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The effect of reflux ratio and feed thermal conditions on ethanol-water

distillation process performance

Samwel Victor Manyele*

Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam, P. O. Box 35131, Dar es Salaam, TANZANIA
*
Corresponding Author: e-mail, [email protected], Tel +255654994277
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5917-0344

Abstract

Demand for ethanol has increased globally due to the need for energy and consumer chemicals, necessitating use of distillation
to concentrate dilute sources. This paper presents the effect of reflux ratio, number of stages, feed thermal conditions (FTCs), feed
composition (XF), and feed plate location on the performance of a normal distillation column separating ethanol-water mixtures
ranging between 0.1 and 0.6 mol/mol. The model was created using Aspen Plus® Software. The FTCs studied include: feed at
room temperature (FRT), partially vaporized feed (PVF), feed at its boiling point (FBP), superheated vapor (SHV) and feed at
dew-point (FDP). The performance factors studied were: distillate composition (XD), reboiler and condenser duties. The axial
profiles of temperature and ethanol concentration in the liquid across the column revealed stronger dependence on XF in the
stripping section and on feed plate location. Increasing reflux ratio increased distillate composition, reboiler and condenser duties.
Increasing feed composition increased distillate composition and lowered reboiler and condenser duties depending on the FTCs.
Locating the feed plate further down the column increased the distillate composition. The QR was highest for FRT while QC values
were highest for FTC and SHV. The FBP led to minimum energy demands for both QR and QC. To minimize energy, switch all
FTCs to FBP was recommended, with highest savings observed for switching from FRT to FBP.

Keywords: Ethanol-water mixtures, Feed composition, Feed thermal conditions, Reflux ratio, Condenser and reboiler duties.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijest.v16i4.6

Cite this article as:

Manyele S.V. 2024. The effect of reflux ratio and feed thermal conditions on ethanol-water distillation process performance. International Journal of Engineering,
Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 66-90. doi: 10.4314/ijest.v16i4.6

Received: February 14, 2024; Accepted: June 15, 2024; Final acceptance in revised form: December 2, 2024

1. Introduction

1.1. Global necessity of ethanol

Although it is a simple alcohol, ethanol (with chemical formula C 2H5OH) has become a globally significant substance due to its
multiple applications, spanning across energy production, industrial use and medical purposes. This necessity is driving large scale
production processes (including distillation) to meet a global demand. Ethanol has renewable energy and environmental benefits as
a biofuel (US-DOE, 2020). When used in gasoline as ethanol-blended fuels, it helps to reduce carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides
due to presence of 35% oxygen. The adoption of ethanol as a fuel is part of global efforts to transition towards more sustainable
energy sources and mitigate climate change. The production of ethanol has significant economic implications (RFA, 2020). The
ethanol industry supports agriculture by providing a stable market for crops like corn, cassava and sugarcane, as the primary raw
materials for ethanol production and job creation (RFA, 2020).
67 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-90

Ethanol has wide industrial and consumer applications. It is a key solvent in the manufacture of personal care products,
pharmaceuticals and cosmetic and also an excellent solvent for resins, oils and other organic compounds (Klein and Klein, 2011). In
the medical field, ethanol is widely used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Its ability to denature proteins makes it effective in killing
bacteria, viruses and fungi, thus used in sanitizers and cleaning solutions (WHO, 2020). The production of ethanol on a large scale
is primarily through fermentation (Naik et al., 2020) and distillation. Distillation purifies the ethanol from fermentation broth, usually
in low concentration, making it suitable for various applications (Mosier et al., 2005). The distillation process can accept very dilute
solutions and effectively raise the purity (Manyele, 2021), and when conducted repeatedly, higher concentration closer to azeotropic
can be attained.

1.2. Purification of ethanol-water mixtures by distillation

Distillation remains the sole viable process for production of concentrated ethanol solution from dilute solutions due to its unmatched
efficiency in achieving high purity levels (Kiss and Ignat, 2012). Despite the effectiveness, the energy required to heat the mixture
and subsequent cooling processes are substantial, necessitating research for optimization (Kiss and Ignat, 2012). For ethanol to be
used in various applications, it must meet specific purity standards. In the fuel industry for instance, ethanol needs to be anhydrous
(less than 1% water content) to blend effectively with gasoline. Similarly, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, high-purity ethanol is
essential to ensure product safety and efficiency. Distillation is the only process that can consistently achieve these high-purity levels,
necessitating its use despite its energy intensity (Olbrich et al., 2012; Sholl and Lively, 2016). Distillation is well-suited for large
scale and continuous production , which is vital for meeting the global ethanol demand. Modern distillation systems, including multi-
stage distillation and continuous distillation column, allow for the efficient handling of large volumes of dilute ethanol solutions.
Research in this are focuses on improving the design and operation of these systems to enhance throughput and reduce operational
costs (Huang et al., 2008; Sholl and Lively, 2016; Taylor et al., 2018).
Distillation is a unit operation that involves mass and heat transfer to achieve separation of two or more components of a liquid
mixture. The separation is based on differences in boiling temperatures between the components. Two product streams are generated,
that is, the liquid bottoms product and the distillate that may be a liquid or a vapor or both. Energy transfer is used as the driving
force to achieve separation, by effecting vaporization of a liquid mixture. The aim is to separate the components of a liquid into
individual components, in this case, ethanol and water, so that a concentrated ethanol solution cab ne obtained for further uses
(Mosier et al., 2005; Klein and Klein, 2011; WHO, 2020). The distillation of ethanol-water mixture aims at achieving a higher
concentration of ethanol in the distillate, for which several operating variables including reflux ratio must be maintained (Chen and
Lin, 2001; Arrieta et al., 2017; Manyele, 2021). The process is carried out in a normal distillation column, which is widely used in
the industry. Although new separation techniques are being developed, such as extractive or azeotropic distillation, membrane
techniques, solvent extraction, etc., distillation remains the most important separation method in the petrochemical, food, beverage
and pharmaceutical industries today.
Separation of liquid mixtures by using distillation method requires formation of a second phase, that is the vapor phase. Both
liquid and vapor phases are then intensively contacted across each stage within a column. Because of having different volatilities,
the ethanol and water will partition differently between the two phases(Redlich and Kwong, 1949; Soave, 1972; Peng and Robinson,
1976). This leads to different concentrations in the liquid and vapor phases that are being contacted, denoted as x and y, representing
mol ethanol/mol mixture in liquid and vapor phases, respectively(Luyben, 2006). The two phases behave differently under gravity,
such that vapor flows upwards and liquid flows downwards inside the column. The countercurrent flow between liquid and vapor
enhances mixing (Khoury, 2004).
After entering the column via a feed plate, the liquid mixture flows into a reboiler. Heat is used in the reboiler to partially vaporize
the mixture. The reason for partial vaporization is to allow for separation of ethanol and water between liquid and vapor phases. The
vapor is returned to the bottom of the column, coming in contact with the down-flowing liquid as it rises towards the top, and exiting
towards the condenser. The basic method of operation is to take the vapors to a condenser across stages of down-flowing refluxed
liquid. The vapor that leaves the reboiler is supposed to be in equilibrium with the liquid. The concentration of ethanol which is the
more volatile component (MVC) in the vapor increases as the vapor rises to the top(Wankat, 2014). Because of the axial temperature
gradient, the compositions of liquid and vapor are not constant and changes along the column(Luyben, 2006; Battisti et al., 2019).
This is expressed using axial profiles of ethanol concentration in the liquid. At the top of the column, part of the distillate is returned
to the column (the reflux). This study investigates the effect of the reflux ratio on the distillation plant performance (that is, distillate
composition, condenser and reboiler duties, and number of stages required to achieve a given separation).
The amount of liquid to be refluxed down the column is part of the condensed distillate, forming two streams denoted as L (reflux)
and D (distillate or product to be withdrawn). The quantity of reflux is always expressed by the ratio to the distillate (R = L/D). This
variable affects the column performance strongly, necessitating detailed studies. The quantity of the reflux, and hence the reflux
ratio has a strong effect not only on the performance, but also on the design and control of the distillation plant (Skogestad, 2000).
This study, however, has a stronger contribution to knowledge as it focusses on ethanol-water mixtures, which have a tendency to
form azeotropic mixture complicating the normal distillation process when the distillate composition approaches azeotrope. Due to
complexity in setting up distillation process, modeling and simulation is necessary to determine the optimal conditions and
performance analysis.
1.3. Challenges facing ethanol-water distillation
68 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-90

Ethanol water distillation faces significant challenges related to energy consumption (Huang et al., 2008; Kiss and Ignat, 2012;
Olbrich et al., 2012), azeotrope formation (Kiss and Ignat, 2012), environmental impacts (Sholl and Lively, 2016), equipment
corrosion (Taylor et al, 2018), the need for equipment or process integration (Kiss and Ignat, 2012) and process complexity due to
a large number of variables. Azeotrope formation significantly complicates the ethanol-water distillation due to the unique behavior
of the azeotrope (formed at 0.895 mol ethanol/mol), which boils at 78.1%. Conventional distillation applied in this study cannot
produce pure ethanol since when this point is approached, a large number of trays is required, posing a significant challenge. To
achieve high-purity ethanol, more complex, energy intensive and costly separation methods are required.
Addressing these issues via ongoing research and technological innovations is crucial for improving the efficiency, sustainability
and economic viability of ethanol production (Sholl and Lively, 2016).Advancements in heat integration, alternative separation
technologies and materials science are the key to overcoming these challenges. The complexity of the distillation column is increases
by large number variables such as reflux ratio, number of stages, feed thermal conditions (FTCs), feed composition, feed plate
location, required distillate composition, condenser and reboiler duties (Manyele, 2021), necessitating use of simulation packages to
support experimental work (Taylor et al., 2003; Taqvi et al., 2016; Kulkarni, 2017).

1.4. Importance of reflux ratio on distillation process performance

The reflux ratio is a pivotal operating variable in the distillation of ethanol-water mixtures due to its significant impact on the
efficiency, purity and economic viability of the separation process. Despite the presence of other operational variables, the reflux
ratio stands out because of its direct influence on the key performance metrics such as product purity, energy consumption and
operational costs (Chen and Lin, 2001; Patil and Patil, 2016; Arrieta et al., 2017). The reflux ratio, defined as the ratio of the liquid
returned to the column to the liquid collected as distillate, directly affects the purity of the distilled ethanol. A higher reflux ratio
generally results in better separation efficiency, enabling the production of higher purity ethanol. This is crucial for applications that
demand high-purity ethanol, such as pharmaceutical and fuel industries. Optimizing the reflux ratio is essential for achieving the
desired product specifications without excessive energy use (Skogestad, 2000). The reflux ratio significantly influences the energy
required for the separation (Kiss et al., 2012). Higher reflux ratios can enhance separation efficiency but at the cost of increased
energy consumption due to the higher volume of liquid being vaporized and condensed. Conversely, lower reflux ratios reduce
energy usage but may compromise product purity. The purity of the product depends on number of trays and reflux ratio. Since for
an operating column the number of trays is fixed, the suitable operating variable that can be maneuvered for successful separation is
the reflux ratio (Chen and Lin, 2001), which balances energy efficiency with separation performance. The economic implications of
the reflux ratio are profound. Thus, the cost of operating a distillation column includes energy costs, which are directly impacted by
the reflux ratio (Taylor et al., 2018).Additionally, the reflux ratio affects the capital costs associated with the size of the distillation
column and auxiliary equipment which must be addressed during design. An optimized reflux ratio can lead to significant cost
savings by reducing both operational and capital expenditures. The reflux ratio is also a critical variable for the dynamic behavior
and control of the distillation column. It influences the column’s response to changes in feed composition, flow rates and other
disturbances (Skogestad, 2000). Effective control strategies often rely on adjusting the reflux ratio to maintain stable operation and
ensure consistent product quality. Given its critical role, the reflux ratio has been a focal point of the research aimed at optimizing
distillation processes, which have explored various aspects, including the development of advanced control algorithms, integration
with heat recovery systems and the use of hybrid separation technologies (Huang et al., 2008).

1.5. The need for modeling the ethanol-water distillation

Modeling of distillation columns helps in predicting various parameters for a given separation, which is, however, complex due
to a large number of variables in a real plant. Setting up a model with all its complexity is a challenging area necessitating use the
use of commercial software like Aspen Plus (Taylor et al., 2003; Taqvi et al., 2016; Manyele, 2021). Modeling and simulation of a
distillation process is important in the context of improving efficiency, process scale-up, and control. Where validated models exit,
modeling is applied to save experimental costs for pilot plants and reagents. The role of modeling and simulation prior to design,
installation and operation of distillation columns cannot be overemphasized. This is due to complex dynamics in the way the
distillation process performance is affected by a large number of variables. As a result, to fully understand some of its dynamics,
modeling and simulation is essential (Sharmilla and Mangaiyarkarasi, 2014; Kulkarni, 2017; Manyele, 2021).Modeling gives
chemical and process engineers a deep insight of the factors affecting the design features of the unit operations whether existing or
new. An initial design of a distillation tower involves specifying the separation (that is XD and XB) from the given feed of known
composition and feed thermal conditions (FTCs). This is followed by setting the pressure and other operating condition (Khan and
Kumar, 2021).

1.6. Research gap to be filled by the study

The objectives of this study were: to establish the maximum XD that can be reached using a normal distillation column and hence
prepare ethanol-water solutions of higher concentration (from dilute solutions) as feeds to the azeotropic distillation plant. The study
involved maximizing XD mainly by manipulating the reflux ratio and other operating conditions such as: feed molar concentration
of ethanol and FTCs . In addition, theoretical number of stages (denoted as N) were also determined. The study aimed at assessing
the effects of reflux ratio and number of stages on the distillation column operational performance (XD, Qc and QR), given XF, XB, N
69 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-90

and FTCs. The study was conducted by creating a computer simulation model using Aspen Plus software to enable informed design
of the azeotropic process, which utilizes two normal distillation columns. Similarly, Taqvi et al. (2016) used this software to study
optimization and dynamics of the distillation column. The design features of the distillation process such as reboiler and condenser
types were suggested and assessed to establish cooling water and steam mass flow rates (denoted as, mcw and ms), respectively.
The novelty of this study is based on the need to fill research gaps identified in the formers research reports in the literature. A
number of research papers were visited as summarized in Table 1. While this study assessed the performance of the distillation
column across a wide range of feed composition (from 0.1 to 0.6 mol/mol) former studies used fixed values or narrow ranges of feed
composition (XF) (Li et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Inoue and Kaminaka, 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). The values of XF reported in
the former studied were 0.05 mol/mol (Micale et al., 2004), 0.1 mol/mol (Taylor and Krishna, 2000; Aguilar et al., 2002; Smith,
2005; Kiss, 2013;Górak and Olujić, 2014; Turton et al., 2018),0.15 mol/mol (Doherty and Malone, 2001; Van Gerven and
Stankiewicz, 2009). Table 1 shows more values of XF fixed in the former studies including 0.2, 0.3 and 0.5 mol/mol.
Literature shows also limited range of reflux ratios used, that is, 1 to 10 as listed in Table 1, compared to the range used in this
study, that is 1 to 16. Furthermore, in the formers studies a single feed thermal condition was used in each study, as shown in Table
1, while five FTCs were studied in this work. Finally, it is intended to fill the gap by studying distillation processes with high duties,
QR and Qc, observed for ethanol-water mixtures which ranged from 0.33 to 19.0 MW and 3.0 to 22.5 MW, respectively, compared
to literature values which ranged only from 0.2 to 4.0 MW for QR and 0.1 to 3,5 MW for Qc.
70 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-90

Table 1. Operating variables used by different researchers during ethanol-water distillation studies.
Reboiler Condenser
Problems Number of Range of Feed Feed Thermal
Study Aim Variables Studied Duty Duty
Addressed Stages Reflux Ratio Compositions Conditions
(MW) (MW)
Reflux ratio,
Analyze Dynamic
Aguilar et al. dynamic Saturated
distillation simulation and 20-30 1-6 0.1 0.5-3.0 0.4-2.5
(2002) simulation, vapor
column dynamics control response
control response
Reflux ratio, Column efficiency
Chen and Yu Optimize column Subcooled
column height, and separation 30-40 1-7 0.3 1.0-3.5 0.7-2.8
(2008) performance liquid
distillate rate performance
Reflux ratio,
Study conceptual
design
Doherty and design of Conceptual design Saturated
methodologies, 15-35 2-6 0.15 0.8-2.5 0.5-1.8
Malone (2001) distillation and optimization liquid
process
systems
optimization
Nonlinear
Reflux ratio, AI
Dutta et al. Apply AI in behavior and Saturated
algorithms, 20-30 2-6 0.2 0.8-4.0 0.4-3.0
(2020) process modeling prediction vapor
process control
accuracy
Reflux ratio,
Assess distillation Process efficiency
Górak and process Superheated
equipment and and equipment 20-30 2-7 0.1 0.5-3.0 0.4-2.0
Olujić (2014) efficiency, vapor
processes design
equipment design
Investigate
Reflux ratio, feed Energy efficiency
advanced Saturated
Kiss (2013) composition, and cost 10-50 1-10 0.1 0.5-3.0 0.3-2.0
distillation liquid
energy efficiency optimization
technologies
Study distillation
Reflux ratio, Dynamic control
design and control Subcooled
Luyben (2006) column pressure, during transient 20-40 2-8 0.2 1.0-5.0 0.5-3.5
(Aspen liquid
temperature states
Simulation)

Model complex Reflux ratio, feed Non-ideal

Micale et al. Superheated
distillation impurities, behavior in 15-35 1-6 0.05 0.2-4.0 0.1-3.0
(2004) vapor
processes column efficiency mixtures

Reflux ratio, Process

Olujić et al. Evaluate process Superheated
column internals, intensification and 10-20 3-8 0.2 0.5-2.0 0.3-1.5
(2003) integration vapor
efficiency efficiency

Analyze Reflux ratio, feed

Seader and Separation Subcooled
separation process quality, column 20-40 2-8 0.2 0.8-4.0 0.5-3.5
Henley (2011) efficiency liquid
principles configuration

Design and Reflux ratio, heat

Energy integration Saturated
Smith (2005) integrate chemical integration, feed 10-30 3-9 0.1 0.5-2.5 0.3-1.8
and sustainability liquid
processes temperature

Reflux ratio,
Explore
Taylor and multicomponent Multicomponent Saturated
multicomponent 25-35 2-8 0.1 0.5-3.5 0.3-2.5
Krishna (2000) systems, system behavior liquid
distillation
efficiency
Provide
Reflux ratio, Equipment design
Turton et al. comprehensive Subcooled
equipment sizing, and economic 15-45 2-8 0.1 0.8-3.5 0.5-2.5
(2018) chemical process liquid
economic analysis analysis
design
Van Gerven Examine Reflux ratio, Environmental
and fundamentals of process impact and Subcooled
25-50 1.5-10 015 0.5-3.5 0.3-2.5
Stankiewicz process intensification economic liquid
(2009) intensification parameters performance
Reflux ratio,
Educate on Educational
column design, Saturated 0.3-2.5
Wankat (2012) chemical process approach to 10-50 1-10 0.2 0.5-3.0 MW
operational liquid MW
equipment design column design
strategies
2. Literature Review

2.1. Effect of varying reflux ratio on distillation process performance

There is, however, a difference between heat addition and removal rates (Zhu et al., 2001). A temperature gradient along the column
is needed because a uniform temperature throughout the column will lead to vapor and liquid composition (at same temperature) to
be at equilibrium everywhere in the column, reducing separation efficiency. Thus, refluxing part of the distillate is important (Zhu
et al., 2001). Inside the tower, the down flowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the up-flowing vapors thereby
increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower (Adeleke et al., 2013). The efficiency increases because the LKC escapes the liquid
into vapor while the HKC remains more in the liquid flowing downwards.
For a given separation, increasing the reflux ratio will increase the gradient of the rectifying operating line and move its intercept
with the y-axis downwards, moving it away from the equilibrium line closer to being parallel with the y = x line. Therefore, increasing
reflux ratio decreases the number of stages required to achieve the separation. On the other hand, as reflux is decreased, the operating
line for the rectification section moves towards the equilibrium line. The ‘pinch’ between operating and equilibrium lines becomes
more pronounced and more and more trays are required (Patil and Patil, 2016). Moreover, Dasan et al. (2014) investigated this
phenomenon by presenting parametric variation of number of stages (actual and theoretical) under different feed conditions.
Therefore, there is an inverse relationship between the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical stages required to achieve a
given separation. For a new design, the reflux ratio and number of theoretical stages can both be varied to achieve an optimum
balance via modeling. For an existing column, the number of trays used is fixed, so that a higher distillate concentration can only be
obtained by increasing the reflux ratio (Chen and Lin, 2001). Alternatively, for a fixed number of stages in a real column, adjusting
the reflux ratio will control the purity of the distillate, such that the higher the reflux ratio the purer the distillate (Chen and Lin,
2001; Seader and Ernest, 2006; Eldirderi, 2015). The desired separation can be achieved with relatively low energy requirements by
using a large number of trays and lower reflux ratio, thus incurring larger capital costs (Chen and Lin, 2001). Thus, to avoid extra
equipment costs, modeling techniques are used to assist in setting up operation condition that aids separation at low cost, in this case,
by establishing the reflux ratio.
In particular, the optimization of reflux ratio is attractive for distillation columns that operate with high reflux ratio, high
differential product values between overhead and bottom, high utility costs, low relative volatility, and also feed with the LKC far
below 50%. Luyben (2005) and Manyele (2021) studied the effect of feed composition on the distillation column design and
performance. On the other hand, by increasing the reflux ratio, the overhead composition specification can be met using a fewer
number of trays but with higher energy costs (Chen and Lin, 2001; Patil and Patil, 2016). This study, therefore, focuses on the effect
of reflux ratio on energy consumption (reboiler and condenser duties).
There are a large number of variables involved when operating a distillation tower that are difficult to analyze experimentally. It
is thus necessary to complement the experimental practices with the help of a computer-based modeling that help to analyze the
effect of many variables on the final product, for instance, reflux ratio, FTC, feed mole fraction and distillate composition (Arrieta
et al., 2017; Manyele, 2021).The reflux ratio is indeed a sensitive operating variable and affects a daily profit achievable. The reflux
ratio is also closely related to the relative volatility and separation factor (Chen and Lin, 2001). Researchers have determined the
optimum value of the reflux ratio by evaluating the annualized capital costs (column, condenser and reboiler) and operating costs
(steam and cooling water) (Chen and Lin, 2001). This study focused on parametric studies without emphasis on optimization
function, using ethanol-water mixtures, as a case study. The more reflux provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better
is the column’s separation of lower boiling material (ethanol) from the higher boiling material (water). The relationship between
distillate molar fraction (XD) and the reflux ratio (R), for different tray numbers (N) shows the importance to work with a high number
of plates or to work with higher reflux ratio to obtain the needed distillate molar fraction (Arrieta et al., 2017). Physically, increasing
R means more and more liquid that is rich in the MVC is being recycled back into the column. In this case, a better separation is
attained and fewer trays are needed to achieve the same degree of separation (Khoury, 2005). However, operating too close to the
minimum reflux ratio can make the process highly sensitive to operational fluctuations or errors in the design calculations, e.g.,
estimated tray efficiencies or predicted phase equilibrium behavior. If heating and cooling are inexpensive, e.g., where recovered
heat is used in the reboiler, higher reflux ratios may be suitable.
Although a higher reflux ratio is desired to produce a higher concentration of the LKC in the distillate, it must be considered that
a higher reboiler duty, and in turn a higher operating cost, is required to accomplish this (Jansens et al., 2001; Khan et al., 2012;
Eldirderi, 2014). In order to obtain theses operating lines, the reflux ratio must be known (Eldirderi, 2014). Other studies related R
with XD to assess the concentration of LKC in the distillate. As the reflux ratio was increased from 2.36 to 7.3, the concentration of
ethanol in the distillate increased by 15% to 20% (Eldirderi, 2014).

2.2. The effect of feed characteristics on distillation column performance

The feed to a distillation column can be liquid or vapor, or both, depending on the temperature, pressure, and composition of the
feed. To quantify the thermal condition of the feed, the parameter q is defined as the fraction of the feed that is liquid. The magnitude
of q is related to the FTCs of the feed. Adjusting operating conditions, such as reflux ratio, FTCs, feed concentration, etc., is also an
effective way to increase the capacity of distillation columns (Wang et al., 2012). Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of the feed
thermal conditions studied. Increasing feed q-value the required reflux ratio is reduced as the feed is made colder (that is, as q
increases) but energy input to the reboiler increases.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Table 2. Characteristics of the feed thermal conditions used in this study.

Feed thermal q-value Enthalpy Phases Source
condition range range present
Chen and Yu (2008), Luyben (2006),
Sub-cooled
Feed at room Seader and Henley (2011), Turton et
FRT Q>1 HF < h L liquid
temperature al. (2018), Van Gerven and
(SCL)
Stankiewicz (2009).
Partially Vapor
vaporized PVF 0 <q < 1 h L < H F < HV liquid -
feed mixture
Doherty and Malone (2001),
Saturated
Harvianto et al. (2018),Hernandez et
Feed at its liquid at
FBP q=1 HF = H V al. (2011), Kiss (2013), Smith (2005),
boiling point bubble
Taylor and Krishna (2000),Wankat
point
(2012).
Superheated Górak and Olujić (2014), Micale et
SHV q<0 HF > H V Vapor
vapor al. (2004), Olujić et al. (2003).
Saturated
Feed at dew- Aguilar et al. (2002), Dutta et al.
FDP q = 0? vapor at
point (2020).
dew point

In this paper, a more intensive analysis is presented, whereby, five FTCs were studied, that is, FBP, FRT, PVF, FDP and SHV,
compared to Manyele (2021), who studied only three FTCs including FBP, VF and SCL. Depending on the feed composition and
FTCs, there is a variation in the amounts of both LKC and HKC in the vapor and liquid flows inside the column. While distillate
and bottoms composition (XD and XB)can be selected independently, the reflux ratio, R, and vapor flow rate in the column, V, are
related to the FTCs. The condition of the feed stream F determines the relation between the flow rates in the stripping and rectifying
sections. Manyele (2021) reported a study on the effect of FTCs and composition (XF = 0.1 to 0.45 mol/mol) for benzene-toluene
mixtures, while this study extends the analysis from 0.1 to 0.6 mol ethanol/mol. The state of the feed mixture which depends on
temperature and feed composition affects the operating lines and hence the number of stages required for separation. It also affects
the location of feed tray. In this study, three different feed locations were implemented to assess the effect of feed locations on
distillate composition (XD), condenser duty (Qc) and reboiler duty (QR). While varying the FTCs affects the heat duty requirements,
feed location and number of stages, this study incorporates the effects of these conditions at various reflux ratio settings. Dasan et
al. (2014) reported a similar analysis, but for limited operating conditions (only 10 stages, small throughput, low reflux ratio value
from 0.2 to 0.4). To overcome the problems associated with the FTCs, some columns are designed to have multiple feed points when
the feed is expected to contain varying amounts of components (Tham, 2006). Also, columns are designed to receive feeds of
different conditions based on temperature in relation to boiling and dew point temperatures, expressed using a parameter denoted as
q.

2.3. Energy management during continuous distillation

Energy management during distillation of ethanol water mixtures is critical (Huang et al., 2008; Kiss and Ignat, 2012; Olbrich et
al., 2012). Also, Zhu et al. (2001) carried out rigorous mass and energy balances for modelling of the reboiler and condenser systems.
Because of high heat duties in these two units, other researchers suggest use of heat integrated columns within the plant (Manzo et
al., 2012). The feed flow rate can be limited due to capacity of reboiler, when the liquid cannot be vaporized as required (Popoola
et al., 2012). Strategies used for minimizing energy in continuous distillation such as vapor recompression and heat integration are
of great importance (Khan et al., 2012; Jana et al., 2013; Asiedu et al., 2014).
The advantages of distillation over other separation processes are: a) high purity products (Kiss and Ignat, 2012); b) economies
of scale; c) well-established technology and competitive supply of equipment (Luyben et al., 2006); d) use of low temperature, low-
cost energy; e) well suited for energy integration into the surrounding processes (Olbrich et al., 2012). Integration involves utilization
of heat from the condenser and supply of reboiler heat from other parts of the plant(Pulido et al., 2011a, 2011b; Olujić et al., 2003).
Moreover, the bottoms leaving the column at high temperature can be used to heat other process streams, such as the incoming feed.
It is generally-accepted that if it is possible to achieve a separation by distillation, then distillation will be the most economical
method to use. For that reason, distillation processes are largely used in petroleum refining and alcohol industries. Distillation
columns consume a huge amount of energy in terms of reboiler heating (steam mass flow rate) and condenser duty (cooling water
mass flow rate). Therefore, the concept of heat-integrated distillation column (HIDiC) is normally incorporated in the distillation
process studies using simulation techniques in order to overcome operational drawbacks (Nakaiwa et al., 2000; 2003; Olujić et al.,
2003; Pulido et al., 2011a, b; Manzo et al., 2012).
Thus, the top cold reflux is supplied to bring down the temperature at the column top, leading to column temperature profile (Zhu
et al., 2001;Huang et al., 2008; Kiss and Ignat, 2012; Olbrich et al., 2012). Therefore, to maintain temperature profile in the column,
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

heat is taken away by cold top reflux as well as by the cooling water in the condenser and also heat is provided by feed preheaters
and bottom reboilers (Luyben et al., 2006; Battisti et al., 2019). Reflux is required in a distillation column to maintain the quality of
distillate product by controlling the temperature at the top of the column (Kiss and Ignat, 2012). This allows for a feed of given
composition to be separated into a desired top and bottom product meeting a specific requirement.
The reflux ratio is a key variable in the performance of a distillation column. This is the ratio of the liquid flow in the rectifying
section to the distillate flow rate. The gradient of the rectifying section operating line is a function of the reflux ratio, that is, R/(R+1)
(Chen and Lin, 2001; Seader and Ernest, 2006; Eldirderi, 2015).Reflux ratio will control the product purity and determine the energy
input required in the reboiler and energy withdrawal from the condenser and can affect the separation efficiency Dasan et al. (2014).
Reflux do not only maintain the temperature and pressure profile in the column, but also provides high mass transfer through
diffusion of MVC in the reflux liquid to vapor and condensing LVC in the vapor into the liquid due to concentration gradient (Zhu
et al., 2001). Reflux produces vapors rich in MVC due to mass transfer and also due to lowering of temperature which allows more
of the MVC to enter vapor phase and condenses the LVC. The refluxed liquid controls the speed of boil and boilup ratio, as it drains
into the reboiler. Thus, the reflux ratio can affect the purity of the product and can be improved by slowing the boil up rate. The
composition profile along the column is also determined by the reflux rate and the distillate withdrawal rate (Luyben 2006; Ballisti
et al., 2019). Hence, the sharpness of the separation is determined by the reflux ratio. Since, the reflux rate is limited by hydraulics
considerations, higher reflux ratios would require lowering the distillate withdrawal rate, thus lengthening the distillation cycle
(Khoury, 2005). Most columns are, however, designed to operate between 1.0 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio because this is
approximately the region of minimum operating costs (more reflux means higher reboiler and condenser duty) (Seader and Ernest,
2006; Kaama et al., 2008).

2.4. Energy efficiency analysis based on selection of the FTCs

A total condenser is used to produce liquid reflux and distillate product. The selection between total and partial condenser is a crucial
decision, as the nature of the products generated differs significantly (Luyben, 2006). Several studies on condenser performance in
distillation and other applications exist in literature, which can provide design and operational details to accommodate ethanol-water
distillation requirements (Anozie and Odejobi, 2011; Zhao et al., 2013; Kara,2014; Attia, 2015; Naik and Muthukumar, 2017).
Energy is required to pump the cooling water at a higher rate to condense the vapors containing higher concentrated of ethanol. The
heat rejection rate from the vapors, denoted as Qc, is expressed in MW. Cooling the vapors from a distillation column in a condenser
is a critical step for improved process performance and energy efficiency. Research has been conducted intensively to establish
optimum cooling water flow rate (Anozie and Odejobi, 2011), influence of cooling water inlet temperature on thermal efficiency
(Attia, 2015), modeling of shell-and-tube condensers (Kara, 2015; Zhao et al., 2013) and testing the empirical correlation models
(Naik and Muthukumar, 2017).
The reboiler, on the other hand, is a “partial reboiler” (vapor is boiled off a liquid pool). This is necessary to allow for the
withdrawal of the liquid bottoms from the reboiler. The composition of this liquid pool is the same as the bottom product composition,
based on the principle of completely stirred tank reactor (CSTR) (Taylor and Krishna, 2000; Doherty and Malone, 2001; Seader and
Henley, 2011). The mostly used reboiler types for distillation are kettle reboilers due to several advantages, including easy of
separation of the vapors and high heat transfer rate. Studies to improve heat transfer coefficient in the kettle reboilers has been
conducted by investigating the effect of steam temperature (Kumar et al., 2013; Chan et al., 2016; Shao et al., 2018; Ghanbarpour
et al., 2021). Application of organic solvents (Zhang et al., 2008) and heat transfer oils (Gupta, 2019) have been tested for heat
transfer rate improvements.
Distillation column can be fed with different feed thermal conditions, that is, FBP, FDP, FRT, SHV feed or PVF, all of which
have an impact on the energy requirements for reboiler and condenser. Another feed condition is the concentration of the LKC in
the feed which determines the location of the q-point and number of stages for rectifying and stripping sections (Wankat, 2014;
2015). The diameter of the column must be designed in such a way that it balances the vapor flow rate (Wankat, 2007). The feed
composition on the other hand, not only affects the selection of control structures for distillation process, but also the final distillate
composition, condenser and reboiler duties (Manyele, 2021).

3. Methodology
3.1. Process description
The layout of a distillation column is shown in Figure 1 (modified from Manyele, 2021). The process flow diagram includes the
energy input from FRT in order to attain FBP, SHV or PVF and heat removal to attain FDP. After preparing the selected feed
conditions, the feed enters the column with properties described by flow rate (F), composition (XF), molar enthalpy (HF), and feed
temperature (TF). A section of the feed plate is also shown on the right-hand side, to indicate the details of liquid and vapor flow at
the feed plate (Manyele, 2021).A single feed enters the column and two products are produced: a distillate containing more of the
light or most volatile component is withdrawn from the top at a molar flow rate D, and composition of the LKC or MVC, XD, and
the bottoms containing more of the HKC is removed from the bottom at a molar flow rate B, and composition of the LKC or MVC,
XB. Heat for evaporation of the liquid is supplied to the reboiler (in this case, steam) and heat is again removed (through cooling
water) at the top in the condenser. The nomenclature used in this paper is shown in Figure 1, where V is the vapor molar flow rate,
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

F is the molar feed flow rate, RD is the reflux flow rate, mcw and ms are cooling water and steam flow respectively, in kg/h. Figure 1
shows also the energy input to the feed stream to attain feed thermal conditions (FTCs) used in this study. In order to maintain
constant separation in the distillation column, it should be well instrumented and controlled. The treatment of instrumentation and
control techniques are, however, not covered in this paper.

Figure 1. Process flow diagram for the distillation process used in this modeling work

A feed mixture of two components (in this case ethanol and water), was separated into two streams, that is, overhead distillate
with composition XD, and bottoms at a concentration XB, whose composition differ from that of the feed XF. The bottoms product is
almost always a liquid, but distillate in this model was either a saturated liquid reflux or liquid distillate at a bubble-point temperature
(total condenser). Heat is transferred into the process in the “reboiler” (typically a shell-and-tube heat exchanger) to vaporize some
of the liquid from the base of the column. The heat-transfer rate is QR energy units/time (that is, MW). The vapor coming from the
top of the column is liquefied in another shell-and-tube heat exchanger called a condenser. Heat is transferred out of the condenser
at a rate QC, measured in MW.
Liquid from the condenser drops into the reflux drum. Distillate product is removed from this drum. In addition, the reflux is fed
back to the top tray of the column. This liquid reflux and the vapor boilup in the base of the column are necessary to achieve the
separation or “fractionation” of chemical components, in this case ethanol and water. The energy required to make the separation is
approximately the heat added to the reboiler.
At the bottom of the column, a partial re-boiler is used to produce vapor boil up with boil-up ratio VB = V/B where V is the vapor
flow rate from the reboiler to the column bottom and B is the liquid bottoms product withdrawn from the reboiler. This liquid exits
at the reboiler temperature, heat content of which is worth recovering by preheating the feed. The partial reboilers function as
additional theoretically stage since the vaporization follows the equilibrium relationship between, expressed by the relationship
between the concentration of ethanol in vapor and liquid (y and x relationship).
The phase condition (thermal condition) of the feed is determined at the feed tray pressure by an adiabatic flash calculation across
the feed valve. The feed contains a MVC and LKC and, and enters the column at a feed stage. At the feed-stage pressure, five feed
thermal conditions studied were: feed at room temperature (FRT), also called sub-cooled liquid depending on temperature, partially
vaporized feed (PVF), feed at its boiling point (FBP), feed as superheated vapor (SHV) and feed at dew-point (FDP).

3.2. Distillation process mathematical model formulation

In order to obtain the operating lines, the reflux ratio, or amount of top product returned to the column, must be known. Manyele
(2021) presented the mathematical relationships for modeling a binary distillation system, covering equilibrium and mass balance
relationships, feed thermal conditions identifier (the q-values), condenser and reboiler duties based on energy balances and steam
and cooling water mass flow rates for benzene-toluene mixture. The overall molar composition of the feed with respect to the light
component (ethanol), denoted by XF, was varied between 0.1 and 0.6 mol/mol, in order to establish how close the distillate can
approach the azeotropic molar concentration of ethanol, for the product to be used as the feed to the azeotropic distillation plant.

3.3. Effect of FTCs and the q-line equation

 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

The condition of the feed stream(FTC),and the feed flow rate, F, determines the relation between the flow rates in the stripping and
enriching sections. Let q be the ratio of the moles of saturated liquid in the feed to the total amount of the feed, then
F = qF + (1 − q ) F (1)
The molar liquid overflow in the bottom section, , is given by:

L = L + qF (2)

where L is the constant molar flow rate of the liquid across the column. Equation (2) leads to:

L − L = qF (3)

The left-hand side of Equation (3) shows the additional liquid downflow due to feed conditions. The vapor flow rate above the
feed plate, on the other hand, is given by:

V = V + (1 − q) F (4)

which leads to:

V − V = (q − 1) F (5)

Where V is the average vapor molar flow rate across the column and is the total vapor flow due to additional vapor in the entering
feed and the steady state flow rate. Similarly, the LHS of Equation (5) shows the additional vapor flow rate due to FTC.
The magnitude of q is related to the thermal condition of the feed, as stated earlier. The relationships between flows above and below
the feed plate can be used to study the effect of FTCs. Making enthalpy and material balance around the feed plate leads to Equation
(6):

H F F + HVV + H L L = H L L + HVV (6)

where:
HV = specific enthalpy of the feed at the dew point (saturated vapor)
HF = specific enthalpy of the feed at its entrance conditions
hL = specific enthalpy of feed at the bubble point (saturated liquid).

Taking the total mole balance around the feed plate gives Equation (7):

F +V + L = L +V (7)

Assuming and , then Equation (6) becomes:

H F F + HV (V − V ) = H L ( L − L) (8)

Substituting and in Equation (8), gives:

H F F + HV (q − 1) F = hL qF (9)

Solving for q, gives:

HV − H F
q= (10)
HF − HL
where:
HV - HF= heat needed to vaporize 1 mole of feed at its entrance conditions
HV - hL= molar latent heat of vaporization of feed.

The feed-line or q-line equation, which is the focus of the intersection of the enriching/rectification and stripping operating-line
equations, can be defined based on the solute mola balance around the top section excluding the feed plate, which leads to Equation
(11):
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

yn +1V = X 0 L + X D D (11)

where yn+1is the composition of the vapor entering an nth plate and Xo is the composition of the liquid entering the feed plate, and XD
is the distillate composition. Also, taking a solute balance around the bottom section (also excluding the feed plate) yields Equation
(12):

ym +1V = xm L − X B B (12)

where ym+1 is the composition of the vapor entering the feed plate and xm is the composition of the liquid leaving the feed plate, and
XB is the bottoms composition. At the intersection of the two operating lines, where the feed plate is located, y = yn+1 = ym+1 and x =
xn = xm, and therefore:

yV = xL + X D D (13)

and

yV = xL − X B B (14)

Subtracting Equation (13) from (14) leads to Equation (15):

y (V − V ) = x( L − L) − ( X B B + X B D) (15)

After substituting , , and into Equation (14) and rearranging leads to Equation
(16):
q X (16)
y= x F
q −1 q −1
Equation (16) is referred to as the q-line or feed plate equation, which varies according to FTCs.

3.4. Modeling of the effect of reflux ratio on distillate composition

Starting with Equation (13), the relationship between molar composition of ethanol in the gas and liquid phases across the column
can be established by substituting R = L/D, which simplifies to:

 1  XD (17)
y= x +
 R + 1 (q + 1)
Equation (17) is commonly referred to as operating line equation. The focus of this study is to establish how the distillate composition
XD is affected by the reflux ratio, R, both in Equation (17), which can be transformed into:

X D= y( R + 1) − x (18)

Since, however, both y and x are functions of the stage number or axial level across the column, represented by stage number N,
Equation (18) can be changed to:

X D= y( N )(R + 1) − x( N ) (19)

It is evident that all input variables shown in the block diagram, Figure 1, affect the XD via changes in the y(N) and x(N) across the
column, until the very top value of y(N = 1) is established (noting that plates are numbered from the top), leading to the composition
of the condensed vapors, that is y1= yN = XD for a total condenser. During simulation, therefore, the computer software (i.e., Aspen
Plus) simulates the resulting flow dynamics and phase compositions in the distillation column to finally establish the distillate
composition. In practice, Aspen Plus uses rigorous thermodynamic models and iterative calculations to estimate distillate
composition when all other variables are fixed. The operating conditions used to set up the simulation model are summarized in
Table 3.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Table 3. Operating conditions for the distillation column

Parameter Value or range
Feed flow rate, kmol/h 1,000
Lighter component Ethanol, C2H5OH
Heavier component Water, H2O
System pressure, kPa 101.325
Mole fraction of the lighter component in the bottoms variable
Mole fraction of the lighter component in the distillate product variable
Mole fraction of the lighter component in the feed, XF, mol/mol 0.1 – 0.6
Condenser cooling water temperature (in), Tin, C 28
Condenser cooling water temperature (out), Tout, C 75
Number of stages, N 8 - 20
Reflux ratio 1 - 16
Distillate composition XD (mol/mol) 0.72 - 0.88
Condenser duty (MW) 3 – 22.5
Reboiler duty (MW) 0.33 - 19.0

Table 4 summarizes the models used by Aspen Plus in establishing the distillate composition, given all input variables. Some
variables are actually established internally using mass and energy balances and used to estimate XD, such as Qc and QR.

Table 4. Models used by Aspen Plus for estimation of distillate composition

Model Description
Aspen Plus utilizes various thermodynamic models (e.g., NRTL, UNIQUAC, etc.) to predict the
Thermodynamic
equilibrium behavior of the mixture. These models incorporate activity coefficient and vapor-liquid
models
equilibrium (VLE) data to simulate the behavior of the components in the distillation column.
Aspen Plus solves mass and energy balance equations for each stage of the distillation column. These
Mass and energy
equations consider factors such as vapor and liquid flow rates, heat exchange, phase equilibrium and tray
balances
efficiencies.
Aspen performs tray-to-tray calculations to predict the composition profiles (x(N) and y(N)) across the
Tray-to-tray
stages of the distillation column. These profiles are influenced by factors such as reflux ratio, feed
calculations
composition, tray efficiencies and operating conditions.
Convergency Aspen iteratively adjusts the tray compositions until convergency criteria are met. This iterative process
iterations ensures consistency between the predicted compositions and the specified operating conditions.
Once the tray compositions have been converged, Aspen Plus calculates the overall distillate composition
Distillate
based on the predicted composition profiles and the operating conditions of the distillation column. The
composition
distillate composition is typically estimated as a weighted average of the compositions from the top stages
estimation
of the column.
Aspen Plus performs error analysis to assess the accuracy of the calculated distillate composition compared
Error analysis to specified criteria or experimental data. Adjustments are then made to the model parameters or operating
conditions to improve the accuracy of the predictions.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The effect of number of stages on distillate composition

Increasing the number of stages leads to higher distillate composition, that is, increase in XD for all set values of reflux ratio and feed
composition. The key problem being addressed here is how close can XAZ be approached by (as a final distillate composition)
increasing the number of stages at constant feed composition and reflux ratio. The effect of increasing N on XD was stronger for N
15, where XD increased faster with N.
The maximum XD reached was 0.86 mol/mol at N = 20 and XF = 0.6 mol/mol, which is, practically expensive to reach given the
height of the column required. Even at N = 20, at the highest reflux ratio, R = 7, XD did not closely approach the azeotropic ethanol
concentration. With N = 10 stages, the XD reached around 82% ethanol. The effect of XF was more pronounced for lower number of
stages. At lower feed concentration, the effect of reflux ratio was minimal, as shown in Figure 2. Thus, for FRT, and 10 stages in the
column, any feed concentration in the studied range will lead to XD ≥ 0.82 mol/mol.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Figure 2. Effect of increasing on Variation of distillate composition with number of stages at constant reflux ratio and feed
composition for different FTCs.

Figure 2 shows the variation of distillate molar composition, XD, with the number of stages at constant reflux ratio and feed
concentration, for FBP. Compared to FRT, the FBP takes place at lower reflux ratio (2 to 5). In only one set of operating parameters
(R = 5, XF = 0.6) the XD exceeded 0.86 mol/mol only when N> 14 stages. Despite the energy input to raise the temperature of the
feed to the boiling point, XD was still lower than the values attained using FRT. The effect of reflux ratio for lower and higher XF
was similar for both higher and lower XF (that is 0.1 and 0.6 mol/mol), as shown in Figure 2. Increasing XF only increased XD slightly
at lower number of stages, N = 8, from 0.78 at XF = 0.1 mol/mol to 0.82 mol/mol at XF = 0.6 mol/mol.
Figure 2 shows the effect of increasing the number of stages on XD at constant reflux ratio and feed composition for feed at dew
point (FDP). In this case, separation was achieved at higher reflux ratio compared to FBP and FRT. At lower XF = 0.1 mol/mol,
higher reflux ratios (R = 12 to 15) were required to achieve the required separation. Higher distillate quality was obtained for lower
reflux ratio (R = 6 to 9) ranging from XD = 0.83 to 0.88 mol/mol. For a column with lower number of stages (8 to 10), the feed with
ethanol concentration of 0.6 mol/mol leads to XD = 0.84 to 0.86 mol/mol), which falls in the higher range compared to FBP and FRT,
although high reflux ratio is required (R = 6 to 9), which may hinder distillate withdrawal rate.
Figure 2 shows also the effect of increasing the number of stages on XD at constant reflux ratio and feed composition for SHV
feed. At lower feed concentration (XF = 0.1 mol/mol), separation was achieved at higher reflux ratios R = 12 to 16, variation of
which, however, did not influence XD. The effect of XF was observed at R = 6, which is lower for SHV, while XF = 0.6).

4.2 Effect of feed composition on distillate composition

In an effort to increase the XD towards XAZ at constant N and for different FTCs, the feed composition was increased from 0.1 to 0.6
mol/mol at constant number of stages, as shown in Figure 3. Increasing the concentration of ethanol in the feed improves the distillate
composition or purity for a given number of stages. Highest values of XD were observed at XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol. The distillate
molar concentration also increased with number of stages, being highest at N = 20. The effect of XF was stronger at lower number
of stages at which, XD increases faster (for N = 8 and 10) than for larger number of staged (for N = 15 and 20). In Figure 3, there was
no data for FDP and SHV because R = 5 do not converge, the minimum reflux ratio for these two conditions being R = 6.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Figure 3. Variation of distillate composition with feed composition at fixed number of stages (N = 8 -20)and constant reflux ratio
(R = 5) for selected FTCs(FRT, FBP and PVF).

The profiles of XD were different for each feed thermal condition. Due to lack of convergence of the simulation setup, no data was
obtained at XF = 0.1 for PVF, although the profiles were still clear. For the feed at its boiling point, the XD values were not the highest
at highest XF = 0.6 mol/mol as expected, and instead the highest values were those at XF = 0.5 mol/mol. The smaller difference is XF
between N = 15 and 20 to that observed for N = 8 and 10, indicates that higher equipment costs at larger number of stages is not
justifiable and can be avoided by utilizing a column with lower number of stages.
Figure 4 shows the effect of increasing the feed composition from 0.1 to 0.6 mol/mol on distillate molar composition at constant
reflux ratio for different feed thermal conditions and N = 10 stages. The highest XD values were observed at XF = 0.5 mol/mol for
FBP, FRT and SHV and at XF = 0.6 mol/mol for FDP and PVF thermal conditions of the feed. The operating range for reflux ratio
was different depending on the feed thermal conditions, being lower for FRT, FBP and PVF and higher for FDP and SHV (that is,
R = 2 to 6 and R = 5 to 9, respectively).Based on the need for convergence of the simulation, data for XD was obtained from 0.1 to
0.6 mol/mol for FRT and FBP and from 0.3 to 0.6 only for FDP, SHV and PVF. In general, the results show that changing feed
thermal conditions leads to complex dynamics in the distillation column affecting the separation performance and changes in the
necessary operating conditions such as reflux ratio.

Figure 4. Variation of distillate composition with feed composition at constant reflux ratio for different feed thermal conditions
(for N = 10 stages).
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

4.3 Effect of reflux ratio on distillate molar composition

Figure 5 shows the variation of distillate composition with reflux ratio for FRT and FBP of different compositions. The distillate
composition increases with reflux ratio for all set values of XF and number of stages. At constant N = 20, the effect of XF on XD was
small, but the range of R leading to the observed XD values shifted from left to right. The range of reflux ratio required to attain the
required separation depends strongly on XF than on number of stages as observed for FRT and FBP, in Figure 5. For XF = 0.1
mol/mol, regardless of number of stages, the operating range of R was 3 to 7. For larger number of stages, say N = 20, increasing
feed concentration shifts the range of reflux ratio towards the right. Higher feed concentration, on the other hand requires wider but
lower range of reflux ratio, from R = 1 to 5, leading to higher XD.

Figure 5. Variation of distillate molar composition with reflux ratio at constant values of number of stages and feed composition
for FRT and FBP.

Figure 6 shows the effect of increasing reflux ratio on distillate molar composition, XD, at constant values of number of stages and
feed composition for feed at boiling point (FBP). The results show that increasing R increases XD for any number of stages and feed
concentration. Different from other feed thermal conditions, the range of R which led to achieving the required separation for FBP
was 1 to 5 only. The effect pof N was stronger at lower XF = 0.1 mol/mol, when N was varied from 8 to 20. For larger number of
stages, the effect of XF on XD was small, even when XF was varied from 0.1 to 0.6 mol/mol.
The profiles of XD as the reflux ratio were increased from 1 to 5 were similar in shape for all operating conditions studied using
FBP. Results show that further increase in R would not have caused an increase in XD for this feed thermal condition. Higher distillate
purities were observed at higher reflux ratio, R = 5, for the range of XF studied using FBP. Therefore, for FBP, R = 5, N = 8 to 10 are
sufficient to concentrate the feeds of different strengths (0.1 to 0.6 mol/mol) to XD = 0.86 mol/mol.
The results for XD were located into two different ranges of R, that is higher range (R = 11 to 15 for XF = 0.1 mol/mol) and lower
range (R = 5 to 9 for XF = 0.3, 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol) for all number of stages. Moreover, at the lowest feed concentration, XF = 0.1
mol/mol, the effect of the number of stages on XD was stronger, changing from XD 0.78 to 0.80 to XD 0.85 to 0.87 mol/mol,
observed at highest reflux ratios (R = 11 to 15).Figure 6 shows the effect of increasing reflux ratio on distillate molar composition,
XD, at constant number of stages and feed composition for FDP, SHV and PVF. For SHV, three distinct ranges of reflux ratio were
observed, that is 3 to 6 (for XF = 0.3 mol/mol), 5 to 9 (for XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol) and 12 to 16 for XF = 0.1 mol/mol. The values
of XD lower than 0.8 were observed for XF = 0.3 mol/mol for R = 3 to 5 and N = 8 to 10. At XF = 0.1 mol/mol, with number of stages
increasing for 8 to 10, XD values ranged from 0.82 to 0.88 when R was ranged between 12 and 16. The range of R between 4 and 9,
was found to suit the separation of feed solution at XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol for any given number of stages with higher distillate
composition.
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Figure 6. Variation of distillate composition with reflux ratio at constant number of stages (N = 8 – 10) and feed composition for
FDP, SHV and PVF.

In Figure 6, the effect of increasing reflux ratio on distillate molar composition, XD, at constant values of reflux ratio and feed
composition for partially vaporized feed (PVF) is also presented. As stated for other feed thermal conditions, XD increases with
reflux ratio for all feed concentration and number of stages. The suitable reflux ratio range was from 1 to 10. Similarly, for PVF,
there were three distinct ranges of reflux ratio required to achieve the desired separation. Different from SHV, the demarcation
between R ranges for XF = 0.1 and for 0.5 or 0.6 mol/mol was at R = 6, that is 2  R  6 for XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol and 6  R  10
for XF = 0.1 mol/mol. The lowest values of XD were observed for XF = 0.3 for R between 1 and 2, regardless of the number of stages.
Higher XD values were also observed at XF = 0.1 when the highest reflux ratio was applied, that is, 6  R  10. However, highest XD
values were observed for R ranging between 4 and 5 for XF = 0.6 mol/mol. Increasing product purities (raising XD, and/or decreasing
XB) the number of trays required in the column is increased. Conversely, highest XD values were recorded when the number of stages
was highest, that is, N = 20, as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 7 shows the effect of changing feed plate location on the distillate composition at different feed concentrations and FTCs
for R = 5 and N = 10 stages. Feeding the solution in the lower section of the column, that is, towards the bottom increases the distillate
composition for all FTCs and feed compositions. Highest values of XD were observed when the feed was introduced in the 7th stage.
The increase in XD due to increasing fs, was highest for XF = 0.1 mol/mol compared to XF = 0.3 and 0.5 mol/mol. Moreover, the
variation of XD due to changes in XF was smallest at fs = 7 than at fs = 4, where XD varied widely. With dilute feed solution, XF = 0.1
mol/mol, higher distillate compositions were observed for FRT and FBP and lowest for PVF, FDP and SHV. This indicates that for
higher XD, FRT should be used (without thermal processing of the feed) with feed plate located closer to the bottom. Feeding FRT
in the lower stages (fs = 7) allows the vapors to be further rectified by condensing the LVC in the vapor stream back to liquid leaving
the MVC at higher concentration in the vapors. Using fs = 7 extends the rectifying section further downwards, leading to purer
distillate stream.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Figure 7. Effect of feed plate location on the distillate composition at different feed composition and FTCs for R = 5 and N =
10 stages

4.4. The effect of reflux ratio and feed composition on reboiler duty
In general, the reboiler duty increases with reflux ratio for all XF and all feed compositions and thermal conditions, as shown in
Figure 8. Lower energy requirements were observed for SHV and FDP followed by FBP and PVF. The highest energy consumption
in the reboiler was for FRT. For FRT, on the other hand, lower XF = 0.1 mol/mol required higher range of reflux ratio to attain
separation from 3 to 7, while XF = 0.3 to 0.6 the range was from 1 to 5 only. Separation at lower XF took place at lower reboiler
duties than at higher XF. The effect of XF was observed to shift the range of R from low (between 1 and 6, for PVF, FBP and FRT)
at high XF to higher reflux ratio range of 12 to 16 and 11 to 11 at lower XF = 0.1 mol/mol (for PVF and FDP), respectively. Separation
took place at lower reflux ratio for FRT and FBP, that is, between R = 1 and 7 only. Thus, distillation of feed solutions at XF = 0.1
require high values of R although the reboiler duty was lower, but leads to low XD.
.

Figure 8. Variation of the mean reboiler duty (averaged across N = 8-15 stages) with reflux ratio for constant values of feed
composition and for different FTCs.
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Figure 9 presents the effect of reflux ratio on distillate composition at different fixed feed composition and for three different FTCs.
Results show that distillate composition increases with reflux ratio for all distillation column operating conditions, that is, higher
distillate composition results from applying higher reflux ratio . The highest distillate composition above 0.84 mol/mol was observed
at XF = 0.5 mol/mol for feed at boiling point. The effect of feed composition was not appreciable for FRT, where all curves were
closer together. Higher distillate composition was possible at lower reflux ratio, R = 1, only for FRT, even for dilute feed solution.
A feed composition, XF = 0.3 mol/mol led to lower distillate composition for PVF, even at higher reflux ratios. The feed thermal
conditions and feed composition show strong effect on XD which need to be selected properly during operation of the distillation
column.

Figure 9. Effect of reflux ratio on the distillate composition at different feed concentration and FTCs (FRT, FBP and PVF) for
a distillation column with N = 10 stages.

4.5. Effect of increasing reflux ratio on reboiler duty

Figure 10 shows the effect on increasing reflux ratio on reboiler duty at fixed values feed composition and different FTCs (that
is, FRT, FBP and PVF). The reboiler duty increased linearly with reflux ratio for all operating conditions, with slope depending on
feed composition. Increasing reflux ratio has a strong effect on QR for at XF = 0.3 mol/mol feed composition (steeper increase)
compared to concentrated feed solutions at XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol. The highest demand for energy is the reboiler was observed
at XF = 0.3 mol/mol for all FTCs and the lowest energy demand at XF = 0.1 mol/mol, as per Figure 10. The low energy demand in
the reboiler at XF = 0.1 mol/mol can be attributed to changes in specific heat capacity (increases with increasing XF), decrease in
boiling point with increasing XF, and a slight decrease in latent heat of vaporization with increasing XF. Therefore, the fixed FTC,
such as FRT, with high Cp at higher XF, required to heat the mixture from room temperature to boiling point, the reboiler duty will
be highest, as shown also in Figure 10. Comparing the FTCs, shows that FRT will require high condenser duty due to high specific
heat capacity required for sensible heat to raise the temperature to boiling point, while FBP and PVF do not have the sensible heat
requirement, and hence lower condenser duty for the latter compared to FRT.

Figure 10: Effect of increasing reflux ratio on the reboiler duty at fixed values of feed composition and FTCs.
 Manyele / International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2024, pp. 66-65

Figure 11 shows the maximum and minimum values of condenser duty at different feed thermal conditions and feed composition.
The lowest reboiler duties were observed for FBP, especially at XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol. This can be attributed to the feed being
ready to separate into vapor and liquid as it enters the column at FBP. Also, there is less sensible heat required to reach the boiling
point when such a feed enters the reboiler, leading to lower heat requirement in the reboiler. For XF = 0.3 mol/mol, highest maximum
condenser duty is required attributable to appreciable changes in specific heat, latent heat and boiling points of the feed solution.
The FRT shows largest minimum and maximum condenser duties for all feed compositions, also attributable to the sensible heat
required to raise the temperature of the feed from room temperature to the boiling point.

Figure 11:Maximum and minimum average energy demand in the reboiler (across N = 8 to 20 stages) for different feed thermal
conditions and ethanol concentration.

Figure 12 summarizes the variation of reboiler duty with XF for fixed reflux ratios and for different feed thermal conditions. For all
feed thermal conditions, the maximum reboiler duties were observed at XF = 0.3 mol/mol. For all feed thermal conditions, FBP,
SHV, FBP, the minimum reboiler duties were observed at higher ethanol concentration, that is, XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol, similar to
the results presented in Figures 10 and11. For FRT and FDP, the minimum QR values were however observed at XF = 0.1 mol/mol.
For FBP and PVF, similar profiles were obtained for all values of R. On the other hand, for FDP and FRT, the profiles were,
different depending on the fixed values of reflux ratio. Moreover, the FDP was separated at higher reflux ratios of R = 6 to 10,
compared to 1 to 5 for FRT, FBP and PVF. Lowest QR values were observed for FDP, separation of which was achieved at higher
reflux ratios compared to other feed thermal conditions. In all cases presented in Figure 12, highest QR were required to achieve
separation at highest reflux ratios of 10 and 5, respectively. To minimize steam consumption in the reboiler, while maximizing
distillate composition, higher feed compositions, XF = 0.5 and 0.6 should be used.

Figure 12. Variation of reboiler duty with feed composition at fixed values of reflux ratio for different FTCs.
4.6 Variation of condenser duty with reflux ratio and feed composition
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When the condenser duties were compared at increasing number of stages from 8 to 20, there was no appreciable difference. This
can be attributed to the fact that the condenser receives the vapors and condenses them regardless of number of stages in the column.
The only major factors were feed composition and reflux ratio, which determines the temperature, composition and flow rate of the
vapors from Stage 1. Thus, the average values of Qc across the number of stages were determined as shown in Figure 13. The
condenser duty increased linearly with reflux ratio for all feed thermal conditions.

Figure 13. Variation of the condenser duty (across N = 8 to 20) with reflux ratio at constant feed compositions for different feed
thermal conditions

For SHV, PVF and FDP, at lower XF = 0.1 mol/mol, the average condenser duty was lowest and required separation was achieved
at higher reflux ratio range that is 13 to 16, 7 to 10 and 12 to 15, respectively. Highest condenser duties were observed for SHV,
PVF and FDP compared to FRT and FBP. Increasing XF decreased the range of reflux ratio required to achieve separation. For
instance, when SHV feed was introduced into the column, the range of reflux ratio required shifted from 13 to 16 6 to 9 and 4 to 6
for XF = 0.1, 0.5 and 0.3, respectively. The highest condenser duties were observed for XF = 0.3 mol/mol for all feed thermal
conditions.
Figure 14compares the maximum and minimum average condenser duties (averaged for N = 8 to 20) for five different feed thermal
conditions and compositions. Lowest, condenser duties were observed for feed at boiling point (FBP), especially at XF = 0.1 mol/mol,
while the highest duties were observed for FDP and SHV feed thermal conditions. The condenser duties for FRT and PVF were
observed to lie within the two extremes. With respect to feed composition, the highest condenser duties were observed for XF = 0.3
mol/mol for all feed thermal conditions, as reported also in Figures 8 and 12. Compared to Figure 8, condenser duties are higher than
reboiler duties for all feed thermal conditions and feed compositions. This is again attributable to the mode of operation of the
reboiler, which is operated in partial vaporization mode, while at the top, a total condenser was used. With SHV and FDP, the condenser
duties in the range of 20-22 MW, significantly higher cooling water flow rates will be required to produce the distillate. Such feed
thermal conditions should be avoided to save energy consumption in the condenser. Moreover, these feed thermal conditions require
higher energy input (sensible and latent heats depending on the FTC prior to feeding), as summarized in Figure 1.

Figure 14. Maximum and minimum average energy demand in the condenser (across N = 8 to 20) for different feed thermal
conditions.
4.7 Energy efficiency analysis for reboiler based on feed thermal conditions
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The energy management in the chemical and process industry involves assessing for the means to achieve minimum energy
consumption for profit maximization. In the distillation process, this necessitates critical analysis of the reboiler and condenser duties
so as to select the feed conditions, reflux ratio, etc. Energy efficiency assessment leads to operational and economic insights and
savings (Popoola et al., 2012; Patil and Patil, 2016). Comparing results presented in Figure 11for reboiler duties and Figure 14for
condenser duties, the feed thermal condition leading to lower reboiler and condenser duties was the FBP. Thus, it was important to
determine the energy saving realized by shifting the respective feed thermal conditions to FBP. The analysis of the energy saving
using single reference (FBP in this case) is based on the fact that both reboiler and condenser serve the same feed.
When the savings in energy were arranged for QR and Qc by switching the respective feed thermal conditions to the FBP in both
cases, similar results were obtained, as summarized in Figure 15. Thus, the total saving is the sum of the saving realized in the
reboiler and condenser, which implies twice the values presented in Figure 15. In the plot, negative values indicate that there is no
energy saving, and instead extra energy is required for the given feed composition.

Figure 15. Energy saving in the reboiler or condenser by switching respective feed thermal conditions to FBP.

The highest energy saving can be achieved by switching FRT to FBP for the whole range of feed compositions, followed by
SHV. Since the maximum for both reboiler and condenser duties occur at higher reflux ratio, the results shows that maximum saving
is duties also occur at higher reflux ratios. Conversely, where higher energy consumption occurs, focused saving efforts will lead to
high savings as well. Switching from any feed thermal condition to FBP is more economical especially where higher reflux ratios
are required to achieve the required separation. Also, higher energy savings is realized at higher feed concentration when any feed
thermal condition is switched to FBP mode. Figure 16 shows also that there are cases whereby, switching to FBP adds more cost,
where negative savings are realized. Such cases should be identified and avoided. For example, switching to FBP from FDP, PVF
and SHV at XF = 0.3 mol/mol, should be avoided as negative savings are indicated. Based on Figure 15, the feed molar ethanol
concentration at XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol are recommended, since largest energy savings can be realized when shifting to FBP from
any FTC. For chemical and process industries, energy efficiency and product yield are generally the key to profitability and emissions
abatement. For example, ExxonMobil achieved a 35% reduction in the energy intensity of its global refining and chemical operations
from 1974 to 1999 and has identified a further 10–15% cost-effective energy-savings opportunity in all plants around the world
NAS, 2010).
Benchmarking data indicate that most petroleum refineries can economically improve energy efficiency by 10–20% (NAS, 2010),
and analysis of individual refining processes indicate energy savings ranging from 23–54% (EIA, 2006). Common technologies
include high-temperature reactors, distillation columns for liquid-mixture separation, gas-separation technologies, corrosion-
resistant metal- and ceramic-lined reactors, sophisticated process-control hardware and software, pumps of all types and sizes, steam
generation, and many others. In the EIA (2006) petroleum bandwidth study, the largest potential bandwidth savings are found in
crude distillation, with savings of up to 54% of current average energy for atmospheric distillation (39% for vacuum distillation).
Alkylation follows closely, with a potential bandwidth savings of 38%, and the remaining processes also exhibit significant potential
for improving energy efficiencies. According to experts working in the field of petroleum refining and energy management,
identifying plant-wide energy savings of approximately 30% would be typical. However, these savings estimates are calculated on
a relative basis. The absolute energy consumption of petroleum refineries in the United States must be adjusted to account for
increasingly heavy crude slates over the coming years. When one adjusts for the use of heavier crude slates, the energy consumption
of a refinery increases per equivalent amount of refined product.
5. Conclusions
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For ethanol-water mixtures, increasing the number of stages slightly increasing the number of stages slightly increases the distillate
composition, below XAZ, the closest being 0.86 mol/mol for most FTCs and 0.88 mol/mol for FDP at N = 20 stages. On the other
hand, increasing the feed ethanol concentration increases the distillate composition, up to 0.86 mol/mol when XF was increased from
0.1 to 0.6 mol/mol, irrespective of the FTCs and reflux ratio. Increasing reflux ratio increases the distillate composition up to 0.86
mol/mol. Depending on FTC and XF, acceptable ranges of reflux ratio was established for which the model converged. Due to the
nature of vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) relationship, the distillate composition could not closely approach the azeotropic
concentration, XAZ. Locating the feed plate closer to the column bottom increases the distillate composition for all FTC and feed
composition (for fixed reflux ratio and number of stages). An increase in XD when fs values were changed from 4 to 7 in a 10-stage
column increased XD from up to 0.84 from 0.72 mol/mol. The reboiler duty increases linearly with reflux ratio for all FTCs and
number of stages Increasing N from 8 to 20 does not affect the reboiler duty. Thus, averaging the reboiler duty for N = 8 to 20
simplifies the analysis of data with reduced number of variables.
The highest reboiler duties were observed for FRT, at XF = 0.3 mol/mol, and lowest for FBP (especially for XF = 0.5 and 0.6
mol/mol), which forms the optimal feed condition. For all FTCs, dilute feed conditions (XF = 0.1 mol/mol), leads to a wide variation
of temperature across the distillation column and also to a higher reboiler temperature (that is higher reboiler duty). Highly uniform
axial temperature profiles were observed at higher feed concentration (XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol). Across the distillation column,
ethanol concentration increases upwards, being highest at the condenser, i.e., XF. The concentration of ethanol in the liquid
approaches XF in the rectifying section (forming a single profile) for all XF, while in the stripping section, each XF assumes distinct
profiles, increasing with XF and decreasing with axial elevation towards the lowest in the reboiler. The condenser duty increases
linearly with reflux ratio for all values of XF and FTCs. However, the loci of the curves along the horizontal axis or reflux ratio
strongly depend on XF and FTC. The lowest condenser duties for different feed conditions were observed for FBP while highest
duties were observed for FDP and SHV. Thus, the choice of FTC should involve considerations of reboiler and condenser duties,
based on which, FBP was identified to be the suitable FTC. Highest energy saving was realized when switching from FRT to FBP,
especially at higher XF = 0.5 and 0.6 mol/mol.

Acknowledgement
The financial support from the University of Dar es Salaam Research Grant is highly acknowledged. Special thanks to Mr. Emmanuel
Stephen Monge for his assistance in setting up the Aspen Plus® Model.

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Biographical notes

Samwel Victor Manyele is a Faculty Member in the Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania