DIGESTION AND ABSORBTION OF FOOD

Digestion can be defined as the biologically hydrolysis of complex food

substances into their simple and easily diffusible forms in which they can be
absorbed in the gastro-intestinal tract for further utilization.

Human digestive system:

Digestive system of man is divisible into-alimentary canal and digestive glands.
Alimentary canal is a long tube differentiated into mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx,
oesophagous, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
Digestive glands are of 5 types-the salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, the
pancreas and the intestinal gland

1. Mouth: Mouth is meant for ingestion of food.

2. Buccal cavity: mouth followed by a spacious chamber bounded by two jaws
are toothed. The buccal has a roof and is supported by palate. It separates the
buccal chamber from nasal chambers. The palate is divided into hard
palate(anterior) and soft palate(posterior), it is called as uvula or velum
palati. It closes the internal nares during swallowing of food.
The buccal cavity has 2 openings posteriorly, the dorsal opening is gullet leading
into oesophagus, and the ventral opening is glottis leading into the trachea. In
front of the glottis there is a muscular flap called epiglottis which prevent food to
enter in the trachea during swallowing. Buccal cavity has the following –
(a) Tongue- Tongue has two special structure- papillae and taste bud.
Function of tongue---
a. helps in chewing ingested food
b. helps swallowing food
c. tongue perceives sense of taste due to presence of taste buds.
d. helps in speaking.
e. keeps the mouth moist.
 (b) Teeth: Both the jaws of man bear teeth.

Structure of tooth A typical tooth is divisible into 3 parts-the crowns, the neck
and the root. Inside the tooth there is a cavity called pulp cavity, which contain
connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. The pulp cavity lined by a layer of
odontoblast, the dentine forming cells. The crown is covered by a shining layer
called enamel while root is covered by cement layer.
Dentition: The arrangement of tooth in the sockets of mammalian jaw bone is
called dentition. Four types of teeth are found in man Incisor, canine, premolar
and molar. They have definite size and shape with definite position and function.
This type of dentition with different type of teeth id called heterodont dentition.
The human teeth are deeply implanted in the deep sockets of jaw bone, such type
of dentition is called thecodont dentition. In human 2 sets of teeth are found in
the life time; the first set is found in young stage called milk set or deciduous
teeth and second set is found in adult stage is called permanent teeth. This type
of dentition is known as diphyodont. The number of each type of tooth in upper
and lower jaw is represented numerically. It is called dental formula
2102
The dental formula for milk teeth is represented as follows: or
2102
5 10
{i=2/2, c= 1/1 premolar=0/0 and m= 2/2} = x 2 = = 20.
5 10

At the age of 12 the second molar tooth appears and third molar or wisdom tooth
appears at the age of 17- 18.
2123
The dental formula of adult man is: or
2123
8 16
{i= 2/2, c=1/1, pm= 2/2, m= 3/3} = x2= = 32.
8 16

i. In herbivorous animal canine teeth are absent hence there is a gap

between the incisor and premolar. The gap is called diastema.
ii. In elephant incisor of upper jaw transform into huge task.
iii. Tusk of walrus are canine.
iv. In man 20 teeth are diphyodont and 12 teeth are monophyodont.
3. Pharynx: The posterior part of the buccal cavity behind the tongue is called
pharynx or throat. It is divisible into the nasopharynx the oral pharynx (or
oropharynx) and the laryngopharynx.

4. Oesophagus: It is a long muscular tube behind the trachea in the neck region
and passes through the diaphragm and finally opens into the stomach in the
abdominal region. It acts as an organ of conduction of food and no digestion
occurs here.

5. Stomach: It is a thick, muscular J shaped organ present in the left side of the
upper part of the abdominal cavity just bellow the diaphragm. The human
stomach is divisible into 3 parts-
a. Cardiac: This is the anterior part of the stomach into which oesophagus
opens through cardiac aperture guarded by cardiac sphincter which prevents
regurgitation of food.
b. Fundic: - It is main part of the stomach.
c. Pyloric stomach: It is posterior constricted part of the stomach opens
into the duodenum. It is guarded by pyloric sphincter which prevents the
movement of food enter into the duodenum.
The mucous lining also bears gastric glands which secrete gastric juice containing
enzyme for digestion of food. It helps in mechanical churning of food.

6. Small intestine: It is longest part of the alimentary canal and differentiated

into 3 regions –
a. Duodenum- It is the anterior most part of the small intestine having the
structure like C, it receives common bile duct, the opening of which is guarded by
a sphincter called sphincter of Oddi.
b. Jejunum- It is middle part of the small intestine.
c.- Ileum-It is the posterior part of the small intestine and opens in the
lower part of the abdominal cavity. Villi is present in the mucosal lining of the
small intestine. Small intestine is the main part of alimentary canal, where
digestion and absorption of food takes place.
7. Large intestine: - It is the posterior part of the intestine and it is divisible
into3 parts-
a. Caecum- It is the first part of large intestine, its ends into a tubular structure
called vermiform appendix. Sometime, due to decay of food or worm infection,
the vermiform appendix elongates and results into a condition called appendicitis.
b. Colon: -colon is divisible into ascending, transverse colon and descending colon.
The colon is concerned with conservation of water, sodium of other minerals and
formation of faeces.
c. Rectum- It is the terminal part of large intestine with opens into the exterior by
an aperture called anal aperture. Rectum is concerned with temporary storage
faecal matters.

Physiology of digestion:

Digestion is a process by which food substances are altered physically or

chemically so that they are reduced to simple assimilable forms. The process is
divisible into two main parts---

Mechanical Digestion-
The phase of digestion comprises liquefying of food by the digestive juices,
mastication, swallowing and there after onward movement through the tract by
peristalsis. It is special muscular contraction by which the food bolus is carried
down the oesophagous or any other segment of the alimentary canal. Peristalsis
may be defined as a wave of muscular contraction preceded by a wave of
relaxation which causes the content of hollow tube. (gastro intestinal tract.) to be
passed. onwards. The circular muscles of the digestive tube immediately behind
the bolus contract and those directly in front of it relax. This results in the bolus
being forced into the relax portion. The contraction of muscles follows closely
behind the bolus and further relaxation occurs in front; thus, the bolus of food
passes steadily forward.
 Chemical digestion
It is affected by chemical substances enzymes present in various digestive
juices with which food comes in contact at different levels of alimentary
tract.
The digestive juice is secreted in the various part of the alimentary tract are
as follow
Saliva in the mouth.
Gastric juice in the stomach.
Bile in the duodenum.
Pancreatic juice in the duodenum.
Intestinal juice (succus entericus) in the small intestine.

Digestion in mouth
When food is taken into mouth it is masticated or chewed by the teeth and
moved round the mouth by the tongue and by the muscles of mastication. It is
moistened by saliva and formed into a soft mass or bolus ready for deglutition or
swallowing.
Saliva – secretion of saliva-
The flow of saliva is controlled by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve
supply. The autonomic control of salivation occurs in two ways….
Unconditional reflex- response to the presence of an object, such as food in the
mouth (immediately after birth).
Conditional reflex- is something which has been learned from previous
experience. The sight, smell and even thought of appetizing food result in
salivation sometimes called mouthwatering.
Composition of Saliva
Saliva secretes into the mouth by three pairs of salivary glands- parotids, sub
lingual and sub mandibular (rabbit), sub maxillary and sub lingual in man.
Saliva consists of –
Water 99%,
Inorganic salts (0.2%), NaCl, KCl, Na2HPO4, Ca (PO4)2, KCNS
Mucous (a glycoprotein).
Enzymes- Ptyalin, or salivary amylase, bacteriolytic enzyme lysozyme and lingual
lipase.

Function of Saliva-
1. Digestion -Saliva contains a starch splitting enzymes, salivary amylase
(ptyalin) that acts on cooked starch (polysaccharide) changing them into
oligosaccharide, di saccharide, the trisaccharide.
Starch + Ptyalin_-------→ Ca (.
(polysaccharide) α limit dextrins
2. Lubrication of food-saliva moistens and lubricates the foods helping the
formation of food masses for swallowing
3. Protection of mouth cavity-It protects the delicate buccal mucous
membrane by moisturing the mouth and by diluting acids and other
irritants.
4. Speech and cleaning- The mouth keeps constantly moist by the saliva
which facilitate speech and cleaning the buccal cavity by movements of the
tongue.
5. Taste-The taste buds are stimulated by particles present in the food which
are dissolve in water. Dry foods stimulate the sense of taste only after
through mixing with saliva.
6. Antibacterial action-saliva contains antibacterial enzymes ‘Lysosomes’ kills
the bacteria.
7. Deglutition or swallowing-Swallowing is a reflex response that is triggered
by different impulses in the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve.
Swallowing of food occurs in 3 stages after mastication is completed forms
the bolus. The 3 stages as follows---
a. The food bolus is pushed backward into the pharynx by the upward
movement of the tongue.
b. The bolus is grasped into the pharynx by the contraction of the contactor
muscle into the oesophagus.
c. The bolus food is carried down the oesophagous by involuntary peristalsis,
and finally reaches the stomach. Inhibition of respiration and closure of
glottis are part of reflex response.

Digestion in stomach
Peristaltic action in the stomach consists of a churning movement which is
bought about by contraction of the three layers of muscle fibers. The
churning movement further causes mechanical breakdown of food, mixing
of food with gastric juice and its onward movement into the duodenum.

Gastric juices-
Secretion of gastric juice:
There is always a small quantity of gastric juice present in the stomach,
even when it contains no food (fasting juice). There are two phases of
secretion of gastric juice…
Cephalic phase- the flow of juice occurs before food reaches the stomach
and it is due to reflex stimulation of the vagus nerves following the sight,
smell or taste of food.
Gastric phase- When stimulated by the presence of food (mainly protein),
the gastric mucosa produced a hormone called gastrin, which passes
directly into the circulating blood. this hormone stimulates the gland in the
stomach wall to produce gastric juice.

Composition and function of gastric juice:

In the mucosa of the intestinal wall two types of secretory glands are
found…
• The chief cells- single layer of secretory cells.
• Parietal cells- arranged in layers which secretes directly into the
gastric glands and the mixed juice is known as gastric juice.
Gastric juices are clear and pale-yellow fluid of high acidity. The gastric juice
contains water, HCl, enzymes- (pepsinogen, renin, and gastric lipase),
mucous, inorganic salts etc.
• Water -contains 97-99%which helps in liquefies the food swallowed.
• Hydrochloric acid- The parietal cells are the source of HCl, and its
functions are-
a. It acidifies the food and stops the action of ptyalin.
b. Inactive pepsinogen is converted to the active enzyme pepsin.
c. Acids kills the bacteria ingested with the food and prevent their
entry to intestine.
Enzymes-
Pepsin- The chief digestive function of stomach is the parietal digestion of
protein. Gastric pepsin produces in the chief cell as inactive zymogen and
pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin by the action of HCl.

H+
Pepsinogen pepsin
𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓
𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 → 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
 The enzyme pepsin transforms native protein into proteoses and peptones.
1. 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑠 → 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠
2. 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛) → 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑎++ 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
→ 𝐶𝑎 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒) → 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠.
Renin- The enzyme causes the coagulation of milk.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑘 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑅𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 → 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛
𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛
→ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠.
Renin is absent in human gastric juice but important in digestive process of calf.
Mucous-It is the glycoprotein which help to neutralized the acid in stomach. The
mucous also acts as lubricant and prevent injury to the gastric mucosa by forming
coating of mucous.
Inorganic salts-These includes NaCl, KCl, CaCl, Ca (PO4), etc.
Intrinsic factors-Gastric juice contains intrinsic factors helps in the absorption of
erythrocyte maturing factor B12 (Cyanocobalamin) which is essential for the
proper development of the RBC.in the bone marrow.

Intestinal digestion
The stomach content, or chyme, are intermittently introduced during digestion
duodenum through the pyloric valve. The pancreatic and bile ducts open into the
duodenum at a point very close to the pylorus. The high alkaline content of biliary
and pancreatic secretion neutralizes the acids of the chyme and changes the pH
of this material to the alkaline side, this shift of pH is necessary for the activity of
the enzymes contained in the pancreatic and intestinal juice. Digestion in
intestine can be divided into 3 parts-
1. Digestion in the duodenum
The food when passing through the duodenum is exposed to the action of two
main digestive juices namely Bile and Pancreatic juice.
 • The bile
Bile is an alkaline viscous, yellow to green bitter fluid(pH8-8.6). The bile is
secreted continually by the liver at a rate of0.5 to 1 lit. per day. The gallbladder, a
saccular organ attached to the hepatic duct, stores a certain amount of the bile
produced by the liver between meals during digestion, the gall bladder contracts
and supplies bile rapidly to the small intestine by way of the common bile duct.
The pancreatic secretion mixes with the bile, since they empty into the common
duct shortly before its entry into the duodenum.
• Secretion of bile
Bile does not contain any digestive enzymes but plays an important role in the
process of digestion of food. A hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK)secreted by
the intestine in response to presence of food stimulates the gall bladder to
undergo rhythmic contraction to release bile into the duodenum.
• Composition of bile
Bile contains water 92%, Bile salts 6%, 0.4% bile pigment, acids, cholesterol and
fatty acids.
1. Bile salts-Bile contains Sodium taurocholate and Sodium glycocholate. They
emulsify, they breakdown of large particles of globules into a suspension of
very fine droplets, enzyme Lipase is present. Bile salts control the pH of
bile. Bile helps-
a. Absorption of fat-soluble vitamin A, D, E.K.
b. React with the insoluble fatty acids salts to convert them into readily
soluble substances for absorption
c. Promotes the secretory power of liver cells.
d. Bile salts along with bile create an optimum medium for Lipase.
 2. Bile Pigments- Bile products are waste products formed by the breakdown
of hemoglobin of worn-out erythrocytes in the. these are eliminated from
the body via intestinal tract. They have functional importance in digestion
of food. They are 2 types Bilirubin and Biliverdin and presence of these
pigments’ bile has a distinctive colour.
• Functions of Bile: Bile plays an importance role in physiology of digestion-
i. Bile provides medium to dissolve large amount of fatty acid in the
intestine.
ii. The alkaline pH of bile provides an optimum medium for pancreatic
Lipase.
iii. Bile salts convert large fat globules into fat emulsion.
iv. Helps in absorption fat soluble substances e.g., vit A, D, E and K.

• Pancreatic juice: It is secreted by pancreas. It is colourless transparent fluid.

Pancreatic juice is alkaline because of presence of bicarbonate of sodium.
Human pancreatic juice has a range of pH between7.8-8.4.
composition of pancreatic juice:
pancreatic juice contains water 92% and 2% solid components mainly consist of
proteolytic, amylolytic, lipolytic enzymes.
• Pancreatic enzymes and its functions:
Proteolytic enzyme-trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, Elastases etc.
Amylolytic enzyme -Amylopsin.

Lipolytic enzyme – Steapsin.

Nuclease
 i. Proteolytic enzyme:
Trypsin- it is secreted in its inactive state called trypsinogen. It is activated into
trypsin by the enzyme enteropeptidase. Trypsin acts on the protein and
converted into simpler forms of protein such as tripeptides and dipeptides.
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑠𝑒
active enzyme
𝑇𝑟𝑦𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 →
(inactive enzyme) 𝑡𝑟𝑦𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛

𝑇𝑟𝑦𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑃𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 → 𝑇𝑟𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠.

Chymotrypsin: It secretes in an inactive form Chymotrypsinogen it is converted
into trypsin to form an active enzyme chymotrypsin; chymotrypsin coagulates
milk protein caesinogen into casein.
Carboxypeptidase: Its hydrolases the polypeptides into their constituent’s amino
acid molecules.
Elastase or Pancreopeptidase: It hydrolyses elastin protein to amino acids.
a. Amylolytic enzyme: Pancreatic amylase Amylopepsin, hydrolyses starch
into Maltose and disaccharides
𝑷𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒎𝒚𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝒂𝒎𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒏) + 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏
→ 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒔𝒆 + 𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆.
b. Lipolytic enzyme: Lipolytic enzyme steapsin hydrolases the remaining fats
into fatty acids and glycerol.
𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒆(𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒏) + 𝑭𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
→ 𝑭𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑮𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒍.

c. Nucleases: It acts on Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and convert them to
Nucleotides and Nucleosides.
 2. Digestion in the small intestine:
After pancreatic treatment duodenal contents under goes further digestion in the
small intestine. there are 2 types of intestinal glands Crypts of Lieberkühn and
Brunner’s gland and found in the villi of intestine and secretes enzymes. The
mixture of enzymes secreted by both glands is called intestinal juice or Succus
entericus.
Enzymes of Intestinal juice and its functions:
Intestinal juice contains Proteolytic, Amylolytic and Lipolytic enzymes.
Proteolytic enzyme- They are erepsin, nuclease, nucleosidase, etc. erepsin is a
complex of proteolytic enzymes comprising tripeptidase, dipeptidase and
aminopeptidase. These acts on peptides and convert them into amino acids.
Amylolytic enzyme: Intestinal juice contain carbohydrate splitting enzymes
sucrase, maltase, lactase. They act upon disaccharides to convert them into
glucose.
Lipolytic Enzyme: intestine juice contains fat splitting enzyme called enteric lipase.
It act on complete fat digestion.
The food mixture in intestine is called Chyle.

3. Digestion in the Large intestine:

Digestion does not occur in large intestine as it does not contain any digestive
glands. However, some vegetable cellulose is broken down into carbohydrates by
the enzyme secreted by the bacteria living in it. Bacterial enzymes also act on left
out protein and fat.

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