are needed. The positrons enter the solid as a
beam of particles produced by a particle accelerator.

100
If the kinetic energies of the two initial particles were both small mo c2,the total momentum
before the collisiIon would be close to zero. From conservation of momentum, the momentum
after annihilation must also be approximately zero, and the only way that this can happen is for
the two photons to be emitted in opposite directions such that their individual
momentum cancel. More typically, the positrons entering the solid have appreciable
momentum whereas the electrons (originally present in the solid) are almost at rest. Then the
paths of the two g -ray photons are at some angle to each other, and these paths intersect at
the position of the pair-annihilation event

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
INTRODUCTION:
In classical physics it is generally assumed tha position and momentum of moving
object can be simultaneously measurd exactly i.e. no uncertainties are involved in its
description. But in microscopic world . it is found that however refined our instrument there is
a fundamental limitation to the accuracy with which the position and velocity of microscopic by
a german physicist werner Heisenberg in 1927 and known as Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle'.
In microscopic particles we can observe two type of uncertainties viz.
 Uncertainty in position and momentum
 Uncertainty in energy and time

STATEMENT

UNCERTAINTY IN POSITION AND MOMENTUM

ACCORDING TO HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
It is impossible to determine both position and momentum of an electron
simultaneously. If one quantity is known then the determination of the other quantity will
become impossible.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
Lets
x = uncertainty in position

101
 P = uncertainty in momnentum
According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:
The product of the uncertainty in position and the uncertainity momentum is in the order of an
amount involving h, which is Plan constant.
P x x = h/2π---(1)

EXPLANATION:
It is not difficult to understand the phenomenon of uncertainty.
Consider an example in which we are going to see the position of an electron. We measure the
position an electron is measured the position is masured with light and observing the light that
it reflects. The light disturbs its momentum.
Heisenbreg considered an electron that has a definite known momentum and that passes
under a powerful microscope. He realized that measuring the position of an elementary
particles alters its monmentum in a random manner.
This techniques allows the position to be specified with accuracy comparable
to the wavelength of light used in the experiment . however, when the photon are scattered
from the electron , they alter its momentum because the photon have a momentum of their
own. The observer can not the extent of this distrurbance ,which is random.
Incresing the wavelength decrease the disturbance ,because photons of longer
wavelength have less momentum and energy. However increasing the wavelength reduce the
precision of the measurement of position.
Decreasing the wavelength allows better position measurement, but increases the
disturbance to the momentum.

UNCERTAINTY IN TIME AND ENERGY

Similar to uncertainty in position there iS another principle of uncertainty which limits the
accuracy in the measurement of time i.e. if is the energy uncertainty in time At then we
have an expression
similar to equation (1)
E x t = h/2π

RESULTS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

 It is impossible to chase an electron around the nucleus.
 The principle describes the incompleteness of Bohr's atomic theory.
 According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle there is no circular orbit around the
nucleus
 Exact position of an electron cannot be determined precisely.

102
 CHAPTER 26
ATOMIC PHYSICS
SPECTRUM
A spectrum is defined as the characteristic wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (or a
portion thereof) that is emitted or absorbed by an object or substance, atom, or molecule.
Examples of a spectrum include the rainbow, the emission colors from the Sun, and the
infrared absorption wavelengths from a molecule.

TYPES OF ATOMIC SPECTRUM

(1) EMISSION SPECTRUM:
Spectrum produced by the emitted radiation is known as emission spectrum. This spectrum
corresponds to the radiation emitted (energy evolved) when an excited electron returns back to
the ground state.
(I) CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM:
When sunlight is passed through a prism, it gets dispersed into continuous bands of
different colours. If the light of an incandescent object resolved through prism or spectroscope,
it also gives continuous spectrum of colors.
(II) LINE SPECTRUM:
If the radiation’s obtained by the excitation of a substance are analyzed with help of a
spectroscope a series of thin bright lines of specific colors are obtained. There is dark space in
between two consecutive lines. This type of spectrum is called line spectrum or atomic
spectrum..
(2) ABSORPTION SPECTRUM:
Spectrum produced by the absorbed radiations is called absorption spectrum.

LASER
LASER Sands for
LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION.
The instrument emits a beam of coherent light in which all photons have some
frequency and moves in same direction with uniform velocity OR
Laser is a device used to produce very intense, highly directional, coherent and
monochromatic beam of light.
Laser of different power and application can be produced by using different materials.

BASIC CONDITIONS TO PRODUCE LASER

 There must be a meta stable state in the system
 The system must achieve population inversion
 The photons emitted must be confined in the system for a time to allow them further
stimulated emission.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
The principle of laser production is based on the fact that atoms of a material have a number
of energy levels in which at least one is meta-stable state.
Consider a three level atomic system having energies E1, E2 and E3respectively.

103
 Let the atoms are at ground state E1 If photons interact with an atom in ground state, the atom
absorbs the photon and reaches the excited state E3. We know that the excited state is an
unstable state, therefore, electron must return back to ground state E 1 but such transitions are
not allowed and the electron first reach the state E3. Atoms in the state E2 which has a life time
of about 10-8 sec decay spontaneously from state E3 to state E2 which is meta-stable and has
life time of 10-3sec. This means that the atoms reach state E2 much faster than they leave state
B,.This results in an increase in number of atoms in state E2, and hence population inversion is
achieved
After achieving population inversion it is exposed to a beam of photons which causes induced
emission of photons and a beam of laser is produced.

PROPERTIES OF LASER
 Monochromatic
 Coherence
 Directionality
 Highly Intense or Brightness
1. MONOCHROMATIC
Monochromatic light is a light containing a single colour or wavelength. The light emitted
from ordinary light sources have different energies, frequencies, wavelengths, or colors. But
laser light has a single wavelength or colour.

104
2. COHERENCE
A predictable correlation of the amplitude and phase at any one point with another point
is called coherence.That means if two or more waves of same frequency are in the same phase
or have constant phase difference then these waves are said to be coherent in nature.

Figure :Incoherence and Coherence

3. DIRECTIONALITY
The light ray coming from an ordinary light source travels in all directions, but laser light
travels in a single direction.

4. HIGHLY INTENSE OR BRIGHTNESS

Laser light is highly intense than conventional light. We know that the intensity of a wave
is the energy per unit time flowing through a specific area. A one mill watt He-Ne laser is more
intense than the sun intensity. This is because of the coherence and directionality of the laser.

HELIUM-NEON LASER
Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon gas is used
as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as He-Ne laser.
The helium-neon laser was the first continuous wave (CW) laser ever constructed. It was
built in 1961 by Ali Javan, Bennett, and Herriott at Bell Telephone Laboratories.

CONSTRUCTION

The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:

Pump source (high voltage power supply)
Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
Resonating cavity.

105
HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY OR PUMP SOURCE
In order to produce the laser beam, it is essential to achieve population inversion.
Population inversion is the process of achieving more electrons in the higher energy state as
compared to the lower energy state.
In general, the lower energy state has more electrons than the higher energy state.
However, after achieving population inversion, more electrons will remain in the higher energy
state than the lower energy state.
A high voltage DC supplies electric current through the gas mixture of helium and neon.

GAIN MEDIUM (DISCHARGE GLASS TUBE OR GLASS ENVELOPE)

The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of helium and neon gas
contained in a glass tube at low pressure. The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar whereas that
of neon is 0.1 mbar.

RESONATING CAVITY
The glass tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas) is placed between two parallel
mirrors. These two mirrors are silvered or optically coated.Each mirror is silvered differently.
The left side mirror is partially silvered and is known as output coupler whereas the right side
mirror is fully silvered and is known as the high reflector or fully reflecting mirror.The fully
silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered mirror will reflect
most part of the light but allows some part of the light to produce the laser beam.

WORKING OF LASER
When the power is switched on, a high voltage of about 10 kV is applied across the gas
mixture. This power is enough to excite the electrons in the gas mixture. The electrons
produced in the process of discharge are accelerated between the electrodes (cathode and
anode) through the gas mixture.In the process of flowing through the gas, the energetic
electrons transfer some of their energy to the helium atoms in the gas. As a result, the lower
energy state electrons of the helium atoms gain enough energy and jumps into the excited
states or metastable states.

APPLICATION OF LASER:
1. The dimensional image of object is obtained by using loses and is called Holography.
2. A surgical tool for g welding defected retina.
3. To perform precision survey and length measurement .

106
 4. A potential energy source of inducting nuclear fusion reaction.
5. For telephone communication through optical fiber.
6. For precise cutting of metal and other materials

LASER BEAM HAZARDZ

Skin injuries can be caused by powerful lasers at any wavelength. Focused beams can
evaporate tissue and result in third degree burns.

SAFETY PROTOCOLS

 Mount the laser on a solid surface so it cannot accidentally move. Keep the beam below
or above eye-level, unless the application requires else.
 Enclose the beam as much as the application allows using beam tubes, laser barriers, or
filter windows appropriate for the wavelength.
 Use beam blocks and dumps to terminate any unwanted beams and reflections.
 If the beam cannot be fully enclosed, confine it to the experimental area using laser
barriers and curtains and separate the laser area from other parts of the room.
 Keep any radiation from reaching the room entrance.
 Avoid unwanted reflections by removing any reflective items, such as tools and unused
optical components from the laser area.
 Remove jewelry and watches from your arms and hands.

X –RAYS
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light but with much higher
energy. They are classified as ionizing radiation, meaning they have enough energy to remove
tightly bound electrons from atoms, which can result in damage to living tissue.

PRODUCTION OF X RAYS
The production of X-rays typically occurs in an X-ray tube, a device that generates X-rays
through the interaction of high-energy electrons with a metal target. Here's a step-by-step
explanation of the process:

107
1. STRUCTURE:

An X-ray tube is made up of key components:

 Cathode: The negatively charged electrode.

 Anode: The positively charged electrode, often made of tungsten because of its high
melting point and atomic number two.

2. ELECTRON EMISSION (THERMIONIC EMISSION):

The cathode is heated by an electric current, which causes it to emit electrons through a
process called thermionic emission. This occurs because heat energy gives the electrons enough
energy to escape from the metal surface of the cathode.

3. ACCELERATION OF ELECTRONS:
A high voltage (often between 30,000 and 150,000 volts) is applied between the cathode
and the anode. This potential difference accelerates the electrons towards the anode at very
high speeds.

4. INTERACTION WITH THE TARGET (ANODE):

When the high-speed electrons strike the metal target (anode), they lose energy rapidly.
Most of this energy is converted into heat (about 99%), but a small fraction (about 1%) is
transformed into X-rays. There are two primary ways that X-rays are produced during this
interaction:

BREMSSTRAHLUNG (BRAKING RADIATION):

This is the primary source of X-rays in an X-ray tube. As electrons approach the
positively charged nuclei of atoms in the anode, they slow down or "brake," and this
deceleration causes the release of energy in the form of X-rays. The energy of these X-rays
varies, producing a continuous spectrum.

CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION:
If the incoming electrons have enough energy, they can knock out inner-shell electrons
from the atoms of the anode material. When outer-shell electrons fill the vacancies left in the
inner shell, they emit X-rays with specific energies characteristic of the target material (e.g.,
tungsten). These X-rays have a discrete spectrum.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATIONS
1. They have wavelengths ranging from 0.01 to 10nm.
2. The energy of X-rays typically ranges between 100 eV and 100 keV
3. X-rays can penetrate various materials, including soft tissues in the human body.
4. X-rays are considered ionizing radiation, meaning they carry enough energy to ionize
atoms or molecules by ejecting electrons.
5. X-rays travel in straight lines and cannot be deflected by magnetic or electric fields
because they are uncharged.

108
BOHR’S ATOMIC THERORY

INTRODUCTION:

Neil Bohr studied the spectrum of hydrogen atom. On the basis of his study, he
proposed a theory, which is known as Bohr’s Atomic theory.

POSTULATES OF BOHR'S ATOMIC THEORY

The important Postulates of Bohr's Atomic Theory are as follows:

ENERGY
Total energy of an electron remains constant as long as electron remains in the same orbit ie,
electron does not radiate energy while revolving around the nucleus.
Angular Momentum
Electrons revolve only in those orbits for which its orbital angular momentum is an integral
multiple of h/2π,ie.
L=mvr=nh/2π
Where,
m=mass of electron
V= velocity of electron
n= Principal quantum number
h= Plank's Constant

ENERGY RELEASE
When an electron jumps from a higher orbit having energy E, to a lower orbit having energy Er
then energy is relcased in the form of radiations hv i.e.
Ei -Ef=hv = hc /λ
Where,

V= Frequency of Photon
A=Wavelength of Photon
C= Speed of light
h= Plank's constant

HYDROGEN ATOM OR BOHT ATOM

A hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. It consists of a proton in the nucleus and an
electron revolving around the nucleus.

RADIUS OF HYDROGEN ORBIT

Consider an electron of charge -e revolving in a hydrogen atom around a proton of charge +e'
with constant speed v.

109
When the electron revolves around the nucleus ,then two forces balance its motion.
Electrostatic Force = F =ke2 / r2 ------(1)
Centrifugal Force = F = mv2 / r------(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2)
ke2 / r2 = mv2 / r
ke2 / mv2 = r2 / r
r = ke2 / mv2 ------(3)
According to Bohr’s theory ,angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π
mvr = nh /2π
v = nh / 2π mr
1/v = 2π mr /nh
Taking square of both sides
1/v2 = 4π2 m2r2 /n2h2
Substituting the above valur od equ (2)
r = ke2 / m x 4π2 m2r2 /n2h2
r/r2= 4π2 m ke2 /n2h2
1/r = 4π2 m ke2 /n2h2
r= n2h2 / 4π2 m ke2
We know that ,
1/K = 4π Єo

Therefore

r=( n2h2 / 4π2 m e2) x 4π Єo

r= n2 (h2 Єo π me2 )
The above equation gives the radius of hydrogen atom
RADII OF VARIOUS ORBITS:
Radius of first orbits of hydrogen atom is calculated by substituting the
following values in the equation of radius.

110
n=1
h = 6.25 x 10 -34 J.sec
m = 9.1 x 10 -31 kg
k = 9 x 109 Nm2 /col2
e = col
r = (1)2 (6.625 x 10 -34) / { 42 x 9.1 x 10 -31 x (9 x 109) x (1.6 x10 -19 )2 }
r1 = 0.53 x 10 -10 m
r1 = 0.53 Ao
For other orbits radius is given by

r2 =(2)2 x 0.53 Ao = 2.12 Ao

r3 =(3)2x 0.53 Ao = 4.77 Ao
similarly ,
rn =(n)2x 0.53 Ao

ENERGY OF HYDROGEN ELECTRON:

Ann electron revolving in the orbits of hydrogen atom
possess kinetic energy as well as as potential energy . Therefore ,total energy is given by
E= K.E + P.E -----(1)
KINETIC ENERGY:
When an electron revolves in the orbits ,then electrostatic force is balanced
by centrifugal force.
ke2 / r2 = mv2 / r
mv2 = ke2 / r
1/2 mv2 = ke2 / 2r
K.E = ke2 / 2r
POTENTIAL ENERGY:
Potential energy is given by
P.E = F x R
P.E = ( ke2 / r2 ) x r
P.E = ke2 (-1/r2)
P.E = - ke2 / r
TOTAL ENERGY:
Substituting the value of K.E and P.E in equ (1)
E = ke2 / 2r - ke2 / r
E = ke2 / 2r
Since k =1/4π Єo:
E = 1/4π Єo x e2 /2r
2
E= -e / 8 π Єo r
SINCE ,
r = n2(h2 Єo / π me2)

111
Therefore;
En = -e2 / 8π Єo x (n2 h2 Єo / π me2)

En = -e2 / 8π Єo x n2 ( π me2 / n2 h2 Єo)

En = x
Since,
h = 2πh

Therefore;
En = x

The above equation gives as energy of the orbit of hydrogen atoms.

For ground states

n=1
h = 6.25 x 10 -34 J.sec
m = 9.1 x10 -31 kg
Eo = 8.85 x 10 -12 col2 /Nm2
e = 1.6 x 10 -19 Col
therefore
= -13.6 e.v

The energy of electron can be represented as

En =
The negative sign shows that the electron is bound with the nucleus . when energy of ghe
electron becomes positive , the electron will leave the nucleus

Therefore;
E1 = = - 13.6 e.v
E2 = = -3.4 e.v
E3 = = -1.52 e.v
WAVE NUMBER OF RADIATIONS:
When an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level , then
its radiates energy in the form of photon.

112
 The energy of the radiation is different of the energy of two energy levels .if
Ei is the energy og the higher energy land and Ef of lower energy levels then energy of radiator
is given by
hv = Ei - Ef
since;
E= x
Therefore,
hv = x - x

hv = x( + )

hv = x( - )
Since vλ = c or v= c/λ
hc/λ = x( - )
But h = 2πh
2πhc/λ = x( - )

1/λ = x( - )

1/λ = x( - )

Here RH = where RH is called Rybderg constant

And 1/λ is called wave number and is represented by v
Therefore
V’ = RH ( - )
SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN ATOM:
When an electron jumps from higher level to lower energy level .it radiates energy
which appears in the form of the spectral line. A set spectral lines is knowns as hydrogen
spectrum.
Hydrogen spectrum is the simplest one which consists of five series.

LAYMAN SERIES:
When an electron jumps from higher orbits to the first orbit. Laymen series
(Ultra violet region) is obtained .
The wavelength and wave number of laymen series can be calculated by
V = RH (1/12 – 1/n2)
When n = 2,3,4……

BALMER SERIES:

113
 When an electron jumos from higher orbits to the second orbits then
Balmer series (visible region) is obtained.
The wavelength and wave number of Balmer series can be calculated by
V = RH (1/22 – 1/n2)
When n = 3,4,5……

PASCHEN SERIES:
When an electron jumos from higher orbits to the third orbits then paschen series (infra
red region) is obtained.
The wavelength and wave number of Paschen series can be calculated by
V = RH (1/32 – 1/n2)
When n = 4,5,6……

BRACKET SERIES:
When an electron jumps from higher orbits to the fourth orbits then Bracket series
(infra red region) is obtained.
The wavelength and wave number of Bracket series can be calculated by
V = RH (1/42 – 1/n2)
When n = 5,6.,7……

PFUND SERIES:
When an electron jumps from higher orbits to the fifth orbits then Pfund series (infra
red region) is obtained.
The wavelength and wave number of Pfund series can be calculated by
V = RH (1/52 – 1/n2)
When n = 6.,7,8……

114
 CHAPTER 27
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC NUMBER:
The atomic number (symbol Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.

MASS NUMBER:
The mass number (symbol A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.

ISOTOPES:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (same
atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different mass numbers.
For example:
Hydrogen has three primary isotopes: Protium (H-1), Deuterium (H-2), and Tritium (H-3).
These isotopes differ in the number of neutrons they contain, but all have one proton,
makin them
hydrogen.
Carbon-12 (C-12) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons (mass number = 12).
Carbon-14 (C-14) has 6 protons and 8 neutrons (mass number = 14).

MASS SPECTROGRAPH

A mass spectrograph is an instrument used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ions,
allowing for the identification and analysis of different isotopes, molecules, and atomic
particles. It separates charged particles (ions) based on their masses and provides a visual
representation of their distribution, called a mass spectrum.

The Bridgman mass spectrograph (often referred to as the Bridgman mass spectrometer) is a
type of mass spectrometer that employs a unique design for separating ions based on their
mass-to-charge ratio (m/zm/zm/z). It was developed by the physicist H. M. Bridgman in the
1920s and is notable for its effectiveness in analyzing isotopes and molecular species.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The mass spectrograph operates by creating ions from a sample and then sorting these ions
based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). Ions with different masses follow different paths
when passed through a magnetic field due to their momentum, causing them to strike the
detector at different points. By analyzing the pattern of where ions hit the detector, the
instrument determines the mass distribution of the sample's components.
COMPONENTS OF A MASS SPECTROGRAPH:

Ion Source:The sample is ionized, typically by bombarding it with electrons or applying a

strong electric field, which removes or adds electrons, creating positively or negatively
charged ions.

115
 Accelerator:The ions are then accelerated by an electric field, giving them kinetic
energy. The degree of acceleration depends on their charge, but their velocity is
proportional to their mass-to-charge ratio.

Magnetic/Electric Field:After being accelerated, the ions pass through a magnetic or

electric field. The field deflects ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Lighter ions are
deflected more, while heavier ions are deflected less. The degree of deflection is crucial
in separating ions of different masses.

Detector:After passing through the field, the ions are detected, often using a
photographic plate (in older instruments) or a more modern electron multiplier or
Faraday cup, which measures the intensity of the ions hitting the detector.

RADIOACTIVITY:
The phenomenon of the disintegration of nuclei with the emission of radiation is called
radio activity.
Radioactivity is classified.
 Natural radioactivity.
 Artificial .

NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY:
Elements having atomic number greater than 82 to 83 exhibit radiations due to self
destruction of their nuclei. These radiations are called radioactive radiator and the elements
are called radioactive elements and the phenomenon is called natural radioactivity.

The phenomenon of radiation is spontaneous and its rate cannot be increased or decreased by
ordinary or chemical method
Note: In nuclear reaction the charge no and mass no is conserved.

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATION:

βWhen radioactive radiations are passed through electric field& magnetic field it decomposes
into 3 types.

116
PROPERTIES OF Α RAYS:
1. The mass of each α particle is nearly 4 times the mass of hydrogen nucleus.
2. The charge on each α particle is positive and equal to twice the charge on a proton
3. The ionization capability of α particle is very large
4. Penetration power of these rays is very small.
5. α rays produce fluorescence in certain substance .
6. When these rays are allowed to pass through a thin metal foil e.g. a gold foil some of the
rays are scattered through large angle.
7. α rays can be induce artificial radioactivity in certain nuclei.
8. These rays produce burn and sore on human body.
9. α ray get absorbed after passing through a small distance in air.

EQUATION OF ALPHA DECAY:

GENERAL EQUATION:
A
XZ A-2YZ-2 +4HE2
EXAMPLES:
238 234
U92 Th92 +4HE2
228 224
Th90 Ra88 +4HE2
222 218
Ra88 Rn86 +4HE2

PROPERTIES OF Β-RAYS:
1. The kinetic energy of β-rays is less than that of alph rays.
2. These rays affect the photographic plates.
3. These rays produce fluorescence easily,especially in barium platinocynide
4. Due to their small mass , these rays as compared to alph particle are easily scattered by
the nuclei of atoms.
5. The ionization power of these rays is very small.
6. These velocity of β-rays is from 9 x107 m/s to 27 x107 m/s

117
 EQUATION OF Β DECAY:
In beta decay , we see one of two things happening . In one case a proton in an
atomic nucleus is converted into a neutron ( beta minus decay) and a new element is
formed with ejection of an electrin and an antineutrino. In the second case ,a neutron in an
atomic nucleus is converted into a proton( beta plus decay) and a new element . But we
can just pick two examples and post them.

EQUATION OF BETA DECAY:

GENERAL EQUATION:
A
XZ AYZ+2 + 0β-1
EXAMPLES:
138 138
I53 Xe54 +0β-1
90 90
Sr38 Y39 +0β-1
82 82
Br35 Kr36 +0β-1

PROPERTIES OF γ -rays
1. They are not particles but are electronmagnetic radiation. They are neutral in nature.
2. The object electron when incident on metal and this phenomenon is called
photoelectric Effect.
3. The speed of these rays is equal to that of light.
4. Like alph rays., these rays also get absorbed in various materials
5. Penetrating power of gamma rays is very large.its about 100 time larger than that of
beta rays

EQUATION OF GAMMA DECAY:

A A
XZ YZ + ϒ
ACTIVITY:
The number of disintegrated nuclei per second is called activity A.

HALF LIFE:
The time during which half of the radioactive nuclei decave is called half life of that
element.
The half life depends upon the sample of radioactive substance
For example the half life of radon (Rd) is 3.80 days whereas the half life of radium (Ra) is 1590
years.

DETERMINATION F HALF LIFE

The half-life of a radioactive substance can be determined by calculating its rate of decay.
According to law of radioactive decay we know that.
If we calculated the number of particles emitted per secondfrom radioactive element by
an experiment and plots a graph b/w activity and time we get following curve.

118
 If Ao 1S the activity when time is equal to zero and it becomes half after half life (T1/2) and
similarly after another half-life (T1/2) the activity willreduce to half again. Thus by calculating the
time during which activity 1s reduced to half is half life of a given radioactive element can be
calculated.

LAW OF RADIO ACTIVE DECAY:

119
MASS DEFECT:
In any nuclear reaction the mass of parent nuclie is always greater than the sum of
masses of daughter nuclie i.e a nuclear reaction take place with the decrease in mass. This
difference in mass is called mass defect ans is converted into energy according to Eastern
Equation
E=mc2
This energy is called Q value of the reaction.

BINDING ENERGY
When a nucleus is formed from its constituents i.e. proton and neutron its mass decreases i.e.
mass of nucleus is less than the sum of masses of nucleons (Proton +Neutron). This difference
in mass is also called mass defect and is converted into energy called binding energy.

PACKING FRACTION
The binding energy per nucleon is called packing friction and it determines the stability of a
nucleus.
P.F = B.E /N
If packing fraction is greater than 8 the nucleus will be stable.

NUCLEAR FISSION
DEFINITION:
The nuclear reaction during which one radioactive nucleus decomposes into two nuclei of
nearly same masses is called fission reaction.
or
The process of decompositions of heavy nuclei into two lighter nuclei of nearly same masses
along with the emission of large amount of energy is called nuclear fissions.

EXPLANATION:
When a neutron is bombarded to a heavy nucleus like Uranium it becomes unstable and
undergoes decay forming Barium and Krypton along with 3 neutrons and large amount of heat.
235
92U + 0n 1 56 Ba144 +36 Kr90 +30 n90 + Q

LIBERATION OF ENERGY
In the above example the mass of uranium is greater than the sum of masses of newly formed
particles i.e. mass decreases or mass defect. This mass is converted into energy according to
Exstein
Relation.
E= mc2
CHAN REACTION
When slow neutrons are bond barded on Uranium 92U238 the fission starts and no further
neutron are required for the fission reaction. During fission 3 neutrons are produced which are

120
responsible for further fission. Each time when Uranium nuclear undergoes fission 3 neutrons
are produced thus fission is a chain reaction.
It is difficult to handle the energy produced when all the neutron undergoes fission thus 2
neutrons are stopped by using neutron: When one particle of uranium undergoes fission then
200Mev energy is released.
Absorbing rods usually made up of graphite or cadmium and only one, neutron is allowed for
further fission.
Mass available for fission is called the mass of required and its volume is called critical volume.
Note
1. The process of slowing down neutron called "moderation"
2. The systematic arranged which nuclear fission takes place is “ Nuclear reactor”.
3. In atomic bomb nuclear fission takes places

NUCLEAR FUSION
The process in which two or more lighter nuclear combines to form heavier nuclei is
called nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission takes place at very high temperature and energyproduced during nuclear fission
is very high.

121
NUCLEAR REACTOR:

“Nuclear Reactor is the device where Nuclear Fission is carried in a controlled manner for
peaceful purpose”. The general features of Nuclear reactor are highlighted as:

1) NUCLEAR FUEL:
“A material consisting of the fissionable isotopes is called the Nuclear Fuel” The
conventional nuclear fuel is 92U235.
2) MODERATORS:
“Moderators are the devices used in Nuclear Reactor to control energy of
Neutrons Produced per Fission”. Heavy water, graphite, Beryllium and certain organic
compound are used as moderators.
3) COOLANTS:
“Materials such a heavy water, sodium, mercury etc. Which are used in Nuclear
reactor to remove a huge amount of heat energy generated as a result of Fission are
called Coolants”. The properties of good coolants are:

i) It should not absorb nor moderate the Neutrons.

ii) It should not induce any chemical effect neither in itself nor in other materials of
reactor.
iii) It should not break up under the effect of radiations.

4) CONTROL MATERIALS
“The devices which control the Nuclear Fission by absorbing Neutrons are
called control materials”. Cadmium an alloy of Silver-Indium-Cadmium, Boron etc. are
the best control materials.

5) SHIELDING:
“Shielding is the processes of preventing environment are life from the hazards of
radiation of Nuclear Fission in the Nuclear Reactor”. Protection of health of persons
working in reactor is called “Biological Shielding”. Whereas protection from heat is
called “Thermal Shielding”.

122
BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONS

1.Radiation can ionize molecules within cells, particularly DNA, leading to single-strand breaks,
double-
strand breaks, or base damage.
2. Occurs after a high dose of radiation exposure over a short period, typically more than 1 gray
(Gy).
3. Long term exposure to lower doses can lead to increased risk of cancer, particularly leukemia
and
solid tumors.
4. Exposure to radiation can lead to mutations in the DNA, which can be passed to future
generations if
they occur in germ cells (sperm and eggs).

DISOMETRY:
Dosimetry is the science and technology of measuring and calculating the absorbed dose of
ionizing radiation, typically in the context of health physics, radiation therapy, and nuclear
medicine.

Absorbed Dose:
The amount of energy deposited per unit mass of a material (often biological tissue) by
ionizing radiation, measured in grays (Gy), where 1 Gy is equivalent to 1 joule of energy
absorbed per kilogram of matter.

Dose Equivalent:
A measure that accounts for the biological effects of different types of radiation,
measured in sieverts (Sv). It incorporates a quality factor (QF) to adjust for the type of radiation
(e.g., alpha, beta, gamma).

APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR RADIATION IN MEDICAL:

Nuclear Medicine:
Uses small amounts of radioactive materials (radiopharmaceuticals) to diagnose and
evaluate various medical conditions. Common techniques include:

123
  Positron Emission Tomography (PET): This imaging technique uses radioactive glucose
(such as fluorodeoxyglucose, or FDG) to detect metabolic activity in tissues. It is widely
used in oncology to identify cancerous cells.
 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): Similar to PET, SPECT uses
gamma-emitting radiopharmaceuticals to visualize blood flow and metabolic activity in
organs, particularly the heart and brain.

BONE SCINTIGRAPHY: Involves injecting a radioactive tracer that accumulates in bone tissue,
useful for detecting bone metastases, fractures, or infections.

RADIATION THERAPY: Uses high doses of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink
tumors

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN TREATMENT

 Iodine-131: Commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer by targeting

thyroid tissue.
 Radium-223: Used for treating metastatic bone cancer, specifically prostate cancer, to
relieve pain and improve survival.
 Strontium-89 and Samarium-153: Used for palliative treatment of bone pain associated
with metastatic cancer.

USES OF RADIOACTIVE TRACERS:

Radiotracers, also known as radiolabeled compounds or radioactive tracers, are substances

that have been labeled with a radioactive isotope and are used in various fields, particularly in
medicine and research. Here are some of the primary uses of radiotracers:

MEDICAL IMAGING
Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
Common radiotracers include fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for detecting cancerous tissues,
as cancer cells tend to absorb more glucose than normal cells.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
1. Radiotracers can be used in various industries to detect leaks in pipelines and tanks, helping
to identify and mitigate environmental hazards.
2. In processes like oil extraction and chemical manufacturing, radiotracers can be used to
measure flow rates and material transport.

124
 CHAPTER 28
PARTICLES PHYSICS

The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory that describes the fundamental particles and
the forces through which they interact, except for gravity. It has been highly successful in
explaining a wide range of phenomena in the universe. The model includes three types of
fundamental particles: quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons (force carriers), and describes how
they interact via three of the four fundamental forces: electromagnetism, the weak nuclear
force, and the strong nuclear force.

KEY COMPONENTS OF THE STANDARD MODEL:

1. FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

 Quarks: Six types (or flavors) of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.
Quarks combine to form protons and neutrons.
 Leptons: Six types of leptons: the electron, muon, tau (and their corresponding
neutrinos). The electron is the most familiar, as it orbits atomic nuclei.

2. FORCE CARRIERS (GAUGE BOSONS)

 Photon (γ): Mediates the electromagnetic force.

 W and Z bosons: Mediate the weak nuclear force, responsible for radioactive decay.
 Gluon (g): Mediates the strong nuclear force, which holds quarks together inside
protons and neutrons.
 Higgs boson: Responsible for giving mass to other particles through the Higgs
mechanism. It was discovered in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

3. FORCES EXPLAINED BY THE STANDARD MODEL

 Electromagnetic Force: Acts between electrically charged particles.

 Weak Nuclear Force: Governs processes like radioactive decay.
 Strong Nuclear Force: Binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons, and holds
the atomic nucleus together.

PARTICLE ZOO
Although the Standard Model has simplified the classification of particles, the "particle zoo"
remains a useful historical term to describe the initial chaotic state of subatomic particle
discovery.

BOSONS:
Bosons are a category of subatomic particles that obey Bose-Einstein statistics and are
responsible for mediating the fundamental forces of nature. In contrast to fermions (which
make up matter, such as electrons and quarks), bosons are force carriers.

125
ELEMENTARY BOSONS
Elementary bosons are the fundamental particles that mediate the forces between matter particles
(fermions) in the universe. They are not made of smaller particles and are integral to the Standard Model of
particle physics. These bosons are responsible for transmitting the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear
forces, and one of them is responsible for giving mass to particles.

PROPERTIES:
Boson Spin Mass Charge Range Force Mediated

0
Photon (γ) 1 0 (neutral) Infinite Electromagnetic force
(massless)

0 0 (carries color Confined (inside

Gluon (g) 1 Strong nuclear force
(massless) charge) hadrons)

W Bosons 1 ~80 GeV/c² +1 (W⁺), -1 (W⁻) ~10⁻¹⁸ meters Weak nuclear force

Z Boson 1 ~91 GeV/c² 0 (neutral) ~10⁻¹⁸ meters Weak nuclear force

Higgs ~125 No range (not a Gives particles mass via

0 0 (neutral)
Boson GeV/c² force) Higgs field

COMPOSTIE BOSONS:
Composite bosons are particles that behave like bosons (in that they obey Bose-Einstein
statistics) but are made up of smaller, constituent particles. Unlike elementary bosons, which
are fundamental particles (like the photon or gluon), composite bosons are formed by
combining two or more particles, typically fermions.

FERMIONS:
Fermions are a class of subatomic particles. Fermions are the building blocks of matter, as
they make up particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons. Unlike bosons, which mediate
forces, fermions constitute matter itself.
ELEMENTARY FERMIONS
These are fundamental particles, meaning they are not made up of smaller constituents. In the
Standard Model of particle physics, there are two families of elementary fermions:

 Quarks: Make up protons, neutrons, and other hadrons.

 Leptons: Include particles like the electron, neutrinos, and their heavier cousins (muons
and tau particles).

126
Six Flavors: Leptons also come in six types:

1. Electron (e⁻)
2. Electron Neutrino (νₑ)
3. Muon (μ⁻)
4. Muon Neutrino (ν_μ)
5. Tau (τ⁻)
6. Tau Neutrino (ν_τ)

ELECTRIC CHARGE:

 Charged leptons (electron, muon, and tau) carry a charge of -1.

 Neutrinos are neutral and extremely light.

QUARKS
Quarks are unique in that they experience all four fundamental forces of nature: strong, weak,
electromagnetic, and gravitational forces, though the strong force is the dominant interaction
for them.

PROPERTIES OF QUARKS:
1.Quarks have fractional electric charges of either +2/3 or -1/3 of the electron charge.
2.They combine to form hadrons which are stable.
3. Quarks can undergo weak interactions,leading to processes such as beta decay.

COLOR CHARGE:

 Quarks carry a property known as color charge, which is related to the strong
interaction mediated by gluons. Despite its name, color charge has nothing to do with
visual color.
 There are three types of color charge: red, green, and blue. Quarks combine in such a
way that the resulting particle (e.g., proton or neutron) is color-neutral (i.e., has no net
color charge).

COMPOSITE FERMIONS
These are particles made up of other fermions but behave as fermions themselves because their overall
spin is a half-integer. The composite particles that are made of quarks called hardons. The two main
categories of hardons are baryons and mesons.
Baryons:
Composite fermions made of three quarks (e.g., protons and neutrons).
A proton is composed of three quarks: two up quarks and one down quark. These quarks are
bound together by the strong force, which is mediated by gluons

127
TOTAL CHARGE OF A PROTON:
The electric charge of a proton is the sum of the charges of its quarks:

 2 × (+2/3) from the two up quarks = +4/3

 1 × (-1/3) from the down quark = -1/3

Total charge: +4/3+(−1/3)=+1+4/3 + (-1/3) = +1+4/3+(−1/3)=+1

Quark Composition of a Neutron:

A neutron is composed of three quarks:
1 Up Quark (u): Charge = +2/3
2 Down Quarks (d): Charge = -1/3 (each)

TOTAL CHARGE OF A NEUTRON:

To find the total charge of a neutron, we sum the charges of its constituent quarks:
1 × (+2/3) from the up quark = +2/3
2 × (-1/3) from the two down quarks = -2/3
Adding these together:
+23+(−23)=0+ \frac{2}{3} + (-\frac{2}{3}) = 0+32+(−32)=0
Thus, the total charge of a neutron is 0, confirming that it is neutral.

MESONS:
Composite bosons made of a quark and an antiquark.

BETA DECAY
Beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a nucleus emits a beta particle, which can
be either an electron (in beta-minus decay) or a positron (in beta-plus decay). This process
involves the transformation of one type of quark into another, leading to changes in the
composition of the nucleus.

128
RADIATIONS DETECTORS:
GEIGER COUNTER
Geiger device is a portable device which is used for the detection and radiations and
determination of their path.

PRINCIPLE:
It works on the principle of ionization. When an ion is formed it moves towards
respective electrodes and crates a pulse current through which can detect the ionizing particle
or radiation.

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a hollow metallic cylinder, one end of which is closed by an insulating cap. At
the center of the cap is fixed a stiff straight wire along the axis of cylinder .A thin mica or glass
disc closes the other end which also serves as the entrance window for ionizing particles. The
tube contains a special mixture of air, argon, alcohol at a pressure of 50-100 mmHg

WORKING:
A potential difference of the range of 1000V is maintained between the metal cylinder and the
axial wire through a suitable series resistor of 109 ohms. When an ionizing particles enters the
tube through the window,it ionize some gase molecules in it.These ions are accelerated by the
strong radial electric field producing more ions collision which produce ionization current so a
momentary current flows b/w the wire and the cylinder and also through the resistor R. The
ends of “R” are connected to a loud speaker or an electronic counter.

COUNTING OF PARTICLES
Each time particle inters the G.M tube and ionization current pulse is created which gives a
click in the recorder or a count in an electronic counter the no of counts counted by the counter
shows the intensity or ionizing power of the incident radiation.

129
 In the case of ionizing radiation, the number of counts register by the counter measures
the intensity or ionizing power of incident radiation.

USES OF G.M COUNTER

1.They provide a simple and effective way to monitor radiation levels in various environments.
2. In the medical field, G.M. counters are used to monitor radiation exposure for both patients
and
healthcare workers.
3.G .M. counters are employed in environmental monitoring to assess background radiation
levels and detect radioactive contamination in soil, water, and air.

WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER:

It is an instrument used for the detection and identification of the path of subatomic particles
. In the Wilson cloud chamber , path oof subatomic particle or ionized particle can be
photographed.
PRINCIPLE:
When the particle is passed through the supersatued vapours droplets are formed on the
line due to ionization along the track and particle is detected .

CONSTRUCTION:
It consist of a closed cylinder chamber with a transect glass top and a moveable piston at the
bottom on the side near the top the cylinder is provided with a glass window which serves as
the entrance of conizing particle inside the chamber a liquid of low boliling point is placed . The
piston can be moved up and down. A strong light source is ued to illuminate the chamber while
a camera is replaced at the top to take the photograph of the path of ionizing particle.

130
WORKING
Some volatile liquid having low boiling point (methanol CH3OH or ethanol (C2H5OH) is poured
on the inner surface of the chamber. The piston first is moved slowly up so that the air inside
the chamber is cleaned and then it is then moved down, so that the internal pressure is
dropped and the air get vapors of the liquid and becomes supersaturated and a fog is observed
in the chamber At the right moment particles are allowed to enter into the chamber and a
powerful and intense beam of light is used to illuminate the track of the particles and photos
are taken by the sensitive camera.
If a strong electric or magnetic field is applied to the particles (charged) then their path is
altered. By the study of path's length, thickness, continuity or discontinuity and the influence of
magnetic field (curve) .i.e. geometry the e/m ratio can be calculated and hence the particle is
detected.

USES OF W.C.C
1.The primary use of the Wilson cloud chamber is to visualize the tracks of charged particles.
2.The cloud chamber is instrumental in studying various types of radiation, including cosmic
rays and radioactive decay.
3.The radius of curvature of a track can provide information about the particle's mass and
velocity.

131
THE ANONYMOUS
INSTITUTE
THE PROJECT OF PAKISTAN EDUCATION NETWORK
OUR COMMUNITY:
ALL EDUCATIONAL UPDATES & NEWS ALL OVER THE
PAKISTAN.
IX-X-XI-XII SSC & HSC EXAMS PREPARATION GROUPS.
DISCUSSION GROUP SCAN HERE
KARACHI UNIVERSITY STUDY GROUP.
MDCAT/ECAT GROUP
PUNJAB+FEDRAL BOARD GROUP
DAE

HOW TO GET STARTED?

JOIN OUR GROUP AND BE A PART OF A SUPPORTIVE
LEARNING COMMUNITY.
SHARE THIS WITH YOUR CLASSMATES, FRIENDS, AND
ANYONE WHO COULD BENEFIT.
ADD MORE STUDENTS TO OUR COMMUNITY TO MAXIMIZE
THE IMPACT.

FOLLOW OUR OFFICIAL OUR WEBSITE

CHANNEL

CLICK ON THE ICONS AND YOU WILL BE REDIRECTED

IF THE LINK DOES NOT WORK YOU CAN CONTACT ME
03368089166
MR.ANONYMOUS
‫ بڑھے گا پاکستان‬،‫پڑھے گا پاکستان‬#