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FOUNDATIONS OF
COMPUTING: FROM
HARDWARE ESSENTIALS TO
WEB DESIGN
Module 1
What is Computer Hardware?
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can touch.
It includes parts like the computer case, motherboard, CPU, memory, and storage devices.
Hardware is responsible for running the computer and performing tasks as directed by the software.
It processes data, displays results, and stores information.
In essence, hardware supports the operating system and programs, making the computer functional.
2. Main Components:
2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The CPU is the brain of the computer, handling instructions from programs and
making decisions.
It performs calculations and controls the overall operations inside the computer.
The CPU processes all the tasks that make the computer work.
It runs software programs, executes commands, and manages data flow
between components.
The faster the CPU, the quicker the computer can perform tasks.
2.2 Motherboard:
The motherboard is the main circuit board that holds all essential
parts of the computer together.
It connects the CPU, RAM, storage devices, and other components so
they can communicate with each other.
The motherboard has slots to install memory, graphics cards, and
other expansion cards.
It also has ports for connecting external devices like USB drives and
monitors.
The motherboard acts as the backbone of the computer, ensuring all
parts work together smoothly.
2.3 RAM (Random Access Memory):
RAM is temporary memory that stores data the computer
is currently using or processing.
It allows the CPU to quickly access information that’s
needed for tasks.
RAM is faster than storage devices, but it loses all data
once the computer is turned off.
More RAM means the computer can handle more
programs and tasks at the same time without slowing
down.
It helps improve the computer’s performance, especially
when multitasking.
2.4 Storage Devices:
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) stores data on spinning disks, offering a lot of
storage space but slower performance.
Solid-State Drive (SSD) stores data on flash memory, providing faster
read/write speeds with no moving parts.
HDDs are cheaper and can hold more data, while SSDs are faster but
tend to be more expensive.
The storage device holds all your files, programs, and system data.
SSDs are becoming more common as they speed up the computer’s
overall performance.
2.5 Power Supply (PSU):
The PSU takes electrical power from the outlet and converts it into a
form that the computer can use.
It distributes power to components like the CPU, motherboard, and
storage devices.
The PSU ensures that each part of the computer gets the right amount
of electricity to function.
A PSU with a higher wattage can support more powerful components.
It also helps protect the computer from power surges and
interruptions.
2.6 Cooling System:
The cooling system helps prevent the computer from overheating by dissipating heat.
It uses fans or liquid systems to move heat away from hot components like the CPU and GPU.
Without cooling, the computer might overheat, causing it to slow down or damage parts.
Cooling systems are especially important in powerful computers or gaming PCs that run intensive programs.
Effective cooling keeps the computer running smoothly and extends its lifespan.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU is the core component that interprets and executes instructions from the computer’s programs. It's often referred
to as the "brain" of the computer because it handles the logic, control, and processing of data. Every action you perform on
the computer, whether opening a program or playing a video, involves the CPU in some way.
Structure:
The CPU consists of several key components:
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Responsible for performing mathematical and logical operations (like addition, subtraction,
comparisons).
Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by interpreting instructions from programs and managing data
flow between the CPU and other parts of the computer.
Registers: Small, high-speed storage locations that temporarily hold data and instructions being processed. They are
directly accessible by the CPU.
Cache: A small amount of high-speed memory located inside or near the CPU to store frequently accessed data. It
speeds up operations by providing quick access to commonly used instructions and data.
Cores and Threads:
Modern CPUs have multiple cores, which are individual processing units capable of performing tasks simultaneously. Each
core can handle one task at a time, so having more cores allows the CPU to perform more tasks concurrently, improving
multitasking and performance in complex programs. Threads refer to the smallest unit of a CPU’s core that handles
individual tasks. Some CPUs feature Hyper-Threading or Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT), which allows a single core
to handle multiple threads, further improving performance in multi-threaded tasks.
Clock Speed:
Measured in Gigahertz (GHz), the clock speed of a CPU indicates how many cycles (or instructions) it can process in a
second. A higher clock speed typically means the CPU can process instructions faster, but it’s not the only factor that affects
performance. Multiple cores and efficient architecture also contribute significantly to speed.
Performance Factors:
Cache Size: Larger caches store more data, allowing the CPU to access frequently used data faster.
Thermal Design Power (TDP): This is a measure of how much heat a CPU generates under maximum load. A higher TDP
typically indicates a more powerful CPU but also means better cooling is required.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Different CPUs may support different ISAs, which define the basic set of instructions
the CPU can execute. Common examples include x86, x64, and ARM.
Memory
Memory in a computer system refers to various storage elements that temporarily or permanently hold data required by
programs and the operating system. There are different types of memory, each serving specific roles to ensure smooth
performance.
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
Definition: RAM is temporary memory that stores data actively used or processed by programs and the operating system.
Unlike storage devices like hard drives or SSDs, RAM is much faster because it is designed for quick read and write
operations.
Function:
Temporary Storage: When you open an application or a file, it’s loaded into the RAM so that the CPU can quickly access
the data. This is why applications run slower when there’s less RAM available or when it’s full.
Volatile Memory: RAM is volatile, meaning all data is lost when the computer is turned off. This is why you need
permanent storage (like a hard drive or SSD) to save files when you're done working.
Cache Memory:
Cache memory is a small, high-speed type of memory located inside or near the CPU to reduce the time it takes to access
frequently used data and instructions. It’s much faster than RAM but much smaller in size.
Levels of Cache:
L1 Cache: The smallest and fastest cache, built directly into the CPU. It stores critical data the CPU uses most frequently.
L2 Cache: Slightly larger and slower than L1 cache, it stores data that is used less often but still needs to be accessed quickly.
L3 Cache: The largest and slowest cache, shared by all the cores in a multi-core processor. It stores data that’s needed by the
CPU but not as urgently as L1 and L2 data.
Virtual Memory:
Virtual memory is an extension of physical memory (RAM) stored on the hard drive or SSD. When the RAM becomes full, less
frequently used data is moved to virtual memory to free up space in RAM.
Function:
Virtual memory allows the computer to handle larger programs than the physical RAM alone could support. However, accessing
data from the hard drive is much slower than from RAM, so using virtual memory can lead to performance slowdowns.
ROM (Read-Only Memory):
ROM is a type of non-volatile memory used primarily to store firmware — the software that runs the hardware and boots the
computer. Unlike RAM, data in ROM is not erased when the computer is powered off.
Function:
ROM typically stores the BIOS/UEFI, the system that initializes hardware during startup before the operating system takes over.
Memory Hierarchy
The memory hierarchy refers to the arrangement of different types of memory and storage in a computer system, from the
fastest but smallest to the slowest but largest. The goal is to provide quick access to data at different levels of the hierarchy
while balancing cost, speed, and capacity.
1. Registers:
Registers are the fastest and smallest form of memory located inside the CPU.
They store the data and instructions the CPU is currently working on and are directly accessible to the processor.
Registers are used for operations such as calculations and storing intermediate results.
2. Cache:
Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU, used to store frequently accessed data and
instructions.
It’s faster than RAM but smaller in size and helps reduce the time needed to fetch data from main memory.
Cache is divided into levels: L1 (smallest and fastest), L2 (larger and slower), and L3 (largest and slowest).
3. RAM (Random Access Memory):
RAM is temporary storage used to store data and instructions that are currently being processed by the CPU.
It is much slower than cache but larger in size and provides space for active programs.
Data stored in RAM is lost when the computer is powered off (volatile memory).
4. Virtual Memory:
Virtual memory is an extension of RAM stored on the hard drive or SSD.
When RAM becomes full, less frequently used data is moved to virtual memory to free up space.
Virtual memory allows the system to run larger applications, but since it’s stored on the hard drive or SSD, it’s much
slower than RAM and can cause performance slowdowns.
Motherboard
The motherboard is the primary circuit board in a computer that connects all the key components. It allows the CPU, memory,
storage devices, and peripherals to communicate with each other. The motherboard contains slots for memory, expansion
cards, and connectors for power, data, and peripheral devices.
Computer Peripherals & I/O Devices
Peripherals are external devices that connect to the computer to provide additional functionality, often categorized into input
and output devices:
Input Devices: These allow users to input data into the computer. Examples include:
Keyboard: Used to type text and commands.
Mouse: A pointing device used to interact with graphical elements on the screen.
Scanner: Used to digitize physical documents and images.
Microphone: Used for audio input.
Output Devices: These allow the computer to display or present data to the user. Examples include:
Monitor: Displays visual output from the computer.
Printer: Produces hard copies of digital documents.
Speakers: Output sound and audio from the computer.
Storage Peripherals:
External hard drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) can be connected to a computer for additional storage.
USB drives and external optical drives are commonly used for transferring and accessing data.
Storage Devices
Storage devices are used to store data permanently or for long-term access.
Unlike RAM, which is temporary, storage devices keep data even when the computer is turned off.
Storage devices are slower than memory but provide much larger storage capacities for files, programs, and the operating
system.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD):
HDDs are traditional storage devices with spinning magnetic disks that read and write data.
Large storage capacity at a lower cost makes them popular for desktops and laptops.
Slower than newer devices like SSDs due to moving parts.
Commonly used for storing large amounts of data but are being replaced by SSDs in high-performance systems.
Solid-State Drive (SSD):
SSDs use flash memory to store data, with no moving parts.
Much faster than HDDs because they have no mechanical parts.
Provides quicker data access, faster boot-up, and better overall performance.
More expensive than HDDs but increasingly common in modern computers for their speed and reliability.
Ideal for storing the operating system and programs for faster performance.
Optical Drives:
Optical drives use laser technology to read and write data on optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs).
Previously used for media storage and software installation.
Less common in modern computers due to the rise of digital storage, cloud services, and streaming.
Still found in some specialized systems or devices used for playing or burning optical discs.
I/O Communication and Device Management
I/O Communication refers to the exchange of data between the central processing unit (CPU) and input/output devices
(such as keyboards, mice, printers, monitors, etc.).
The CPU sends and receives data through communication channels known as buses and interfaces, which link the
computer to peripheral devices.
Device management ensures that these devices are properly recognized, configured, and controlled by the operating
system. It manages tasks like data transfer, error handling, and device initialization.
Interface Cards
Interface cards are hardware components that provide a physical connection between the computer and external devices.
These cards can be added to the motherboard to enhance the computer’s capabilities, such as connecting to networks
(network interface cards - NICs), or enabling sound, graphics, and additional storage options.
Examples include graphics cards (for video output), sound cards (for audio processing), and network cards (for internet
connectivity).
Interface cards provide specific functions and usually include ports for connecting devices like HDMI, USB, or Ethernet
cables.
Buses
Buses are pathways that carry data between various components inside the computer, such as the CPU, memory, and
peripheral devices.
The bus system allows the CPU to communicate with components by sending data, addresses, and control signals.
Types of buses include:
Data Bus: Transfers the actual data between components.
Address Bus: Carries the memory addresses to locate data.
Control Bus: Sends control signals for managing data transfers and coordinating operations.
The speed of the bus plays a critical role in the overall performance of the system.
Firmware
Firmware is a type of software that is permanently stored on hardware devices, often in ROM (Read-Only Memory).
Unlike regular software, firmware is directly integrated into the device and is responsible for low-level control of the
hardware.
Firmware provides essential functions for hardware devices, such as the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface) found on motherboards. It initializes hardware during the boot process and provides basic
instructions for how the system interacts with peripherals.
Firmware can be updated but typically requires special software and procedures.
Boot Process
The boot process is the series of steps a computer takes when it is powered on, leading to the loading of the operating system and making the system ready for
use.
1. Power-On
When you press the power button, the Power Supply Unit (PSU) sends power to the motherboard and other computer parts (like the CPU, memory, and
storage) to start the system.
2. POST (Power-On Self-Test)
The firmware (BIOS or UEFI) runs a quick check called POST to test important hardware parts like the CPU, RAM, and storage devices (HDD/SSD).
If everything is working, the system moves on. If there’s an issue, it may show an error message or beep to indicate the problem.
3. Loading the Bootloader
After POST, the firmware looks for a small program called the bootloader, usually stored on your main hard drive or SSD.
The bootloader is responsible for starting the operating system (OS) and loading it into the computer’s memory.
4. Operating System Loading
Once the bootloader is found, it loads the operating system (OS) into RAM.
The OS takes over and begins setting up everything needed for the computer to run properly.
5. System Initialization
The operating system then starts background services and loads drivers for hardware components (like the keyboard, mouse, graphics, etc.).
Once everything is ready, the system is ready for you to start using.
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