CFD Module

User’s Guide
CFD Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM021301

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the CFD Module 28

Why CFD Is Important for Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling . . . . . . . . . 29
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 30

Overview of the User’s Guide 34

Chapter 2: Quick Start Guide

Modeling and Simulations of Fluid Flow 38

Modeling Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Geometric Complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 59
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter 3: Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Modeling Single-Phase Flow 62

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large

CONTENTS |3
 Eddy Simulation Interfaces 69
The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 88
The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The LES RBVM Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The LES RBVMWV Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
The LES Smagorinsky Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Vacuum Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Interior Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Grille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Generate New Turbulence Model Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4 | CONTENTS
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces 136
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . 139
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . 140
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . 141
Stationary Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface 146

Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 150

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Non-Newtonian Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Mass Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Screen Boundary Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 187
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . 191
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

CONTENTS |5
 Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . 194

Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces 197

Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
The L-VEL Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
The k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
The Realizable k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
The k-ω Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The SST Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . 223
The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
The v2-f Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity . . 236
Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition . . . 238
Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces . . . . . 238
Solvers for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models . . . . . . . . . 241
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces . . . . 241

Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces 244

References for LES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces 249

About Rotating Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Frozen Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface 254

General Viscoelastic Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 256
Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models . . . . . . . . 257
References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 257

6 | CONTENTS
Chapter 4: Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
Interfaces

Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module 260

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer,

Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces 264
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 264
The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface . . . . . . . 267
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 267
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Nonisothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Marangoni Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat

Transfer Interfaces 280
The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations . . . 280
Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces. . . . . . . . . 287
The Boussinesq Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition. . . . . . 291
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . 291
References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

CONTENTS |7
 Chapter 5: High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 294

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface . . . . . . . . . . 295
The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 296
The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface . . . . . . 298
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces. . . . . . . . . 300
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 309

Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface . . . 310
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . 312
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

The Compressible Euler Equations Interface 316

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Compressible Euler Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

8 | CONTENTS
 Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 325
Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Sutherland’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models . . . . . 332
References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . 333

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface 334

The Compressible Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
The Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters . . . . . . . . . 337
References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface . . . . . . 338

Chapter 6: Multiphase Flow Interfaces

Modeling Multiphase Flow 341

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
The Multiphase Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 343
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces 354
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . 354
The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces . . . . . . . . 355
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . 357
The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . 362
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 365
The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 366
The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . 367
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and
Turbulent Flow, Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . 371

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces 372

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 372
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface. . . . . . 373

CONTENTS |9
 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . 374
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 378

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 378
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 379
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 382

Select Laminar Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Deforming Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fluid-Fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Free Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

The Bubbly Flow Interfaces 389

The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 403
The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

10 | C O N T E N T S
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Gas Boundary Condition Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

The Mixture Model Interfaces 425

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 425
The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 429
The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 435
The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Mixture Model, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . 442
The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces . . . . 446
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Mixture Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces 465

The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . 465
The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface. . . . . . . . . . 468
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Euler–Euler Model
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Phase Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

CONTENTS | 11
 Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

The Phase Transport Interfaces 485

The Phase Transport Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . 488
Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport
and Phase Transport in Porous Media Interfaces . . . . . . . . 489
Phase and Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . 490
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Volume Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Porous Medium Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

The Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces 498

The Phase Transport Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Mixture Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces 507

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 508

12 | C O N T E N T S
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Nonisothermal Mixture Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces 516

Level Set and Phase Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 521
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Numerical Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 523

Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field

Interfaces 525
Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 528
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
References for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces. . . . . . . 529

Theory for the Three-Phase Flow Interface 530

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . 530
Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 533

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 534

Domain Level Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
About the Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 536
Contact Angle Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface . . . . . 541

Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces 543

The Bubbly Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Turbulence Modeling in Bubbly Flow Applications . . . . . . . . . 547
References for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces 550

The Mixture Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations . . . . . . . . . . 554
Turbulence Modeling in Mixture Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556

CONTENTS | 13
 Slip Velocity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
References for the Mixture Model Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 559

Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces 560

The Euler–Euler Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Some Notes on Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
References for the Euler–Euler Model Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 575

Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces 577

Phase Transport in Free Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Phase Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models . . . . 579
Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . 582
References for the Phase Transport Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . 583

Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces 584

Mixture Viscosity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Slip Velocity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Coupled Interfaces: Equations and Coupled Quantities . . . . . . . 589
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Theory for the Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces 591

Mixture Material Properties for Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . 591

Chapter 7: Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Interfaces

Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow 594

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
The Porous Media Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

14 | C O N T E N T S
The Darcy’s Law Interface 599
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s
Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Hydraulic Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Atmosphere/Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Pervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Fracture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

The Brinkman Equations Interface 623

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

CONTENTS | 15
 Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 633

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Microfluidic Wall Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 643

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Pressure and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 650

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . 651
Well (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

16 | C O N T E N T S
 Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface 655
About Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
Storage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Average Linear Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 660

About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 662

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 663
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface. . . . . . . 663

Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 664

Capillary Pressure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface . . . . . . . . 666

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 667

Pressure-Saturation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

Chapter 8: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

Modeling Chemical Species Transport 672

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Adding a Chemical Species Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . 675

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 677

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 681
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682

CONTENTS | 17
 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

18 | C O N T E N T S
The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface 716
The Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media Interface . . . 722
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of
Concentrated Species Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Reaction Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Mass Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

The Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces 745

The Reacting Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 747
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 747
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . 748
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Multiphysics Interfaces 755

The Reacting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . . . . 755
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 756
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 756
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 757

CONTENTS | 19
 The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε, Diluted Species Interface . . 758
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 759
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interfaces 762

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 763
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

The Nonisothermal Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces 765

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . 766
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . 767
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface . . . . . 768
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . 770
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 773

Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792

20 | C O N T E N T S
 Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
About Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795

Theory for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface 796

Multicomponent Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation . . . . . 797
Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law Approximation . . . . . . . . . 799
Multicomponent Thermal Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Regularization of Reaction Rate Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
References for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface . . . . 802

Theory for the Reacting Flow Interfaces 803

Pseudo Time Stepping for Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
The Stefan Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
The Chemical Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Turbulent Mass Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
Mass Transport Wall Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Turbulent Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
The Reaction Source Term for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . 813
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . 813
References for the Reacting Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 814

Chapter 9: Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 816

The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
The Thin-Film Flow, Domain Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
The Thin-Film Flow, Edge Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Fluid-Film Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Border. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Perforations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

CONTENTS | 21
 Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 831

Thin-Film Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
The Reynolds Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
The Modified Reynolds Equation — Gas Flows . . . . . . . . . . 843
Flow Models for Rarefied Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Frequency-Domain Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
References for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Chapter 10: Shallow Water Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface 856

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface . . . . . . . . 856
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow
Water Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Domain Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Domain Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Water Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface 865

The Shallow Water Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
The Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

22 | C O N T E N T S
 Wave Speed and Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Forces on Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces . . . . . . . 870

Chapter 11: Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Level Set Interface 872

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface . . . . 874
Level Set Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877

The Phase Field Interface 878

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface . . . . 879
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883

The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 884

Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888

The Ternary Phase Field Interface 889

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890

CONTENTS | 23
 Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893

Theory for the Level Set Interface 895

The Level Set Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Conservative and Nonconservative Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Initializing the Level Set Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface . . . . . . . . 898
Reference for the Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

Theory for the Phase Field Interface 900

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
The Equations for the Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
Reference for the Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 906

About the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method. . . . . . . . . . . 906
The Equations for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method . . . . . . 907
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Reference for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . 910

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface 911

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . 911
Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . 913

24 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 12: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 916

CONTENTS | 25
26 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the CFD Module, an optional add-on package for COMSOL
Multiphysics® that provides you with tools for computational fluid dynamics, CFD.
The modeling of fluid flow is an increasingly important part in development of new
equipment and processes.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of the module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the CFD Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

27
 About the CFD Module
In this section:

• Why CFD Is Important for Modeling

• How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

Why CFD Is Important for Modeling

Computational fluid dynamics, CFD, is an integral part in a constantly growing
number of development processes, and is a well established field within many different
engineering disciplines; mechanical, chemical, civil, aeronautical, and also in more
specialized areas such as biomedical engineering.

Often the flow itself is not the main focus in a simulation. Instead it is how the flow
affects other process and application parameters that is important. The transport of
species through the different parts of a chemical reactor, the effective cooling of a
computer’s hard drive and electronics, the dispersion of energy within the damping
film of an accelerometer, the extent of nuclear waste spreading from a subterranean
repository — all of these are applications for which the flow must be fully understood
and is an integral part of the process’s description and simulation.

In many situations, while the flow can add necessary operational parameters to a
process or application, it is also affected by them. For example, a chemical reactor
creates a pressure which disturbs the flow, the electronic heat affects the fluid’s density
and flow properties, the accelerometer elasticity imposes an oscillation on the flow,
while the subterranean environment’s poroelasticity changes the course of the flow.

A description combining several physics fields is often required to produce accurate

models of real world applications involving fluid flow. Being able to effectively simulate
such models increases the understanding of the studied processes and applications,
which in turn leads to optimization of the flow and other parameters.

Historically, a sophisticated modeling tool was a privilege that only large companies
could afford, for which the savings made in bulk production justified the computer
software costs and need for CFD specialists. Today’s engineers are educated in the use
of software modeling tools, and are often expected to create realistic models of

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
advanced systems on their personal computers. This is where COMSOL Multiphysics
can improve your modeling capabilities.

How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

The CFD Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics
modeling environment with customized physics interfaces and functionality optimized
for the analysis of all types of fluid flow. It is developed for a wide variety of users
including researchers, developers, teachers, and students. It is not just a tool for CFD
experts; it can be used by all engineers and scientists who work with systems in which
momentum transport through fluid flow is an important part of a process or
application.

The module uses the latest research possible to simulate fluid flow and it provides the
most user-friendly simulation environment for CFD applications. The solvers and
meshes are optimized for fluid-flow applications and have built-in robust stabilization
methods.

The readily available coupling of heat and mass transport to fluid flow enables
modeling of a wide range of industrial applications such as heat exchangers, turbines,
separation units, and ventilation systems.

Ready-to-use interfaces enable you to model laminar and turbulent single- or

multiphase flow. Functionality to treat coupled free and porous media flow, stirred
vessels, and fluid structure interaction is also included.

Together with COMSOL Multiphysics and its other optional packages, the CFD
Module takes flow simulations to a new level, allowing for arbitrary coupling to physics
interfaces describing other physical phenomena, such as structural mechanics,
electromagnetics, or even user-defined transport equations. This allows for
unparalleled modeling capabilities for multiphysics applications involving fluid flow.

Like all COMSOL modules, the interfaces described in this guide include all the steps
available for the modeling process, which are described in detail in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Definitions of parameters and component variables

• Creating, importing and manipulating the geometry
• Specifying the materials to include in the component
• Defining the physics of the fluid flow in domains and on boundaries, and coupling
it to other physics

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 29

 • Set up an appropriate mesh for the modeling domain with consideration given to the
fluid-flow system’s behavior
• Solving the equations that describe a system for stationary or dynamic behavior, or
as a parametric or optimization study
• Collecting and analyzing results to present for further use in other analyses.

Once a model is defined, you can go back and make changes in all of the branches
listed, while maintaining consistency in the other definitions throughout. You can
restart the solver, for example, using the existing solution as an initial guess or even
alter the geometry, while the equations and boundary conditions are kept consistent
through the associative geometry feature.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 31

 THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu,
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Application Gallery www.comsol.com/models
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 33

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The CFD Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling CFD systems using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. For theory relating to the physics interfaces, see the
end of each chapter.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

QUICK START GUIDE

The Quick Start Guide includes some basic modeling strategies to get you started
modeling fluid flow in your particular application area. For example, it gives some tips
about how to control your material properties and how to set the optimal mesh to
make solving the model easier and quicker. It also includes a summary of all the physics
interfaces included with the CFD Module.

THE PHYSICS INTERFACES

The CFD Module both extends physics interfaces available with COMSOL
Multiphysics and provides additional physics interfaces. As a result, the module
contains a wide range of physics interfaces for modeling various types of momentum
transport. You can simulate laminar and turbulent flow, Newtonian and
non-Newtonian flow, isothermal and nonisothermal flow, multiphase flow, and flow in
porous media. The CFD Module also provides interfaces for modeling flows that occur
in thin-films or in bounded regions, and in stationary and rotating domains.

On top of this, the CFD Module includes physics interfaces for modeling heat transfer,
and transport and reactions of chemical species. These are typical phenomena that
occur in fluid flow and are strongly coupled to the flow field.

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Single-Phase Flow
The Single-Phase Flow Interfaces chapter describes the many physics interfaces
available for laminar and turbulent flow. Modeling Single-Phase Flow helps you choose
the best Fluid Flow interface for your particular application.

Multiphase Flow
The Multiphase Flow Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces to model flows
with more than one phase, for example flows with two fluids or flows with dispersed
droplets or particles. To help you select which physics interface to use see Modeling
Multiphase Flow.

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Darcy’s Law,
Brinkman Equations, and Free and Porous Media Flow interfaces. To help you select
which physics interface to use see Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow.

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

The CFD Module includes physics interfaces for the simulation of heat transfer in fluid
flow. As with all other physics models simulated in COMSOL Multiphysics, any
description involving heat transfer can be directly coupled to any other physical
process. This is particularly relevant for systems with fluid flow and mass transfer. The
interfaces also allow you to account for heat sources and sinks, such as energy evolving
from chemical reactions.

The Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces chapter describes these physics
interfaces in greater detail. To help you select which physics interface to use see
Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module.

High Mach Number Flow

The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces chapter describes three versions of the same
predefined multiphysics interface used to model laminar and turbulent compressible
flows at high Mach numbers.

Thin-Film Flow
The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces that model flow in
thin regions such as lubrication shells and fluid bearings.

Shallow Water Equations

The Shallow Water Interface chapter describes a depth-averaged formulation for
modeling free-surface flows.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 35

 Chemical Species Transport
The Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces that are
used for the simulation of chemical reactions, and mass or material transport through
diffusion and convection. Modeling Chemical Species Transport helps you select the
best physics interface to use.

The Mathematics Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch describes the Phase Field and Level Set
interfaces found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface branch. In the CFD Module
these physics features are integrated into the relevant physics interfaces.

36 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Quick Start Guide

This chapter has some basic modeling strategies to get you started modeling fluid
flow in your application area.

In this chapter:

• Modeling and Simulations of Fluid Flow

| 37
 Modeling and Simulations of Fluid
Flow
In this section:

• Modeling Strategy
• Geometric Complexities
• Material Properties
• Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features
• Meshing
• The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings
• The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Modeling Strategy
Modeling and simulating fluid flow is a cost-effective way for engineers and scientists
to understand, develop, optimize, and control designs and processes.

One of the most important things to consider before setting up a model is the accuracy
that is required in the simulation results. This determines the level of complexity in the
model.

Since fluid flow simulations are often computationally demanding, a multistage

modeling strategy is usually required. This implies using a simplified model as a
starting point in the project. Complexities can then be introduced gradually so that the
effect of each refinement of the model description is well understood before
introducing new complexities.

Complexities in the modeling process can be introduced at different stages in order to

achieve the desired accuracy. They can be introduced in the description of the

38 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

geometry, the physical properties, and in the governing equations. The Model Builder,
which shows the sequence of operations in the model tree, is designed with this
strategy in mind.

In addition to fluid flow, COMSOL Multiphysics and the CFD Module have
predefined multiphysics couplings for fluid flow and other phenomena. Examples of
these couplings are heat transfer for free convection and transport of chemical species
in simulations of reacting flows. You can also set up your own couplings by defining
mathematical expressions of the dependent variables (velocity, pressure, temperature,
and so forth) in the physics interfaces for arbitrary multiphysics combinations.

Geometric Complexities
A complicated 3D CAD drawing is usually not the best starting point for the modeling
process. A 2D representation of a cross section of the geometry can give valuable initial
estimates of the flow field that can be used when setting up the full 3D model. For
example, you might be able to determine the pressure variations and the nature of the
flow, or whether or not a turbulence model is needed. This provides information about
where in the final geometry the most amount of “change” occurs, if a more advanced
fluid-flow model or better resolution is required, and what parts of the modeling
process are more sensitive than others.

Simplifying the geometry reduces the simulation time. Making use of symmetry planes
can cut down the geometry to one half or even less of the original size. Rounding-off
corners is another way to reduce mesh resolution. Resolving small geometric parts
requires a fine mesh, but the parts themselves can have a negligible effects on the fluid
field as a whole.

Geometry Modeling and CAD Tools in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Material Properties
Depending on the accuracy required in a simulation, the effort put in acquiring data
for the fluid properties can also vary. In many cases, the dependencies of the fluid
properties on pressure and temperature have to be taken into account.

For a pressure-driven flow, it is usually a good approach to first set up a model using
constant density and viscosity, to get a first estimate of the flow and pressure fields.

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 39

 Once the model works with constant properties it can be extended by adding the
accurate expressions for density and viscosity.

For free convection the density variations drive the flow. The fluid properties’
dependencies on the modeled variables, for example temperature, then have to be
accounted for from the beginning. In difficult cases, with large temperature variations,
it can be beneficial to run a time-dependent simulation even if the purpose of the
simulation is to get the results at steady-state.

Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features

The CFD Module has physics interfaces for laminar and turbulent single-phase flow,
multiphase flow, nonisothermal flow, high Mach number flow, thin-film flow, and
porous media flow.

The choice of physics interface and features depends on the accuracy required in a
simulation. A fluid that is weakly compressible could be approximated as
incompressible if the required accuracy allows for it. A complex turbulence model can
be replaced by a much simpler one, again if the resulting accuracy is sufficient. A first
step to set up the physics is to start by making the model as simple as possible. The
results from such a simulation can reveal useful pieces of information that help later
when more complex steps are added to the physics.

The Fluid Flow interfaces can also be coupled to any other physics interface in a
multiphysics model. When setting up such a complex multiphysics component
involving fluid flow and other coupled physics, it is a good strategy to first define and
solve one physics interface at a time. This allows for verification of the model setup, for
example to check if the intended domain and boundary settings are reflected in the
solution of each decoupled physics interface. The alternative, to debug the model
setup with several coupled physics interfaces, can be time-consuming.

In steady-state multiphysics simulations, it can also be a good strategy to start by

solving the model for each physics interface in a decoupled setup. The solutions from
the decoupled models can then be used as initial guesses for the fully coupled model.
This is especially recommended for highly nonlinear models. The Study node is
designed for this modeling strategy.

Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model and Studies and Solvers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

40 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

Meshing
The mesh used in a fluid-flow simulation depends on the fluid-flow model and on the
accuracy required in the simulation. A fluid-flow model can inherently require a fine
resolution in order to converge, even though the results might not require a
correspondingly high accuracy. In such cases, it can be a good idea to change the fluid
flow model. An example is the low-Reynolds number k-ε model which gives a very
accurate description of the flow near solid walls, but requires a very fine mesh there.
In many cases, the standard k-ε model with wall functions can deliver an accurate
enough result at a much lower computational cost. In other cases, the requirement of
accuracy in the results can limit the maximum element size.

There are a number of different mesh types and meshing strategies for fluid flow
modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics.

UNSTRUCTURED MESHES
Unstructured meshing is the most general way of creating a mesh and can be used for
all types of geometries. The mesh-generating algorithms are highly automated, often
creating a good quality mesh from minimal user input. This mesh type is therefore a
good choice when the geometry of the domain is evident but the behavior of the
mathematical model in it is unknown. Yet, unstructured meshes tend to be isotropic
or homogeneous in nature, so that they fail to take advantage of the different
resolution requirements in the streamwise and cross-stream directions.

STRUCTURED MESHES
In many ways, the properties of structured meshes complement those of the
unstructured type. Structured meshes provide high quality meshes with few elements
for sufficiently simple geometries. The properties of a structured mesh can
furthermore be used to create very efficient numerical methods. Finally, it is often
easier to control the mesh when high anisotropy or large variations in mesh size and
distribution is required, as the size of a structured mesh can be easily increased linearly
or geometrically with the dimensions of the computational domain.

SWEPT MESHES
Swept meshes are a particular form of structured meshes, sometimes denoted
semistructured. These are generated in 3D by creating a mesh at a source face and then
sweeping it along the domain to a destination face, such as from a cut in the cylindrical
part of a polymerization reactor to its outlet face. A swept mesh is structured in the
sweep direction, while the mesh at the source and destination faces can be either

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 41

 structured or unstructured. As is the case for structured meshes, the model geometry
determines if a swept mesh is applicable. Swept meshes are typically ideal when the
cross section in the sweep direction is constant, which is the case for channels and
pipes, for example. Revolving a mesh around a symmetry axis is another useful sweep
operation.

BOUNDARY LAYER MESHES

A boundary layer mesh is a mesh with an element distribution that is stacked or dense
in the direction normal to a boundary. It is created by inserting structured layers of
elements along specific boundaries and merging the outer layer with the surrounding
structured or unstructured mesh. This type of mesh is useful for many fluid flow
applications especially when coupled to mass and energy transfer, where thin boundary
layers need to be resolved. This is also the default physics-induced mesh for fluid flow.

MESH CONVERGENCE
Ideally, a mesh convergence analysis should be performed in order to estimate the
accuracy of a simulation. This means that the mesh should be made twice as fine in each
spatial direction and the simulation carried out once again on the refined mesh. If the
change in critical solution parameters for the original mesh and the finer mesh is within
the required tolerance, the solution can be regarded as being mesh-converged. For
practical reasons, it is seldom possible to make the mesh twice as fine in each direction.
Instead, some critical regions can be identified and the mesh is refined only there.

Meshing in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings

The default solver for the Fluid Flow interfaces is optimized for a large variety of fluid
flow conditions and applications. The suggested solver depends on the physics
interface and the study type.

The default solver settings is a tradeoff between performance and robustness. The
more advanced the model, the more the solver can need tuning to obtain a solution.
This is another reason why it is good to start with a reduced model description rather
than the complete description.

2D models and small 3D models get so-called direct-solver suggestions. Direct solvers
are robust but the memory requirement scales somewhere between N1.5and N2 where

42 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

 N is the number of degrees of freedom in the model. This means that a direct solver
becomes prohibitively expensive for large problems. Large 3D models therefore get
iterative solver suggestions per default. The memory requirement for an iterative solver
optimally scales as N. The drawback with iterative solvers is that they are less robust
than direct solvers. A model can converge with a direct solver but fail with an iterative
solver. Large models therefore require more care when being set up than small models
do.

For well-posed models, there are possibilities to tune the default solvers to gain
performance. This is especially true for time-dependent models with a variety of solver
settings providing options to reduce the computational time.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide

The CFD Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base
package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study
types for the CFD Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the COMSOL
Multiphysics base package is listed in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species1

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 43

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species in Porous Media
Transport of tcs all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species
Transport of tcs all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species in
Porous Media
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Species1 axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, k-ε — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, SST — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Diluted Species

Turbulent Flow, k-ε — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

44 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, SST — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Reacting Flow in Porous Media

Transport of Diluted rfds 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species axisymmetric
Transport of rfcs 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species axisymmetric
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Viscoelastic Flow vef 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 45

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Realizable k-ε axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, SST spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, v2-f spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Large Eddy Simulation

LES RBVM spf 3D time dependent

LES RBVMWV spf 3D time dependent

LES Smagorinsky spf 3D time dependent

Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow

Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Laminar Flow dependent
Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor with
Turbulent Flow, initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization

46 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor with

Turbulent Flow, L-VEL initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time
Turbulent Flow, k-ε dependent
Multiphase Flow

Bubbly Flow

Laminar Bubbly Flow bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow

Bubbly Flow, Algebraic bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, L-VEL bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, k-ε bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, Realizable bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
k-ε axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, k-ω bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, SST bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, Low Re bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 47

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Bubbly Flow, bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, v2-f bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Laminar Flow axisymmetric
Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, L-VEL mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, k-ε mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Realizable k-ε axisymmetric
Mixture Model, k-ω mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Mixture Model, SST mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, Low mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization

48 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, v2-f mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Euler-Euler Model

Euler-Euler Model, ee 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Laminar Flow axisymmetric
Euler-Euler Model, ee 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Turbulent Flow axisymmetric
Phase Transport Mixture Model

Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Laminar Flow
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ε axisymmetric
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Realizable k-ε
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ω axisymmetric

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 49

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Mixture Model, SST axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, Low axisymmetric initialization; time
Re k-ε dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Spalart-Allmaras dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, v2-f axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal Mixture Model

Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Laminar Flow
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ε axisymmetric
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Realizable k-ε
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ω axisymmetric

50 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Mixture Model, SST axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, Low axisymmetric initialization; time
Re k-ε dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Spalart-Allmaras dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, v2-f axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

Flow, Moving Mesh axisymmetric
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Level Set axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, Realizable k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, k-ω axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, SST axisymmetric initialization

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 51

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with

Set, Low Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, v2-f axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, Realizable k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, k-ω axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, SST axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Low Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, v2-f axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow Phase Flow, Phase Field

Two-Phase Thin-Film — 3D time dependent with phase

Flow, Shell, Phase Field initialization

52 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Two-Phase Thin-Film — 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Edge, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar, Three-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Phase Transport

Phase Transport phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Phase Transport in phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Porous Media axisymmetric
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Darcy’s Law dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Multiphase Flow in — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Porous Media axisymmetric
Two-Phase Darcy’s Law tpdl 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow axisymmetric
Nonisothermal Flow

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Brinkman Equations — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axissymmetri stationary, one-way NITF;
c time dependent, one-way
NITF

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 53

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Realizable k-ε (2) axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ω (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, SST(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF

54 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, v2-f (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Large Eddy Simulation

LES RBVM — 3D time dependent

LES RBVMWV — 3D time dependent

LES Smagorinsky — 3D time dependent

High Mach Number Flow

High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Flow, Laminar axisymmetric
High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, k-ε axisymmetric
High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Flow, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Compressible Euler cee 3D, 2D time dependent
Equations
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow

High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Flow, Laminar dependent

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 55

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Flow, k-ε dependent
High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor with
Flow, Spalart-Allmaras initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid-Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; stationary, one

Fixed Geometry2 axisymmetric way; time dependent; time
dependent, one way
Fluid-Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Two-Phase Flow, Phase axisymmetric dependent with phase
Field, Fixed Geometry2 initialization
Thin-Film Flow

Thin-Film Flow, Shell tffs 3D stationary; time dependent;

frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Thin-Film Flow, tff 2D stationary; time dependent;
Domain frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Thin-Film Flow, Edge tffs 2D and 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Shallow Water Equations

Shallow Water swe 1D and 2D time dependent

Equations, Time
Explicit
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Fluids1 ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluids1

56 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Conjugate Heat Transfer

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Realizable k-ε (2) axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ω (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, SST (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 57

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Re k-ε (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Spalart-Allmaras (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, v2-f (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Heat Transfer in Porous ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Media
Mathematics

Moving Interface

Level Set ls all dimensions time dependent with phase

initialization
Phase Field pf all dimensions time dependent; time
dependent with phase
initialization
Phase Field Thin-Film pftffs 3D time dependent with phase
Flow, Shell initialization
Phase Field Thin-Film pftffs 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Flow, Edge axisymmetric initialization

58 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Ternary Phase Field terpf 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

axisymmetric
1 This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
2
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The CFD Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database with
temperature-dependent fluid properties.

For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Materials Library, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 59

60 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE
 3

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

There are several fluid flow physics interfaces available as listed in The CFD
Module Physics Interface Guide. This chapter describes the physics interfaces
found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ). The section Modeling
Single-Phase Flow helps to choose the best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation
Interfaces
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces
• Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• The Wall Distance Interface is also available and described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual including the theory and how it relates to fluid
flow.

61
 Modeling Single-Phase Flow
The descriptions in this section are structured based on the order displayed in the Fluid
Flow branch. All the physics interfaces described in this section are found under the
Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ). Because most of the physics interfaces are
integrated with each other, many physics features described cross reference to other
physics interfaces. For example, nodes are usually available in both the laminar flow
(Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow) and turbulent flow (Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, k-ε,
k-ω, SST, low Reynolds number k-ε, Spalart-Allmaras and v2-f turbulence models)
interfaces.

In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

The Wall Distance Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Single-Phase Flow branch included with the CFD Module has a number of
subbranches with physics interfaces that describe different types of single-phase fluid
flow. One or more of these physics interfaces can be added, either singularly or in
combination with other physics interfaces for mass transport and heat transfer, for
example.

Different types of flow require different equations to describe them. If the type of flow
to model is already known, then select it directly. However, when you are uncertain of
the flow type, or because it is difficult to reach a solution easily, you can start instead
with a simplified model and add complexity as the model is built. Then test your way
forward and compare models and results. For single-phase flow, the Laminar Flow
interface is a good place to start if this is the case.

In other cases, you may know exactly how a fluid behaves and which equations,
models, or physics interfaces best describe it, but because the model is so complex it is
difficult to reach an immediate solution. Simpler assumptions may need to be made to

62 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 solve the problem, and other physics interfaces might be better to fine-tune the
solution process for the more complex problem. The next section gives you an
overview of each of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces to help you choose.

The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options

Several of the physics interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 3-1)
in the Physical Model and Turbulence sections, which are selected either from a check
box or drop-down list. For the Single-Phase Flow branch, all except the Rotating
Machinery interfaces have the same Name (spf). The differences are based on the
default settings required to model that type of flow as described in Table 3-1.
Figure 3-1 shows the Settings window for Laminar Flow where you choose the type of
compressibility (incompressible, weakly compressible or compressible at Mach
numbers below 0.3) and the turbulence type and model (or none for laminar flow),
and a check box to model Stokes flow by neglecting the inertial term.
TABLE 3-1: THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME COMPRESSIBILITY TURBULENT TURBULENCE NEGLECT

LABEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Creeping Flow spf Incompressible None n/a Stokes Flow

flow
Laminar Flow spf Incompressible None n/a None
flow
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS Algebraic None
Algebraic yPlus flow yPlus
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS L-VEL None
L-VEL flow
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf Incompressible RANS k-ε None
flow
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompresible RANS Realizable None
Realizable k-ε flow k-ε
Turbulent Flow, k-ω spf Incompressible RANS k-ω None
flow
Turbulent Flow, SST spf Incompressible RANS SST None
flow
Turbulent Flow, Low spf Incompressible RANS Low None
Re k-ε flow Reynolds
number k-ε

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 63

 TABLE 3-1: THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME COMPRESSIBILITY TURBULENT TURBULENCE NEGLECT

LABEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS Spalart- None

Spalart-Allmaras flow Allmaras
Turbulent Flow, v2-f spf Incompressible RANS v2-f None
flow
LES RBVM spf Incompressible LES RBVM None
flow
LES RBVMWV spf Incompressible LES RBVMWV None
flow
LES Smagorinsky spf Incompressible LES Smagorinsk None
flow y
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible None None None
Laminar Flow flow
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS Algebraic None
Turbulent Flow, flow yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS L-VEL None
Turbulent Flow, flow
L-VEL
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS k-ε None
Turbulent Flow, k-ε flow
Viscoelastic Flow vef Incompressible n/a n/a n/a
flow

CREEPING FLOW
The Creeping Flow Interface ( ) models the Navier–Stokes equations without the
contribution of the inertia term. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is
appropriate for flow at small Reynolds numbers, such as in very small channels or in
microfluidic applications.

The Creeping Flow interface can also be activated by selecting a check box in the
Laminar Flow interface. This physics interface can also model non-Newtonian fluids,
using the predefined non-Newtonian models.

LAMINAR FLOW
The Laminar Flow Interface ( ) is used primarily to model flow at small to
intermediate Reynolds numbers. The physics interface solves the Navier–Stokes

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

equations, and by default assumes the flow to be incompressible; that is, the density is
assumed to be constant.

Compressible flow is possible to model in this physics interface but you have to
maintain control of the density and any of the mass balances that are deployed to
accomplish this.

The Laminar Flow Interface allows you to model porous media flow or even mixed
free- and porous media flow. A volume force due to gravity can optionally be included.

This physics interface also allows you to simulate flows of the inelastic non-Newtonian
fluids. You can model the fluid using the Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou,
Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
for its dependence on fluid composition and pressure (for compressible flow), or
temperature. Many materials in the material libraries use temperature- and
pressure-dependent property values. If the density is affected by temperature, a

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 65

 nonisothermal flow interface may be applicable (see The Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces).

Figure 3-1: The Settings window for the Laminar Flow interface. Model incompressible or
compressible flow, laminar or turbulent flow, Stokes flow and/or porous media flow.
Combinations are also possible.

TURBULENT FLOW
The various forms of the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) model
flow of large Reynolds numbers. The interfaces solve the Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes (RANS) equations for the filtered velocity field and filtered pressure as well as

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

models for the turbulent viscosity. See The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent
Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces for links to the physics interface
information.

There are several turbulence models available: two algebraic turbulence models, the
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL models, and six transport-equation models, including a
standard k-ε model, the Realizable k-ε model, a k-ω model, an SST model, a Low
Reynolds number k-ε model, the Spalart-Allmaras model, and the v2-f model. Each
model has its merits and weaknesses. See the Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces
for more details.

Similarly to the Laminar Flow interface, incompressible flow is selected by default. If

required, this can be changed to compressible flow. Non-Newtonian fluid models are
not available for the Turbulent Flow interfaces

LARGE EDDY SIMULATION

The Single-Phase Flow, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) interfaces ( ) also model flow
at large Reynolds numbers. The LES interfaces are designed for resolving the larger
three-dimensional unsteady eddies whereas the effect of the smaller eddies are
modeled. Hence, simulations with these interfaces must be three-dimensional and
time-dependent.

There are three LES models: the Residual-Based Variational Multiscale (RBVM)
model, the Residual-Based Variational Multiscale with Viscosity (RBVMWV) model,
and the Smagorinsky model. Of these three, the first two use consistent modeling for
the unresolved scales. This means that the modeled stresses in the momentum
equation vanish in the limit when all scales are resolved. They can therefore also be
used to study laminar or transitional flow.

The current formulations are only applicable to incompressible flow of Newtonian

fluids.

ROTATING MACHINERY
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow Interfaces ( ) model fluid
flow in geometries with rotating parts. For example, stirred tanks, mixers, propellers
and pumps.

When the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces are added using the Model
Wizard, a Rotating Domain is added under the Definitions node. These interfaces
support compressible, weakly compressible and incompressible flow, the flow of
non-Newtonian fluids, as well as turbulence. They also support creeping flow.

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 67

 THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE
The Viscoelastic Flow Interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows of
viscoelastic fluids. The physics interface is only suitable for incompressible flows.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Often, you may want to simulate applications that couple fluid flow to another type of
phenomenon described in another physics interface. Although this is not often another
type of flow, it can still involve physics interfaces supported in the CFD Module and in
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package. This is often the case for applications that
include chemical reactions and mass transport (see Chemical Species Transport
Interfaces), or energy transport, found in the Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
Interfaces chapter.

More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, including radiation, can be found in the
Heat Transfer Module, while a wider variety of tools for modeling chemical reactions
and mass transport are found in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module. Fluid
flow is an important component for cooling electromagnetic phenomena, such as heat
created through induction and microwave heating, which are simulated using the
AC/DC Module and RF Module, respectively. Many applications involve the effect of
fluid-imposed loads on structural applications, for example, fluid-structure interaction
(FSI). The Structural Mechanics Module and MEMS Module have physics interfaces
specifically for these multiphysics applications.

You can easily couple a 1D pipe segment modeled with the Pipe Flow interface with a
3D single phase flow using a Pipe Connection multiphysics coupling. This feature is
available with a license for the Pipe Flow Module. For details, see the section Pipe
Connection in the in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide.

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow,
T ur bule nt Flo w , an d Large E d d y
S i m ula t i o n Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface
• The LES RBVM Interface
• The LES RBVMWV Interface
• The LES Smagorinsky Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 69
 The Creeping Flow Interface
The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
or, if the Turbulence model type is changed to RANS, the inertial terms are included in
the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier–Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

For example, a Laminar Flow interface is added to the Model Tree. If the Low Reynolds
number k-ε turbulence model is selected, the interface Label changes to Turbulent Flow,

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 71
 Low Re k-ε, which is the same Label that displays when the corresponding interface is
added from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma < 0.3 indicates that the inlet
and outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and
supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit.

Swirl Flow
The velocity component, u ϕ , in the azimuthal direction can be included for 2D
axisymmetric components by selecting the Swirl flow check box. While u ϕ can be
nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Also see General Single-Phase
Flow Theory.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier–Stokes equations may
be neglected.

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Porous Media Domains
With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Navier–Stokes
equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Natural convection is induced by variations in magnitude of the buoyancy

force that is defined from the density. For incompressible flow, the density
is constant; hence the buoyancy force is homogeneous and natural
convection cannot be modeled. Nevertheless, using the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics coupling, the buoyancy force is defined using the
thermal expansion coefficient and the temperature. Hence, in this case
natural convection is accounted for, following the Boussinesq
approximation.

Use Shallow Channel Approximation

For 2D components, selecting the Use shallow channel approximation check box enables
modeling of fluid flow in shallow channels in microfluidics applications. Such channels
often have an almost rectangular cross section where the Channel thickness dz is much
smaller than the channel width. Simple 2D components often fail to give correct results
for this type of problems because they exclude the boundaries that have the greatest
effect on the flow. The shallow channel approximation takes the effect of these
boundaries into account by adding a drag term as a volume force to the momentum
equation. The form of this term is

μu
F μ = – 12 --------2 (3-1)
dz

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 73
 where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity, u is the velocity field, and dz is the channel
thickness. This term represents the resistance that the parallel boundaries impose on
the flow; however, it does not account for any changes in velocity due to variations in
the cross-sectional area of the channel.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected and to define
the gravity force.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA=p+pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or to LES (Large Eddy Simulation).

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to approximate the time-scale
tensor in time dependent problems from projections of weak expressions. This check
box is selected by default. When not selected the actual time-step is used.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen
the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter δid as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is
roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 75
 The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features and for turbulent flows. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply
pseudo time stepping also for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time
stepping completely.

When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

The Use Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner in time dependent studies check box under
Linear solvers is available when the Compressibility option is set to Incompressible flow.
When this check box is selected, the default solver for time dependent study steps will
use the Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner in iterative solvers for the velocity and
pressure. Using this preconditioner may result in shorter solution times for large time
dependent problems with high Reynolds numbers.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Block Navier–Stokes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled wall distance. Turbulence effects are included using an enhanced viscosity model
based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are
also added in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary
condition is No slip), and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation.
Applying the Fluid and Matrix Properties on a subset of the domains enables studies of
coupled porous-media flow and turbulent flow.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 77
 Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters for the Algebraic yPlus model, κa and Ba, have been
optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters. The turbulence model parameters can be
tuned when the Edit turbulence model parameters check box is selected.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach number (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are included

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 using an enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. When this physics interface is
added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder — Fluid
Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip), and Initial Values. Except
where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent Flow, k-ε
Interface for all the other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation.
Applying the Fluid and Matrix Properties on a subset of the domains enables studies of
coupled porous-media flow and turbulent flow.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters, κl and El, have been optimized for internal flow. For
certain cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters.
The turbulence model parameters can be tuned when the Edit turbulence model
parameters check box is selected.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 79
 • Reciprocal wall distance G
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study
previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard
two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The flow near walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS equations and the
transport equations for k and ε, and provides an interface for defining the fluid material
and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are
also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
becomes available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Turbulence variables scale
parameters subsection is available when the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for the Laminar Flow interface, enter a value for
Uscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.

The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units
or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 81
 • Airflow over an Ahmed Body: Application Library path
CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/ahmed_body
• Pipe Erosion due to Contaminant Particles: Application Library path
CFD_Module/Particle_Tracing/pipe_elbow_erosion

Turbulent Flow over a Backward-Facing Step: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/turbulent_backstep

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the realizable two-equation k-ε model. The flow near walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS
equations and the transport equations for k and ε, and provides an interface for
defining the fluid material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, and Initial
Values.

Except where included below, see The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are C2, A0, σk, σe, κv, and B.

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints. The k-ω model is a
so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS equations and the
transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy k and the specific dissipation ω,
and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model
Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 83
 Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are α, σk∗, σw, β0, β0∗, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Specific dissipation rate om

• Reciprocal wall distance G

Flow Through a Pipe Elbow: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/pipe_elbow

The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface

The Turbulent Flow, SST (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, SST interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equation for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints. The SST model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The SST model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The Turbulent Flow, SST interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip), and
Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For this physics interface the parameters are a1, β0∗, β1, β2, γ1, γ2, σk1, σk2,
σw1,and σw2.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 85
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Specific dissipation rate om
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study previous
to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase
flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible
flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers
(typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the AKN two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The AKN model
is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all
the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, and κv.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The Low Reynolds number k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 87
 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equation for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the Spalart–Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart–Allmaras model is a
so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall. The Spalart–Allmaras model depends on the distance to the
closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS
equations and the transport equations for the undamped turbulent kinematic velocity
ν̃ , and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. When
this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model
Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

88 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Wall Treatment
The Spalart–Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Cb1, Cb2, Cv1, σv, Cw2, Cw3, κv, and Crot.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Under the Turbulence variables
scale parameters subsection, the default νscale is of the same order of magnitude as the
kinematic viscosity of air at room temperature.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ

The Spalart–Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 89
 The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface
The Turbulent Flow, v2-f (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The physics interface includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

90 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 For this physics interface the parameters are Cμv2f, Cτ, Cη, CL, C1, C2, Cε1v2f, Cε2v2f,
A1, σkv2f, σεv2f, σζv2f, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study
previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

The LES RBVM Interface

The LES RBVM (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at high
Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES RBVM interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by additional stress
terms, for conservation of momentum. Consistent modeling is used for the additional
stresses. The interface is thus also applicable to laminar and transitional flows.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 91
 The LES RBVM interface should only be used for three-dimensional, time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–Stokes and
continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its
properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also
added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES RBVM model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which applies a
Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a

blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El. Turbulence
model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some
special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

92 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

The LES RBVMWV Interface

The LES RBVMWV (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at high
Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES RBVMWV interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by additional stress
terms, for conservation of momentum. Similar modeling as for the LES RBVM model
is applied but the effect of the Reynolds stress is enhanced by adding a turbulent
viscosity term. Since the modeling is consistent, the interface is also applicable to
laminar and transitional flows.

The LES RBVMWV interface should only be used for three-dimensional,

time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–
Stokes and continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid
material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default
nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES RBVMWV model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which applies
a Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 93
 Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a
blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El, and the
˜
turbulent viscosity parameter C . Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as
many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

The LES Smagorinsky Interface

The LES Smagorinsky (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at
high Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES Smagorinsky interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by a turbulent
viscosity term. The modeled term is inconsistent, which means that it does not vanish
for a fully resolved flow.

94 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The LES Smagorinsky interface should only be used for three-dimensional,
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–
Stokes and continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid
material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default
nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES Smagorinsky model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which
applies a Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a

blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El, and the
Smagorinsky parameter Cs. Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many
flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained
by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DISCRETIZATION
The discretization for the LES Smagorinsky interface should be set to P2+P2 in order
to include the Smagorinsky model for the Reynolds stresses.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 95
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

96 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Open Boundary

2
• Free Surface • Outlet
• Fan • Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity • Point Mass Source1
• Fluid-Fluid Interface2 • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Screen
• Generate New Turbulence Model • Stationary Free Surface
Interface • Symmetry
• Grille • Vacuum Pump
• Gravity • Volume Force
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet
• Interior Fan
• Interior Wall
• Line Mass Source1
1
A feature that may require an additional license
2
See documentation for The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 97
 Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force
feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

For the Turbulent Flow interfaces, the Fluid Properties node also adds the equations
for the turbulence transport equations.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the Fluid Properties node also adds the equations
for the components of the elastic stress tensor.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties

98 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and pressure, and these dependencies
are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref and Tref for
incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the physics interface
level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the
computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in the
density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with the
Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Constitutive Relation
For laminar flow, Newtonian and Inelastic non-Newtonian constitutive relations are
available. Newtonian fluids have a linear relationship between the shear stress and the
shear rate.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 99
 Inelastic Non-Newtonian
Non-Newtonian fluids are encountered in everyday life and in a wide range of the
industrial processes. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include yogurt, paper pulp,
and polymer suspensions. Such fluids have a nonlinear relationship between the shear
stress and the share rate. The following inelastic non-Newtonian models are available:
Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and
Casson–Papanastasiou.

The following parameters are required for the Power law:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
·
• Lower shear rate limit γ min
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

For the Carreau model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity μ0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity μinf
• Relaxation time λ

• Power index n

For the Bingham–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp
• Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

For the Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
• Yield stress τy
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

• Model parameter mp

For the Casson–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp

100 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

The default values for the parameters are listed in Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-2: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE INELASTIC NON-NEWTONIAN MODELS

NAME UNIT VARIABLE DEFAULT VALUE

Fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s m 0.001

Flow behavior index / Power index Dimensionless n 1
·
Flow shear rate limit s-1 γ min 0.01
·
Reference shear rate s-1 γ ref 1
Zero shear rate viscosity Pa·s μ0 0.001
Infinite shear rate viscosity Pa·s μinf 0
Relaxation time s λ 0
Plastic viscosity Pa·s μp 0.001
Yield stress N/m2 τy 0
Model parameter s mp 10

• Non-Newtonian Flow

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

For the Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Turbulent Flow, k-ω, and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent
Flow k-ε interfaces, an upper limit on the mixing length is required.

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, it is evaluated to the shortest
side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for example, a complicated
system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such cases, it is recommended
that the mixing length limit is defined manually.

DISTANCE EQUATION
For the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε; Turbulent flow, Algebraic yPlus; Turbulent Flow,
L-VEL; Turbulent Flow, SST; Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras; and Turbulent Flow,
v2-f interfaces, a Wall Distance interface is included.

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 When the Reference length scale lref is set to Automatic, it is evaluated to one tenth of
the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled by the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling because small objects would have too large an impact on the
solution if the wall distance were measured exactly. The automatic value is usually a
good choice but the value can become too high if the geometry consists of several slim
entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
∂t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient
compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on
the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p user input.

102 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 In the Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence variables should also
specified. Depending on the turbulent flow interface being used, additional initial
values may be required for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy k

• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Specific dissipation rate om
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless). Under normal circumstances
the default value need not be changed.
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless). Under normal
circumstances the default value need not be changed.
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls. For turbulent flow, the description may
involve wall functions and asymptotic expressions for certain turbulence variables.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Leaking Wall

• Slip • Navier Slip
• Slip Velocity

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

For turbulent flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

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 When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, the Apply wall roughness option becomes
available. When Apply wall roughness is selected, a Sand roughness model, derived from
the experiments by Nikuradse, is applied. Select Generic roughness in order to specify
more general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq should be specified.
• For Generic roughness a Roughness height ks and a dimensionless Roughness parameter
Cs should be specified.

The option for Porous treatment of no slip condition should be decided in Physical Model
when Enable porous media domains is activated. It specifies how Wall boundaries and
Interior Wall boundaries internal to porous domains are treated. When Standard no slip
formulation is chosen, a common no slip condition is applied on all solid walls. When
Porous slip is chosen, a blending analytic expression is instead applied on the
corresponding wall boundaries adjacent to the porous medium domain. It results in a
no slip condition in case the porous length scale is fully resolved by the mesh and a slip
condition in the opposite limit when the mesh is much coarser than the porous scale.
A smooth transition between these limits is ensured. Note that the interpretation and
usage of non-zero slip at the wall is the same as in the Navier Slip boundary condition.
By default, Velocity formulation is on and the treatment is based on an approximate
reconstruction of the far field pressure gradient using the slip velocity at the wall. If the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen, the local pressure gradient at the wall is
employed.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Slip Velocity
In the microscale range, the flow condition at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or
slip. Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a Slip
velocity at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: noncontinuum
effects and the flow induced by a thermal gradient along the boundary.

When the Use viscous slip check box is selected, the default Slip length Ls is User defined.
Another value or expression may be entered if the default value is not applicable. For
Maxwell’s model values or expressions for the Tangential momentum accommodation
coefficient av and the Mean free path λ should be specified. Tangential accommodation
coefficients are typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis,

104 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business
Media, 2005.

When the Use thermal creep check box is selected, a thermal creep contribution with
Thermal slip coefficient σT is activated. Thermal slip coefficients are typically between
0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows
and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business Media, 2005.

Slip velocity is available when Turbulence Model in the Turbulence section of the interface
is set to None.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

Leaking Wall is available when Turbulence Model in the Turbulence section of the
interface is set to None.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is a slip length, and u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n wall )n wall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

The Slip length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side and
f h is a user input. Select User defined from the Slip length selection list in order to
manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to use ( u – u bnd – ( ( u – u bnd ) ⋅ n wall )n wall ) instead of
u slip in the friction force.

The Navier slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, Kn is the sum of the viscous and the elastic
contributions.

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 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh node needs to be added from
Definitions to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt with the
surface sliding in a tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the
boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.
• For 2D axisymmetric components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface
properties, the Velocity of moving wall, ϕ component vw may also be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Default, Use pointwise constraints, Use DG constraints, or Use weak
constraints. Use mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition
exactly.

106 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Use DG constraints or Use weak constraints.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
Mass flow, and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with
the same or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a
Velocity section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = −nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

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 PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and unselected by default to
prescribe the total pressure pointwise. If it is selected, the averaged total pressure
is imposed in the weak forms instead.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the
interface Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure
approximation (named Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows)
check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic
pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in p0 user input.
• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to reduce the
amount of fluid exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress
backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

MASS FLOW
The mass flow at an inlet can be specified by the Mass flow rate, the Pointwise mass flux,
the Standard flow rate, or the Standard flow rate (SCCM).

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the mass flow condition is applied separately on
each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is applied over the
whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately should
be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on each disjoint
boundary.

108 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Mass Flow Rate
The Mass flow rate option sets the integrated mass flow over the boundary selection,
the Normal mass flow rate to a specific value, m. The mass flow is assumed to be parallel
to the boundary normal, and the tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

Pointwise Mass Flux

The Pointwise mass flux sets the mass flow parallel to the boundary normal. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero. The mass flux is a model input, which means that
COMSOL Multiphysics can take its value from another physics interface when
available. When User defined is selected a value or function Mf should be specified for
the Mass flux.

Standard Flow Rate

The Standard flow rate Qsv sets a standard volumetric flow rate, according to the SEMI
standard E12-0303. The mass flow rate is specified as the volumetric flow rate of a gas
at standard density — the Mean molar mass Mn divided by a Standard molar volume Vm
(that is, the volume of one mole of a perfect gas at standard pressure and standard
temperature). The flow occurs across the whole boundary in the direction of the
boundary normal and is computed by a surface (3D) or line (2D) integral. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

The standard density can be defined directly, or by specifying a standard pressure and
temperature, in which case the ideal gas law is assumed. The options in the
Standard flow rate defined by list are:

• Standard density, for which the Standard molar volume Vm should be specified.
• Standard pressure and temperature, for which the Standard pressure Pst and the
Standard temperature Tst should be defined.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

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 Standard Flow Rate (SCCM)
The Standard flow rate (SCCM) boundary condition is equivalent to the Standard flow
rate boundary condition, except that the flow rate is entered directly in SCCMs
(standard cubic centimeters per minute) without the requirement to specify units.
Here, the dimensionless Number of SCCM units Qsccm should be specified.

TURBULENT FLOW SETTINGS

No additional inlet conditions are required for the algebraic turbulence models:
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL.

For the Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface, a value or expression for the
Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 should be specified.

For transport-equation turbulence models, apart from the Spalart–Allmaras turbulence

model, the following settings are available under the Specify turbulence length scale and
intensity option (see Table 3-3 for the default values):

• Turbulent intensity IT
• Turbulence length scale LT
• Reference velocity scale Uref

For the v2-f turbulence model, the additional choice between Isotropic turbulence and
Specify turbulence anisotropy appears. For Specify turbulence anisotropy, a value for the
turbulent relative fluctuations at the inlet, ζ0, may be specified. When Specify
turbulence variables is selected, values or expressions for the dependent turbulence
variables should be defined. Availability is based on the physics interface and the
boundary condition chosen.

• Turbulent kinetic energy k0

• Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0
• Specific dissipation rate ω0

• Turbulent relative fluctuations ζ0

• Elliptic blending function α0

110 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 TABLE 3-3: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE TURBULENT INTERFACES

NAME AND UNIT VARIABLE INLET OPEN BOUNDARY

BOUNDARY STRESS

Turbulent intensity IT Medium 0.005 0.01

(dimensionless)
Turbulence length scale (m) LT Geometry 0.1 0.1
based
Reference velocity scale (m/s) Uref 1 1 1
Turbulent kinetic energy k0 0.005 2.5·10-3 1·10-2
(m2/s2)
Turbulent dissipation rate ε0 0.005 1.1·10-4 1·10-3
(m2/s3)
Specific dissipation rate (1/s) ω0 20 0.5 0.5
Undamped turbulent υ0 3*spf5.nu
kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

About the Turbulent Intensity and Turbulence Length Scale Parameters

The Turbulent intensity IT and Turbulence length scale LT values are related to the
turbulence variables via the following equations, Equation 3-2 for the Inlet and
Equation 3-3 for the Open Boundary:

3 2 3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
Inlet k = --- ( U I T ) , ε = Cμ ----------- (3-2)
2 LT

3
3⁄4 2 ---
3 2 C μ  3 ( I T U ref )  2
Open Boundary k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ε = ------------  --------------------------- (3-3)
2 LT  2 

For the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress options, and with any Turbulent Flow
interface, inlet conditions for the turbulence variables also need to be specified. These
conditions are used on the parts of the boundary where u·n < 0, that is, where flow
enters the computational domain.

For the k-ω and SST turbulence models the Turbulent intensity IT and Turbulence length
scale LT values are related to the turbulence variables via the following equations,
Equation 3-4 for the Inlet and Equation 3-5 for the Open Boundary:

3 2 k
Inlet k = --- ( U I T ) , ω = -------------------------
- (3-4)
2 ( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T

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 2
3 2 1  3 ( I T U ref ) 
Open Boundary k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ω = --------------------------
/
 --------------------------- (3-5)
2 ( β0 ) LT 
* 1 4 2 

For the inlet, IT and LT can be chosen in the lists. There are:

• Four options for IT: Low (0.01), Medium (0.05), High (0.1), and User defined.
• Two options for LT: Geometry based, and User defined. In the Geometry based
option, it is automatically computed based on 7% of the hydraulic diameter.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the inlet conditions for the elastic stress
components are required. Note, that if several branches are specified in the Fluid
Property node, the initial values entered above are applied to all branches.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Note that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow boundary.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per

112 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 default and should only be deselected if the inlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

Fully developed inflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the inlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed inflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the inlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

For recommendations of physically sound values for the Turbulent

intensity IT and Turbulence length scale LT, see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

Stationary Incompressible Flow over a Backstep (inlet): Application

Library path CFD_Module/Single-Phase_Flow/backstep

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity

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 is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier–Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow
boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and selected by default to
prescribed the averaged total pressure in the weak forms. If it is unselected, the
total pressure is imposed pointwise.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

114 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW
This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to
work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the outlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

Fully developed outflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the outlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed outflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the outlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

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 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. It should only be
used when the geometry and expected solution have mirror symmetry. By using
symmetries in a model its size can be reduced by one-half or more, making this an
efficient tool for solving large problems.

The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear

stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u ⋅ n = 0,  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3 

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes
ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

116 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p ≈ f 0 .

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 user input.

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

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 TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
See Turbulent Flow Settings.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = F
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = F

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- – n ⋅ F (3-6)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-6 states that p ≈ −n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
t⋅u = 0
  3 

118 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 T
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 , t⋅u = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-7)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-7 states that p ≈ f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 or phydron is added to F depending of the selected option.

Turbulent Boundary Type

The Turbulent boundary type options for this boundary condition are Open boundary,
Inlet, and Outlet.

• For Open boundary parts of the boundary are expected to be outlets and other parts
are expected to be to be inlets.
• The Inlet option should be selected when the whole boundary is expected to be an
inlet.
• The Outlet option should be used when the whole boundary is expected to be an
outflow boundary. In this case, homogeneous Neumann conditions are applied for
the turbulence variables, that is, for k and ε

∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ε ⋅ n = 0

and additionally for the v2-f model

∇α ⋅ n = 0 ∇ζ ⋅ n = 0

for k and ω
∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ω ⋅ n = 0

or for the Spalart–Allmaras model

∇ν̃ ⋅ n = 0

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 TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
See Turbulent Flow Settings.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be
selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Screen
The Screen condition models interior wire gauzes, grilles, or perforated plates as thin
permeable barriers. Common correlations are included for resistance and refraction
coefficients. The Screen boundary condition can only be applied on interior
boundaries.

SCREEN TYPE
The available options for the Screen type are Wire gauze, Square mesh, Perforated plate,
and User defined. The settings are defined by the equations shown based on the
selection (excluding User defined) which in turn adjusts what is available in the
Parameters section.

PARAMETERS
If Wire gauze, Square mesh, or Perforated plate is selected as the Screen type, values or
expressions for the Solidity σs (ratio of blocked area to total area of the screen) should
be specified.

• For Wire gauze a value or expression for the Wire diameter d should also be specified.
• The User defined options requires the dimensionless Resistance coefficient K.
• For all screen types, the Refraction defaults to Wire gauze. With the User defined
option, a different Refraction coefficient η (dimensionless) can be specified.

120 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition

Vacuum Pump
The Vacuum Pump node models the effective outlet pressure created by a vacuum pump
device that is attached to the outlet.

PARAMETERS
The Flow conditionoption defines a lumped curve — linear, static pressure curve data,
or user defined.

Static pressure curve, Linear

For the Static pressure curve, linear option, values or expressions should be specified
for the Static pressure at no flow pnf and the Free delivery flux V0,fd.

The static pressure curve value is equal to the static pressure at no flow when V0 < 0
and equal to 0 when the flux is larger than the free delivery flux.

Static pressure curve, data

The Static pressure curve, data option can be used to enter or load data under the Static
Pressure Curve Data section below. The interpolation between points given in the Static
Pressure Curve Data table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static
Pressure Curve Interpolation section.

Static pressure curve, user defined

The User defined option can be used to enter a different value or expression. The flux
across the selection where this boundary condition is applied is defined by phys_id.V0
where phys_id is the name (for example, phys_id is spf by default for this physics
interface). In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the fan curve
is the maximum of the user-defined function and 0.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA

This section displays when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow condition.
In the table, values or expressions for the Flux and Static pressure curve should be
specified. Alternatively, a text file can be imported by clicking the Load from file button
( ) under the table.

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 UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. Units can be specified here for the Flux and Static pressure curve.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE INTERPOLATION

This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. The available options for the Interpolation function type are Linear, Piecewise
cubic, and Cubic spline.

The extrapolation method always returns a constant value. In order to avoid problems
with undefined data, the function used for the boundary condition is the maximum of
the interpolated function and 0.

Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition

The Vacuum Pump feature computes the flux across the boundary
selection. This feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If
the model includes several pumps on boundaries that are not connected,
it is good practice to use different Vacuum Pump features with connected
boundaries.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

122 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 FLOW CONDITION
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

The Flow Condition at the boundary is specified through a value or expression for either
·
the Pressure difference, p src – p dst , or the Mass flow, m . The mass flow option ensures
a pressure difference is achieved across the source and destination boundaries. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fan
The Fan condition is used to define the flow direction (inlet or outlet) and the fan
parameters on exterior boundaries. The Interior Fan condition is available on interior
boundaries.

FLOW DIRECTION
The Flow direction can be set to Inlet or Outlet. When a boundary has been selected, an
arrow displays in the Graphics window to indicate the selected flow direction. The
arrow can be updated if the selection changes by clicking any node in the Model Builder
and then clicking the Fan node again to update the Graphics window.

The Inlet Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.

• For Normal flow it sets the tangential velocity component to zero.

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 • For User defined an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be specified.
The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.
• For Swirl flow (which is available for 3D or 2D axisymmetric when the Swirl flow
check box in the Physical Model section is checked) it specifies a swirl flow on the
downstream side of the fan based on the Rotation axis base point rbp, Revolutions per
time f, Rotational direction and Swirl ratio csf.

PARAMETERS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Input pressure pinput defines the
pressure at the fan inlet.

When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Exit pressure pexit defines the pressure
at the fan outlet.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure is not selected in the
interface’s Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation for weakly compressible or
compressible flow) check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected,
the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in pinput or
pexit user input.

For either flow direction, Flow condition specifies a static pressure curve — linear, data,
or user defined.

Static pressure curve, linear

For both Inlet and Outlet flow directions, if Linear is selected, values or expressions for
the Static pressure at no flow pnf and the Free delivery flux V0,fd should be specified.
The static pressure curve is equal to the static pressure at no flow when V0 < 0 and
equal to 0 when the fluxis larger than the free delivery flux.

Static pressure curve, data

The Static pressure curve data can be entered or loaded under the Static Pressure Curve
Data section that displays for this option. The interpolation between points given in the
table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static Pressure Curve
Interpolation section.

Static pressure curve, user defined

With the Static pressure curve, user defined option, a different value or expression for
the Fan flux interpolation function can be specified. The flux across the selection where
this boundary condition is applied is defined by phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the

124 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 name (for example, phys_id is spf by default for laminar single-phase flow). In order
to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the fan curve returns the
maximum of the user-defined function and 0.

UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. Units can be specified for the Flux and Static pressure.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA

When Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow condition, a table appears, where
values or expressions the Flux and Static pressure can be specified or imported from a
text file by clicking the Load from file button ( ) under the table. Units can be
specified for the Flux and the Static pressure curve.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE INTERPOLATION

This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. The available options for the Interpolation function type are Linear, Piecewise
cubic, and Cubic spline.

The extrapolation method always returns a constant value. In order to avoid problems
with undefined data, the function used for the boundary condition returns the
maximum of the interpolated function and 0.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET

When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific
dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, the values of the Turbulent
kinetic energy, Turbulent relative fluctuations (for the v2-f turbulence model) and the
Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific dissipation rate on the downstream side of the fan
should be specified. Alternatively, the Reference velocity scale can be used to specify
default values.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

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 The Fan feature uses the flux across the boundary selection. This feature
is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model includes
several fans on boundaries that are not connected, it is good practice to
use different Fan or Interior Fan features with connected boundaries.

Interior Fan
The Interior Fan condition represents interior boundaries where a fan condition is set
using a fan pressure curve to avoid an explicit representation of the fan. The Interior
Fan defines a boundary condition on a slit for laminar flow. That means that the
pressure and the velocity can be discontinuous across this boundary.

One side represents a flow inlet; the other side represents the fan outlet. The fan
boundary condition ensures that the mass flow rate is conserved between its inlet and
outlet:

 ρu ⋅ n +  ρu ⋅ n = 0
inlet outlet

This boundary condition acts like a Pressure Conditions boundary condition on each
side of the fan. When a pressure curve is used, the pressure at the fan outlet is fixed so
that the mass flow rate is conserved. On the fan inlet the pressure is set to the pressure
at the fan outlet minus the pressure drop induced by the fan. The pressure drop is
defined from the static pressure curve, and is usually a function of the flux. When the
flux is prescribed the pressure at the inlet and at the outlet are set so that the flux
obtains the desired value.

To define a fan boundary condition on an exterior boundary, the Fan condition should
be used instead.

FLOW DIRECTION
The Flow direction can be defined by selecting Along normal vector or Opposite to
normal vector. This defines which side of the boundary is the fan’s inlet and which side
is the fan’s outlet.

Select Prescribe flow direction, to enforce the flow direction of the fluid when it enters
the domain located at the fan outlet.

• For Normal flow it sets the tangential velocity component to zero.

126 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • For Swirl flow (which is available for 3D or 2D axisymmetric when the Swirl flow
check box in the Physical Model section is checked) it specifies a swirl flow on the
downstream side of the fan based on the Rotation axis base point rbp, Revolutions per
time f, Rotational direction and Swirl ratio csf.
• For User defined an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be specified.
The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.

PARAMETERS
All the settings for this section except Prescribe flux are the same as for the Fan node.
See Static pressure curve, linear and Static pressure curve, data for details.

When Prescribe flux is selected, define the Prescribed flux V0,pf (SI unit m3/s, default
value 0.01 m3/s).

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET

When the Turbulence model has transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k,
and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative
fluctuations, ζ, the values of the Turbulent kinetic energy, Turbulent relative fluctuations
(for the v2-f turbulence model) and the Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific dissipation
rate on the downstream side of the fan should be specified. Alternatively, the Reference
velocity scale can be used to specify default values.

After a boundary has been selected, an arrow displays in the Graphics window to
indicate the selected flow direction. If the selection changes, the arrow can be updated
by clicking any node in the Model Builder and then clicking the Interior fan node again
to update the Graphics window.

Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary

The Interior Fan feature uses the flux across the boundary selection. This
feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model
includes several fans on boundaries that are not connected, it is good
practice to use different Fan or Interior Fan features with connected
boundaries.

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 Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except

that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure, and turbulence variables) across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary
condition can be used to avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions
on interior curves and surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving
wall can also be prescribed. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flow.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The following Boundary condition options are available.

No Slip
The No slip condition models solid walls. No slip walls are walls where the fluid velocity
relative to the wall is zero. For a interior stationary wall this means that u = 0 on both
sides of the wall.

For turbulent flows, the no slip conditions may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, the Apply wall roughness option becomes
available. When Apply wall roughness is selected, a Sand roughness model, derived from
the experiments by Nikuradse, is applied. Select Generic roughness in order to specify
more general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq should be specified.
• For Generic roughness a Roughness height ks and a dimensionless Roughness parameter
Cs should be specified.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n=0. It implicitly assumes
that there are no viscous effects on either side of the slip wall and hence, no boundary
layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation
if the important effect is to prevent the exchange of fluid between the regions separated
by the interior wall.

Navier Slip
The Navier slip condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress on each side of the wall

128 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where β is a slip length. For more information, see the Navier Slip option in the Wall
feature.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options. The Constraints settings can be set to Default, Use pointwise constraints,
or Use DG constraints. Use mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip
condition exactly.

• Wall
• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Grille
The Grille boundary condition models the pressure drop caused by having a grille that
covers the inlet or outlet.

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 PARAMETERS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Input pressure pinput defines the
pressure at the fan inlet.

When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Exit pressure pexit defines the pressure
at the fan outlet.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in pinput or pexit user input.

When Quadratic loss is selected for the Static pressure curve, the Quadratic loss
coefficient qlc should be specified. qlc defines the static pressure curve which is a
piecewise quadratic function equal to 0 when the flow rate is < 0, equal to V02⋅qlc
when the flow rate is > 0. Alternately, when Loss coefficient K is specified for the Static
2
pressure curve, a pressure drop equal to 0.5Kρ ( u ⋅ n ) is prescribed. See Fan for other
settings for the Laminar Flow interface. Note that for the Turbulent Flow interfaces,
Quadratic loss and Loss coefficient are the only available options for Static pressure curve.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific
dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, the Specify turbulent length scale
and intensity and Specify turbulence variables options are available for the turbulence
conditions on the downstream side of the grille. Alternatively, the Reference velocity
scale can be used to specify default values.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

The Grille feature uses the flow rate across the boundary selection. This
feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model
includes several grilles on boundaries that are not connected, it is good
practice to use different Grille features with connected boundaries.

130 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure
level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. If the reference pressure
pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the absolute
pressure.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 131
 Point Mass Source
This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for
the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the
species (Species Line Source).

132 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Generate New Turbulence Model Interface

This global feature requires a CFD Module license. It can be used to create a new
turbulent flow interface based on the current laminar or turbulent flow interface. The
new interface inherits the property values from the original interface except for the
turbulence related ones. All the features in the original interface are also inherited by
the newly created interface except for the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface
feature itself and the Initial Values feature. The initial values of the new interface are
either default values or estimates from the solution of the original interface depending
on the settings in the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface feature. Note that the
parameters and expressions in text fields in all the features, except for Initial Values and
the Name column in Global Equation, get exactly the same expressions as in the original
model. Therefore, any dependencies on expressions or dependent variables from the
physics interface must be reviewed and updated manually if necessary.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 133
 MODEL GENERATION
This section contains a Boolean input, Copy only active settings, which is selected by
default. When selected, the disabled features and settings in the original model are not
transferred to the new interface.

The Create button generates the new interface.

TURBULENCE MODEL INTERFACE

All available turbulence models can be selected from the list:

• Turbulent Flow, k-ε

• Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus
• Turbulent Flow, L-VEL
• Turbulent Flow, k-ω
• Turbulent Flow, SST
• Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds number k-ε
• Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
• Turbulent Flow, v2-f

STUDY
The Study section contains two lists: Study type and Initial value from study. When
Turbulent Flow, k-ε or Turbulent Flow, k-ω is selected as the Turbulence Model
Interface, the Study type contains the following two options:

• Stationary
• Time-dependent

The default value is Stationary. For all other turbulence models, the available Study type
options are:

• Stationary with initialization

• Time dependent with initialization

with default value Stationary with initialization. Note that the created new study only
solves for the new turbulence interface.

Initial value from study contains a list of the studies that are currently in the model. It
can also be set to None. If there is no study available, the default option is None. If there
are available studies, the first study is the default option.

134 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 135
 The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and
Turbulent Flow Interfaces
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow (spf)
interfaces, found under the Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, are used for modeling flow where one or more of the
boundaries rotate in a periodic fashion. This is used for mixers and propellers.

The physics interfaces support compressible, weakly compressible and incompressible

flow, the flow of non-Newtonian fluids described by the Power Law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou
models, as well as turbulent flow. In addition, the physics interfaces support creeping
flow, although the shallow channel approximation is redundant.

In this section:

• Moving Mesh
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces

Moving Mesh
The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces rely on ALE (arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian) moving mesh functionality for their rotating domain and free
surface implementation.

ROTATING DOMAINS
When a Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface is added using the Model Wizard, a
Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder under the
Definitions>Moving Mesh node. It contains settings for specifying the rotation of one or
several domains. By default, All domains are selected. Under the Rotating Domain, you
can exclude any non-rotating fluid domains. For both 3D and 2D components, the
Rotation type should be set to Specified rotational velocity.

136 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select a Rotational velocity expression — General revolutions per time (the default),
Constant revolutions per time, General angular velocity, or Constant angular velocity.

• For Constant revolutions per time, or General revolutions per time, enter a value or
expression respectively in the Revolutions per time input field and optionally an Initial
angle. The angular velocity in this case is defined as the input multiplied by 2π.
• For Constant angular velocity, or General angular velocity enter a value or an
expression respectively in the Angular velocity input field and optionally an Initial
angle.

3D Components
For 3D components, select the Rotation axis base point, rax. The default is the origin.
Select the Rotation axis, urot, the z-axis is the default. If the x-axis is selected, it
corresponds to a rotational axis (1, 0, 0) with the origin as the base point, and
correspondingly for the y-axis and z-axis.

2D Components
For 2D components, enter coordinates for the Rotation axis base point, rax. The
default is the origin (0, 0).

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ), is used to simulate flow at low to
moderate Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more rotating parts. The
physics interface supports incompressible, weakly compressible and compressible flows
at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports modeling of
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface is available for 3D and 2D components.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the momentum balance is governed by the Navier-Stokes
equations, and the mass conservation is governed by the continuity equation. See
Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under Laminar Flow — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 137

 that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Laminar Flow to select physics features from the context menu. See Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

Laminar Flow in a Baffled Stirred Mixer: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Fluid-Structure_Interaction/baffled_mixer

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

In addition to the settings described below, see The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow,
Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces for all the other settings
available. See Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery
Interfaces for links to all the physics nodes.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Pseudo Time Stepping

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Frozen Rotor equation form is used.
(Frozen rotor is a pseudo stationary formulation.) When selected, also choose a CFL
number expression — Automatic (the default) or Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL
number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) to the built-in variable
CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for the CFL number. For Manual enter
a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

138 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus (spf) interface ( ), found
under the Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or
more rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly
compressible and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled wall distance. Turbulence effects are included using an enhanced viscosity model
based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.

Two study types are available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent with
Initialization study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality,
also known as sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor with Initialization study type, the
rotating parts are kept frozen in position, and the rotation is accounted for by the
inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Both study types includes an initial Wall
Distance Initialization step in order to compute the wall distance. See Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial
Values. A Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in
the Model Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can
also right-click Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus to select physics features from the
context menu. For information about the available physics features, see Domain,
Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

A part for the settings below, see the advanced settings for The Rotating Machinery,
Laminar Flow Interface, and The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and
Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

The turbulence model parameters for the Algebraic yPlus model, κa and Ba, have been
optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 139

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more
rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly compressible
and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled fluid flow velocity tangential to the nearest wall. Turbulence effects are included
using an enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

Two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent with
Initialization study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality,
also known as sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor with Initialization study type, the
rotating parts are kept frozen in position, and the rotation is accounted for by the
inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Both study types includes an initial Wall
Distance Initialization step in order to compute the wall distance. See Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, L-VEL — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes
that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Turbulent Flow, L-VEL to select physics features from the context menu. For
information about the available physics features, see Domain, Boundary, Point, and
Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

140 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

A part for the interface settings defined below, see the advanced settings for The
Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface, and the settings in The Creeping Flow,
Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

The turbulence model parameters for the L-VEL model, κl and El, have been
optimized for internal flow. For certain cases, better performance can be obtained by
tuning the model parameters.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more
rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly compressible
and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The momentum balance is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, and the mass
conservation is governed by the continuity equation. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the standard two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to
walls is modeled using wall functions.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and the rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. See Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, k-ε — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 141

 that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Turbulent Flow, k-ε to select physics features from the context menu. For
information about the available physics features, see Domain, Boundary, Point, and
Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

A part for the defined settings below, see the advanced settings for The Rotating
Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface, and the settings in The Creeping Flow, Laminar
Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating

Machinery Interfaces
All versions of the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces use the following
domain, boundary, point, and pair physics nodes.

• Contact Angle
• Stationary Free Surface

The nodes are available under the option Rotating Machinery from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

142 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The following nodes, available in the Fluid Flow interfaces, are described for the
Laminar Flow interface:

• Boundary Stress • Outlet

• Initial Values • Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall • Point Mass Source
• Flow Continuity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Screen
• Inlet • Symmetry
• Line Mass Source • Volume Force
• Open Boundary • Wall

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

Stationary Free Surface

This postprocessing feature is used to estimate the deformation of a free surface from
the pressure distribution on the boundary when using the Frozen Rotor or Frozen Rotor
with Initialization study types. When computing the flow field, a slip condition together
with a constant pressure level pext is applied on the boundary. The free surface
deformation ηFS is evaluated from the linearized free surface condition in a separate
study step, Stationary Free Surface, using the pressure from the Frozen Rotor study
step.

p ( x 0 ) – p ext + n̂ ⋅ ∇p η FS = – σ ∇ S2 η FS (3-8)
x = x0

σ is the surface tension coefficient, x = x0 represents the position of the undisturbed

surface - the feature selection, and n̂ is its unit normal. The correct study sequence
can be triggered by toggling the study window once a selection for the Stationary Free
Surface feature has been made.

The Stationary Free Surface feature is supported by laminar and turbulent flow, and is
applicable for small surface deformations (ηFS and its gradient should be small

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 143

 compared to the dimensions of the computational domain). If the surface deformation
is large, a time-dependent study with a Deforming Domain and a Free Surface feature
should be used instead.

Iterative solvers are necessary to reduce the cost of models with large number of
degrees of freedom. The fluid flow interfaces use a Smoothed aggregation AMG solver
per default. When the Stationary Free Surface feature is active and has a nonempty
selection in a frozen rotor or stationary study step, a Geometric multigrid solver is used
instead to ensure robustness of the model.

The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings in the CFD Module User’s
Guide and Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

STATIONARY FREE SURFACE

Enter an External pressure pext corresponding to the average pressure level on the free
surface.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be specified from predefined
libraries, by selecting Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (the default) or Library
coefficient, liquid/liquid interface, or be set to User defined.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(the default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol
vapor, Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.
• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

Only one Stationary Free Surface feature can be applied in a Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interface, and it requires the study to be stationary (Frozen Rotor).

144 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Contact Angle
This feature specifies the contact angle between the free surface and a solid wall.The
Contact Angle feature is a subfeature to, and added under a Stationary Free Surface
feature. See the Contact Angle feature under Multiphase Flow Interface.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 145

 T he V i s c o e la s ti c Fl ow In t erface
The Viscoelastic Flow (vef) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows of
viscoelastic fluids. The physics interface is only suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the Viscoelastic Flow interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass, the Navier–Stokes equations, augmented by an elastic stress
tensor term, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress
contribution.

The Viscoelastic Flow interface is available for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–Stokes equations,
continuity equations, and the constitutive relations between the extra elastic stress
term and the velocity gradient. The Fluid Properties feature provides an interface for
defining the fluid material and its properties. Viscoelastic, Newtonian, and Inelastic
non-Newtonian constitutive relations are available. The boundary conditions are
essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface. When this physics interface is
added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder:

• Fluid Properties
• Initial Values
• Wall

Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Viscoelastic Flow to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is vef.

146 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Viscoelastic Flow interface, which describe the
overall type of fluid flow model.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. For more information, see Gravity

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

If the Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also adds as
variables the components of the elastic stress tensor.

For all other settings, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface

Flow of Viscoelastic Fluid Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Single-Phase_Flow/cylinder_flow_viscoelastic

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface the Fluid Properties node is described in this
section.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 147

 The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in Domain, Boundary,
Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow:

• Boundary Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Outlet
• Free Surface • Periodic Flow Condition
• Fluid-Fluid Interface • Point Mass Source
• Gravity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Interior Wall • Wall

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface. For the viscoelastic fluids, the constitutive relations for the extra
elastic stress tensor are also added. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

Except where included below, see Fluid Properties for all the other settings.

Constitutive Relation
Viscoelastic, Newtonian and Inelastic non-Newtonian constitutive relations are
available. If Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also
adds the variables and equations for the components of the elastic stress tensor.

For Viscoelastic constitutive relation, specify Solvent viscosity μs and select a Material
model — Oldroyd-B, Giesekus, or FENE-P. Viscoelastic material can be described as
consisting of one or more branches. For each viscoelastic branch, enter parameters in
the table. See the setting for each viscoelastic model that follows.

Oldroyd-B
For Oldroyd-B enter the model parameters in the table. In each Branch raw enter the
polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity column, and the relaxation time λ em in the
Relaxation time column.

148 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Giesekus
For Giesekus, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity
column, the relaxation time λ em in the Relaxation time column, and the mobility
factor α em in the Mobility column.

FENE-P
For FENE-P, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time λ em in the Relaxation time column, and the extensibility parameter
L em in the Extensibility column.

• Use the Add button ( ) to add a row to the table and the Delete button ( ) to
delete a row in the table.
• Use the Load from file button ( ) and the Save to file button ( ) to load and
store data for the branches in a text file with three space-separated columns.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Select shape function type for the
components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The default setting is Linear.

INITIAL VALUES
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Enter initial values or expressions
for the components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The initial values can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
The default values are 0 N/m2. Note, that if several branches are specified, the initial
values entered above are applied to all branches.

Note: The Interior Walls boundary condition and Pair conditions are not applicable
on the boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid properties nodes with different
number of branches.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 149

 Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
Also see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces and Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Non-Newtonian Flow
• Gravity
• The Boussinesq Approximation
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Mass Flow
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• No Viscous Stress
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition
• Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary
• Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions
• Screen Boundary Condition
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

150 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation
• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier–Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-9)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + K ] + F (3-10)
∂t

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + K:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (3-11)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• I is the identity matrix (unitless)
• K is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 151

 1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

a:b =   anm bnm (3-12)

n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-9 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-10 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 3-11 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-9 through Equation 3-11, constitutive
relations are needed.

For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between stress and strain, Stokes
(Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
K = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (3-13)
3

The dynamic viscosity, μ (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian.

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and an apparent viscosity is introduced instead of the dynamic viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood, liquid metals, and most
polymer solutions.

With the CFD Module, you can model flows of non-Newtonian fluids using the
predefined constitutive models. The following models which describe the stress-strain
relationship for non-Newtonian fluids are available: Power law, Carreau, Bingham–
Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

152 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier–Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-11 is decoupled
from Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10. Nonisothermal flow and the temperature
equation are described in the Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces
chapter.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10 requires ∂ ⁄ ∂φ to
be zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that u φ = 0 . In such cases, the φ -equation can be
removed from Equation 3-10. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the φ -equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10
therefore assumes that

∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0
uφ = 0

You can activate the Swirl Flow property which reduces the above assumptions to
∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0 and reintroduces the φ -equation into Equation 3-10.

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-14)
∂t

and the momentum equation:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
(3-15)
∂t 3

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 153

 These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

Weakly Compressible Flow

The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u
Ma = ------
a

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is

theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier–Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

The momentum equation, Equation 3-15, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic
for steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-14, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-15 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed

154 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number
larger than or equal to one. Yet, the practical Mach number limit is lower than one.
The main reason is that the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions)
of the Laminar Flow interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure
waves. The fully compressible Navier–Stokes equations do, for example, start to display
very sharp gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the
single-phase flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible
to give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate
Mach number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start
to appear at Ma = 0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics. To model high Mach
number flows, use one of The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is, ρ is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ρ,
Equation 3-14 reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-16)

and Equation 3-15 becomes

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-17)
∂t

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified

through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 155

 ρUL
Re = ------------
μ

where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Note that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the length
scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they must be
based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = ρ|u|h/(2μ) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: spf.cellRe).

Non-Newtonian Flow
For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and we may express the constitutive relation in terms of an apparent
viscosity. For the incompressible flow, it is:

·
K = 2μ app ( γ ) S

·
where γ is the shear rate,

·
γ = 2S:S

and the contraction operator “:” is defined by

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

156 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Laminar Flow interfaces provide various predefined inelastic non-Newtonian
constitutive models including Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou,
Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

POWER LAW
The Power law model is an example of a generalized Newtonian model. It prescribes

 γ·  n–1
μ app = m  -------
·  (3-18)
 γ ref

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values and γ ref denotes a reference
shear rate for which the default value is 1 s−1. For n > 1, the power law describes a shear
thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n < 1, it describes a shear thinning (pseudoplastic)
fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian fluid.

Equation 3-18 predicts an infinite viscosity at zero shear rate for n < 1. This is however
never the case physically. Instead, most fluids have a constant viscosity for shear rates
smaller than 10−2 s−1 (Ref. 21). Since infinite viscosity also makes models using
Equation 3-18 difficult to solve, COMSOL Multiphysics implements the Power law
model as

 max ( γ· , γ· min )
n–1
μ app = m  ------------------------------
· - (3-19)
 γ ref 

·
where γ min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
·
value for γ min is 10−2 s−1, but can be given an arbitrary value or expression using the
corresponding text field.

CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau model defines the viscosity in terms of the following four-parameter
expression

n–1
· ------------
μ app = μ ∞ + ( μ 0 – μ ∞ ) [ 1 + ( λγ ) 2 ] 2 (3-20)

where λ is a parameter with the unit of time, μ0 is the zero shear rate viscosity, μ ∞ is
the infinite shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is
able to describe the viscosity for most stationary polymer flows.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 157

 BINGHAM-PAPANASTASIOU
Viscoplastic fluid behavior is characterized by existence of the yield stress τy — a limit
which must be exceeded before significant deformation can occur. To model the
stress-deformation behavior of viscoplastic materials, different constitutive equations
have been propose. The Bingham plastic model is written as

τy
μ app = μ p + ----
·- , K > τ y
γ

where μp is the plastic viscosity.

To allow computation in both yielded and unyielded region, the Papanastasiou

continuous regularization for the viscosity function is used:

τy ·
μ app = μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-21)
γ

where mp is a scale that controls the exponential growth of stress.

HERSCHEL-BULKLEY-PAPANASTASIOU
The Herschel-Bulkley -Papanastasiou model combines the effects of the Power law the
Papanastasiou continuous regularization:

 γ·  n–1
τy ·
μ app = m  -------
·  + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-22)
 γ ref γ

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values, and γ ref is the reference shear
rate. In case n equals one, the Bingham-Papanastasiou model is recovered. This
equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions. The exponent mp controls the
smoothness of the viscosity function.

CASSON-PAPANASTASIOU
The Casson-Papanastasiou model combines Casson equation with the Papanastasiou
regularization:

2
 τy · 
μ app =  μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-23)
 γ 

The equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions.

158 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Gravity

DEFINITION
The gravity force is defined from the acceleration of gravity vector, g, and the density,
ρ. Under usual conditions and in Cartesian coordinates with the z-axis in the vertical
direction,

 0 
 
g =  0 .
 
 – g const 

When gravity is considered, a volume force equal to ρg is included in the momentum

equation. For example, for laminar weakly compressible flow, it reads:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
(3-24)
∂t 3

Introducing a constant reference density ρref, and assuming that g is homogeneous,

this equation is equivalently written:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u=
∂t
(3-25)
∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
3

where r is the position vector and rref is an arbitrary reference position vector.

From this equation, it is convenient to define the reduced pressure which accounts for
the hydrostatic pressure, p˜ = p – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref )

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I +
2
∂t  3  (3-26)
F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g

In Equation 3-26, the gravity force is written ( ρ – ρ ref )g .

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For incompressible flow the fluid density is assumed to be constant. Hence it is natural
to define the reference density, ρref, such that ρ = ρref = ρ (Τref,pref ) which makes it
possible to simplify equation Equation 3-26:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 159

 ∂u
ρ ref ------ + ρ ref u ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ) + F
∂t

In some cases, even when the flow is modeled as incompressible, buoyancy should be
accounted for. Using the approximation of the gravity force based on the thermal
expansion coefficient (which is relevant in this case: since the density changes are small,
the first order approximation is reasonably accurate), it is possible to rewrite the
momentum equation with constant density and a buoyancy force:

∂u
ρ ref ------ + ρ ref u ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I + μ ref ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ) + F
∂t
– ρ ref α p ( T ref ) ( T – T ref )g

WEAKLY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For weakly compressible flow the assumption is that the density depends only on the
temperature. In particular, the pressure dependency of the density is neglected, and the
density is evaluated at the reference pressure: ρ = ρ(Τ, pref). With the relative pressure
as dependent variable, Equation 3-24 is used

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
∂t  3 

With the reduced pressure as dependent variable, Equation 3-26 is used:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
∂t 3

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For compressible flow the density may depend on any other variable, in particular on
the temperature and the pressure. Similar equations are used as for the Weakly
Compressible Flow case except that the density is not evaluated at the reference
pressure.

NONISOTHERMAL FLOW COUPLING

For consistency, when the Nonisothermal Flow coupling is active, the assumptions made
for the single phase flow interface are also made in the heat transfer interface:

• Incompressible flow: the Boussinesq approximation implies that the thermal

conductivity and heat capacity are also constant.

160 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Weakly Compressible flow: the density is evaluated at pref in the heat interface too.
• Compressible flow: no change.

PRESSURE FORMULATION
When the relative pressure is used (default option) the interface dependent variable
represents the relative pressure and the absolute pressure is defined as p A = p ref + p .
When the pressure is used to define a boundary condition (for example when p0
defines the pressure condition at an outlet), it represents the relative pressure. Hence
defining the outlet pressure as p hydro, approx = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) compensates for the
gravity force for an ambient reference pressure of 0 Pa when the density is constant,
there is no external force, and provided pref, g and r0 are defined consistently.

When the reduced pressure is used, the interface dependent variable (named p by
default) represents the reduced pressure. The absolute pressure is then defined as
p A = p ref – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + p . In this case when the pressure is used to define a
boundary condition (for example to define a pressure condition at an outlet), its value
corresponds to the reduced pressure. Hence, the prescribed pressure compensates for
an approximate hydrostatic pressure, p hydro, approx = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) which is exact
only when the density is constant and there is no external force.

PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

For an immobile fluid the momentum equation simplifies to ∇ ⋅ ( pI ) = F + ρg or

∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I ) = F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g depending on the pressure formulation.

For incompressible flow, assuming there are no external forces, this leads respectively
to p = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + p 0 or p˜ = p 0 .

For weakly compressible flow and compressible flow, since the density varies, there is
no corresponding explicit expression. We have

r r
p = r ρg ⋅ dr + p 0 and p˜ = r ( ρ – ρ ref )g ⋅ dr + p 0 .
ref ref

In practice, these integrals can be problematic to evaluate. Hence, whenever possible,

it is recommended to locate the pressure boundary in a region where the approximate
definition of the hydrostatic pressure is applicable, or to define a boundary that is
perpendicular to the gravity vector.

If it is not possible and if the pressure conditions cannot be determined, you can use a
no viscous stress condition (available in the Open Boundary feature).

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 161

 Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
See Wall for the node settings.

SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = 0
K n = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel = u−utr.

For turbulent flow, turbulence variables are in general subject to homogeneous

Neumann conditions. For example

∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ε ⋅ n = 0

for the k-ε model.

POROUS SLIP
The Porous slip option, which can be chosen in the Porous treatment of no slip condition
list when Enable porous media domains is activated, results in special treatment of Wall
boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries adjacent to porous domains (Porous Medium
feature). Namely, similar to the Navier slip boundary condition, no penetration and
tangential stress conditions are applied at the wall:

μ u slip
u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = – ----- ---------- ,
ε p y ps
μ T
u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n )n , K n = ----- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) )n
εp

162 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Here, K n is the viscous wall traction, n is the wall normal, u slip is the tangential
velocity at the wall while the real no slip is assumed to be at a distance d w (half-height
of the first cell adjacent to the wall) outside the wall, and y ps is the porous slip length.
An analytical derivation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer where the pressure
gradient is balanced by the sum of the Darcy term, Forchheimer drag, and a viscous
term (neglecting convective terms) leads to the following expression for y ps :

 1 + X e – ξp  1 + X e –ξ p 2 d l pore
ξ
= l̃  --------------------------  -------------------------- e p – 1 ,
p p w
y ps ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
–ξp  1 + X p  l̃ 1 + 2c β
 1 – Xp e 

1 + 2c β – 1 + 4 --- c β 1 + 4c D – 1 β ND κ 2
3 -
--------------------------------------------------
Xp = , c β = -------------------------------- , c D = ----------- ------ ∇p - ρg
2 μ μ
1 + 2c β + 1 + 4--- c β
3

where l pore = κ ⁄ ε p is the porous length scale, β ND = ρc F ⁄ κ is the non-Darcian

coefficient ( c F is the Forchheimer coefficient), g is the gravity vector, and
ξ p ,˜l ,X p ,c β ,c D are intermediate variables. This formula is used when the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen and it reads pressure-gradient at the wall. By
default, the Velocity formulation is activated and the corresponding formula is:

ξ wd l pore
y ps = l̃ ( e p – 1 ) , ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
l̃ 1 + 2c β
β ND κ u slip l pore 2 1⁄3
c β =  ---------------------------- ----------  ⁄ 2
 μ dw 

Although this formulation is an approximation, since it uses slip velocity at the wall to
reconstruct the pressure gradient, it is rather accurate. Moreover, the influence of
convective terms is partially accounted for in this formulation.

SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 163

 • For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ t = Uw

where t = (ny , −nx) for 2D and t = (nz, −nr) for axial symmetry.
• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n
u = ---------------------------------------- u w
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

SLIP VELOCITY
In the microscale range, the flow at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or slip.
Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a slip velocity
at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: violation of the continuum
hypothesis for the viscosity and flow induced by a thermal gradient along the
boundary.

The following equation relates the viscosity-induced jump in tangential velocity to the
tangential shear stress along the boundary:

1
Δu = --- τ n, t
β

For gaseous fluids, the coefficient β is given by

μ
β = -------------------------
2 – α v
 -------------- - λ
 αv 

where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s), αv represents the tangential
momentum accommodation coefficient (TMAC) (dimensionless), and λ is the
molecules’ mean free path (SI unit: m). The tangential accommodation coefficients are
typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

A simpler expression for β is

μ
β = ------
Ls

164 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where Ls, the slip length (SI unit: m), is a straight channel measure of the distance
from the boundary to the virtual point outside the flow domain where the flow profile
extrapolates to zero. This equation holds for both liquids and gases.

Thermal creep results from a temperature gradient along the boundary. The following
equation relates the thermally-induced jump in tangential velocity to the tangential
gradient of the natural logarithm of the temperature along the boundary:

μ
Δu = σ T --- ∇ t log T
ρ

where σT is the thermal slip coefficient (dimensionless) and ρ is the density of the fluid.
The thermal slip coefficients range between 0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

Combining the previous relationships results in the following equation:

Ls μ
u – u w, t = ------ τ n, t + σ T ------- ∇ t T
μ ρT

Relate the tangential shear stress to the viscous boundary force by

τ n, t = K n – ( n ⋅ K n )n

where the components of K are the Lagrange multipliers that are used to implement
the boundary condition. Similarly, the tangential temperature gradient results from the
difference of the gradient and its normal projection:

∇ t T = ∇T – ( n ⋅ ∇T )n

Use Viscous Slip

When viscous slip is used, select Maxwell’s model to calculate Ls using:

2 – αv
L s =  --------------- λ
 αv 

Also see Wall for the node settings.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 165

 where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.
β is a slip length, and u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n wall )n wall is the velocity tangential to the wall.
The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity component to zero;
however, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at a distance β outside
the wall.

The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to use ( u – u bnd – ( ( u – u bnd ) ⋅ n wall )n wall )
instead of u slip in the friction force. Then, the extrapolated tangential velocity
component is u bnd at a distance β outside of the wall. Note that the Velocity of sliding
wall uw is always accounted for in the friction force.

The Navier Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid
interface or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary
condition, the contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall.
Note that in problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically
represents the movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In
such cases, Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be
checked.

The Navier Slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model. For
turbulent flow, a Wall feature using wall functions or automatic wall treatment is
required for the contact line to be free to move along the wall.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity

166 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is
that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no-penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n = 0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.
• Using Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists
on enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers.
Their main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Discontinuous Galerkin (DG) constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the
velocity at the wall. They impose the constraint in a integral sense rather than
pointwise, and do not suffer from the locking effects introduced by pointwise
constraints when trying to prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity.
They are also better behaved when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main
disadvantage is that the constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce
small leaks. For more information, see Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation.

The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint

Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Use default settings. The default settings use different constraint methods
depending on whether only the normal component of the velocity is prescribed,
such as in the no penetration condition, u · n = 0, imposed for example in Slip walls
or No Slip walls using Wall Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both
tangential and normal components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in
laminar flow.
DG constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls. When
a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for moving
walls where DG constraints are used.
• Use Pointwise constraints.
• Use DG constraints.
• Use Weak constraints. Weak constraints are not available on Interior Walls.
• Use Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and
normal components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall
normal direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the
tangential directions is relaxed, and DG constraints are used instead. This provides

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 167

 improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 22.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

The Navier–Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

∂u n
– p + 2μ --------- = F n (3-27)
∂n

where ∂un/∂n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-27 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-27 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-27, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

168 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

where ∂ut/∂n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier-Stokes equations mathematically permit specifying

a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply in
practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide
detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure, but calculate the prescribed values
using for example ODEs.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Mass Flow
The Mass flow boundary condition constrains the mass flowing into the domain across
an inlet boundary. The mass flow can be specified in a number of ways.

POINTWISE MASS FLUX

The pointwise mass flux sets the velocity at the boundary to:

mf
u = – ------- n
ρ

where mf is the normal mass flux and ρ is the density.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 169

 MASS FLOW RATE
The mass flow rate boundary condition sets the total mass flow through the boundary
according to:

–  dbc ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = m
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D Cartesian axis system) is the boundary thickness
normal to the fluid-flow domain and m is the total mass flow rate.

In addition to the constraint on the total flow across the boundary, the tangential
velocity components are set to zero on the boundary

u×n = 0 (3-28)

STANDARD FLOW RATE

The standard flow rate boundary condition specifies the mass flow as a standard
volumetric flow rate. The mass flow through the boundary is set by the equation:

ρ
–  dbc ρ------st- ( u ⋅ n ) dS = Qsv
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D component Cartesian axis system) is the boundary
thickness normal to the fluid-flow domain, ρst is the standard density, and Qsv is the
standard flow rate. The standard density is defined by one of the following equations:

Mn
ρ st = --------
Vn

p st M n
ρ st = ----------------
RT st

where Mn is the mean molar mass of the fluid, Vn is the standard molar volume, pst is
the standard pressure, R is the universal molar gas constant, and Tst is the standard
temperature.

Equation 3-28 or Equation 3-29 is also enforced for compressible and incompressible
flow, respectively, ensuring that the normal component of the viscous stress and the
tangential component of the velocity are zero at the boundary.

170 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl Ω

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + ( p + P inl ) ⁄ 2 ) ∇tûL – P inl ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can for
example be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in
these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 171

 (  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ inl

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka pre-smoother and post-smoother if iterative solvers
are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of Ω is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary becomes a symmetry boundary.

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the equations for the elastic stress tensor
components in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto the inlet of the
computational domain.

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

Ω pexit

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

172 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + ( p + P exit ) ⁄ 2 ) ∇tûL – P exit ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlett
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ exit

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka
pre-smoother and post-smoother if iterative solvers are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

( μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 173

 using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,
respectively.

The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.

This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-29)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-29 states that p ≈ f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p 0 n (3-30)
 3 

174 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p 0 n (3-31)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

μ > 0, Equation 3-30 or Equation 3-31 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u⋅t = 0 (3-32)

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-30 or

Equation 3-31 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier–Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier–Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3 
, (3-33)
( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0 n
pˆ ≤ p
0 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

u⋅n≥0 (3-34)

Equation 3-33 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u⋅n ≥ 0, but
smaller at locations where u⋅n < 0. This means that Equation 3-33 does not completely
prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is suppressed
also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude of these
forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 175

 n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
 3 
(3-35)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0
T

pˆ ≥ p
0 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-32, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 ( r ⋅ n )
T  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
ru
 3  u
ˆ (r ⋅ n)
T ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p
ru 0 u
(3-36)
ˆp ≥ p
0 0
du
u – ( u ⋅ r u )r u = 0, r u = -----------
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u ⋅ n ≤ 0 or u ⋅ r u ≥ 0 .

For incompressible single-phase flow, it is also allowed to specify the total pressure,
ptot, instead of the static pressure, pstat, on inlet and outlet boundaries. It is more
useful, for example, in pump applications. The pressure is then prescribed at the
boundaries using Bernoulli’s principle,

1 2
p = p stat = p tot – --- ρ u (3-37)
2

The equation is imposed with two options: Average and Pointwise.

In the first option, pstat is prescribed by:

T T (3-38)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = n ( – p stat I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n

where ptot and |u|2 are averaged over the boundaries using the aveop operator:

1 2
p stat = aveop ( p tot ) – --- ρ ⋅ aveop ( u )
2

For the second option, Equation 3-37 is prescribed pointwise.

176 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition

Vacuum pumps (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented as
boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In particular,
it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet. Such a
boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets nor switch between them during a
simulation.

Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a vacuum pump. Also see Vacuum Pump for the node settings.

DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET

In this case (see Figure 3-2), the device’s inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domains while its outlet is an external boundary, here
the circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a
function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-39)
pˆ 0 ≤ p vacuum pump ( V 0 ) – p ref

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary and pvacuum pump(V0) is the static
pressure function of flow rate for the vacuum pump. pref is the reference pressure that
ensure that the absolute pressure is set to pvacuum pump. In vacuum pump models the
reference pressure is usually set to 0 Pa since the absolute pressure is close to 0 Pa by
opposition to ambient conditions where pref is often set to 1 atm. Equation 3-39
corresponds to the compressible formulation. For incompressible flows, the term
−(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u) vanishes. In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define
the flow rate. Vacuum pumps are modeled as rectangles in this case.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 177

 Figure 3-2: A vacuum pump at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the
green circle represents the vacuum pump (that should not be part of the model), and the
blue cube represents the modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by
a lumped curve for the attached vacuum pump.

Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary

In this case, the inlet and outlet of the device are both interior boundaries (see
Figure 3-3). The boundaries are called dev_in and dev_out. The boundary
conditions are described as follows:

• The inlet of the device is an outlet boundary condition for the modeled domain. For
this outlet side, on dev_in, a pressure condition is set. The value of the pressure is
set to the sum of the mean value of the pressure on dev_out and the pressure drop
across the device. The pressure drop is calculated from a lumped curve using the
flow rate evaluated on dev_in.
• For the inlet side, on dev_out, a pressure boundary condition is defined. The
pressure value is set so that the flow rate is equal on dev_in and dev_out. An ODE
is added to compute the pressure value.
• When a turbulence model with transport equations for the turbulence quantities is
applied, the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and dissipation rate, ε, specific dissipation
rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, must be specified on the downstream
side of the fan. The turbulence conditions are specific to the design and operating
conditions of the fan. A reference velocity scale Uref is available in order to set
default values.

178 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 C μ3/4 k 0init 3/2
2 ,
k 0init = 0.015U ref ε 0init = -------------------------- (3-40)
l ref

In both cases, the boundary condition implementation follows the

Pressure Boundary Condition for outlet or inlet with the Suppress
backflow option.

See Interior Fan for node settings.

Figure 3-3: A device between two boundaries. The red arrows represent the flow direction,
the cylindrical part represents the device (that should be not be part of the model), and the
two cubes are the domain that are modeled with a particular inlet boundary condition to
account for the device.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

Fans, pumps, or grilles (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented
as boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In
particular, it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet.
Such a boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets, nor switch between them
during a simulation.

Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a fan. See Fan and Grille for the node settings.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 179

 DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN INLET
In this case, the device’s inlet is an external boundary, represented by the external
circular boundary of the green domain on Figure 3-4. The device’s outlet is an interior
face situated between the green and blue domains in Figure 3-4. The lumped curve
gives the flow rate as a function of the pressure difference between the external
boundary and the interior face. This boundary condition implementation follows the
Pressure Boundary Condition for inlets with the Suppress backflow option:

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
3 (3-41)
pˆ 0 ≥ p input + Δp fan ( V 0 )

The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
3 (3-42)
pˆ 0 ≥ p input + Δp grille ( V 0 )

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pinput is the pressure at the device’s inlet,
and Δpfan(V0) and Δpgrille(V0) are the static pressure functions of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 3-41 and Equation 3-42 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term −(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u) vanishes. When a
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is applied,
the term −(2/3)ρk appears on the left sides of Equation 3-41 and Equation 3-42. In
such cases the turbulent kinetic energy, k, the turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ (for the
v2-f turbulence model), and dissipation rate, ε, or specific dissipation rate, ω, must be
specified on the downstream side. The turbulence conditions are specific to the design
and operating conditions of the fan or grille. For the Fan condition, a reference velocity
scale Uref is available in order to set default values according to Equation 3-40. For the
Grille boundary condition the turbulence quantities on the downstream side are
specified by defining a loss coefficient K = 2Δp grille ⁄ ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 , from which a
refraction coefficient is derived using Equation 3-55. Equation 3-48 through
Equation 3-50 are then used to relate upstream and downstream turbulence
quantities.

When an algebraic turbulence model, such as the Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL model, is
used, the turbulence is only implicitly affected by the device through the change in the
local Reynolds number.

180 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The flow direction is enforced to be normal to the boundary by default. However, it
is possible to define an arbitrary inflow velocity direction. In such case, Equation 3-41
and Equation 3-42 are modified similarly to Equation 3-36. In 2D, the thickness in
the third direction, Dz, is used to define the flow rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles
in this case.

For 3D and 2D axisymmetry when the swirl flow is included, it is possible to define a
swirl on the downstream side of the fan. It sets the following boundary conditions:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3 
u ⋅ t = u swirl = c sf 2πfn × ( r – r bp )
pˆ ≥ p
0 input+ Δp fan

Here, the swirl ratio csf is a positive number less than 1, defining the ratio of the
rotation transferred from the fan to the flow, f is the number of revolutions per time
for the fan, and rbp is the rotation axis base point. The swirl velocity is defined on the
maximum inscribed circular region on the fan inlet boundary. Hence, it is only
applicable on simply connected flat boundaries. For more complicated inlet
topologies, a swirl velocity can be defined by specifying the inlet velocity vector.

Figure 3-4: A device at the inlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the device (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an inlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached device.

DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET

In this case (see Figure 3-14), the fan’s inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domain while its outlet is an external boundary, here the
circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 181

 function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-43)
pˆ 0 ≤ p exit – Δp fan ( V 0 )

The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-44)
pˆ 0 ≤ p exit – Δp grille ( V 0 )

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pexit is the pressure at the device outlet,
and Δpfan(V0) and Δpgrille(V0) are the static pressure function of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 3-43 and Equation 3-44 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term −(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u)n vanishes. When a
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy is
applied, the term −(2/3)ρkn appears on the left sides of Equation 3-43 and
Equation 3-44. In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define the
flow rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.

Figure 3-5: A fan at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the fan (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached fan.

182 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Screen Boundary Condition
The word “screen” refers to a barrier with distributed perforations such as a wire
gauze, grille, or perforated plate. The screen is assumed to have a width, which is small
compared to the resolved length-scales of the flow field and can thus be modeled as an
edge (in 2D) or surface (in 3D). This idea permits an economic implementation of the
screen, where the details of the barrier need not be resolved. A limitation to this type
of modeling may be observed when there is an appreciable velocity component parallel
to the screen. In such cases the pressure may become discontinuous across streamlines,
which may lead to convergence problems. If this occurs, a better approach is to model
the screen as a thin domain with distributed momentum-loss terms.

The general influence of a screen on the flow field is a loss in the normal momentum
component, a change in direction (related to a suppression of the tangential velocity
component), attenuation of the turbulence kinetic energy and preservation of the
turbulence length scale (Ref. 18). The conditions across the screen are expressed as,

[ ρu ⋅ n ] -+ = 0 (3-45)

+
 
ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 + p – n T  ( μ + μ T )  ∇u + ( ∇u ) T – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u )I – --- ρkI n
2 2
 3  3
  - (3-46)
K
= – ---- ρ - ( u - ⋅ n ) 2
2

n × u+ = η ( n × u- ) (3-47)

k+ = η2 k- (3-48)

and, depending on the turbulence model in use, either,

ε+ = η3 ε- (3-49)

or,

ω + = ηω - (3-50)

− and + refer to the upstream and downstream side of the screen, respectively. K is the
dimensionless resistance coefficient, which parameterizes the magnitude of the drag
exerted by the screen on the flow. η is the dimensionless refraction coefficient, which
parameterizes the extent to which the screen causes the flow to change direction to

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 183

 align parallel to the normal downstream direction from the plane of the screen. The
refraction coefficient should be between 0 and 1. Isotropic turbulence is expected on
the downstream side of the screen, hence,

2
ζ + = --- (3-51)
3

is enforced when the v2-f turbulence model is used.

The attenuation of the turbulence kinetic energy (Equation 3-48) is based on the
suppression of the tangential velocity (Equation 3-47) and the changes in ε and ω are
determined by the assumption of preservation of the turbulence length-scale across the
screen.

When an algebraic turbulence model, such as the Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL model, is
used, the turbulence is only implicitly affected by the device through the change in the
local Reynolds number.

The Screen feature provides three commonly used correlations for K (Ref. 19). The
following correlation is valid for wire gauzes

K = ( 0.52 + 0.66/Re d4 / 3 ) ( ( 1 – σ s ) –2 – 1 ), Re d = u d ⁄ ν (3-52)

Here σs is the solidity (ratio of blocked area to total area of the screen) and d is the
diameter of the wires. For a square mesh, the following correlation is applied,

K = 0.98 ( ( 1 – σ s ) – 2 – 1 ) 1.09 (3-53)

and for a perforated plate,

K = 0.94 ( ( 1 – σ s ) – 2 – 1 ) 1.28 (3-54)

These correlations are based on common shapes for meshes and perforated plates
encountered in engineering contexts, and it is assumed that the wire gauze, square
mesh or perforated plate is thin compared to the mixing length scale up- and
downstream of the screen. The following correlation for wire gauzes (Ref. 20) gives
reasonable values for η for a wide range of applications and has been included in the
implementation,

184 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 K2 K
η = ------- + 1 – ---- (3-55)
16 4

See Screen for the node settings. Also see Theory for the Nonisothermal
Screen Boundary Condition for the nonisothermal version of these
physics interfaces.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow

There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Battery

Design Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition
Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, Polymer Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim Q = q· p (3-56)
δV → 0
δV

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface
area tend to zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source.
For this alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such
as drag and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p test ( p )

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 185

 ·
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-56, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-56 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.
The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area δS and then letting δS tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

· ·
lim
δS → 0  Q = ql (3-57)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume
are neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l test ( p )

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

186 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-15 or Equation 3-17) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier–Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline
diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 187

 were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier–Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports. The time-scale
tensor is the diagonal tensor presented in Ref. 10.

The time-scale tensors for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a

time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, Δt
(see for example Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach does not, however,
necessarily reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting
flows where the time step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops
relatively slowly. The COMSOL Multiphysics software can therefore replace Δt2 in the
time-scale tensor with measures of type ( 1 ⁄ ( Δt̃ ) 2 ) –1 , which are calculated from
projections of weak expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures
of the time scale are used when Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box is selected.
Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is
dominating the flow.

The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška–Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible Navier–
Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use equal-order
interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using first-order elements
for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is solved using geometric
multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least one multigrid hierarchy
level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier–Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes–Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

188 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier–Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier–Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time step.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 189

 It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier–Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the smoothed aggregation

algebraic multigrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, the
geometric multigrid (GMG) method requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of
multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared-memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers
perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the

190 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions, for example, Fully Developed
Flow (Inlet), can add equations with such variables. These variables must be treated
with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an option to invoke Vanka. Models with
higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use the Vanka smoother. The latter is the
default suggestion for higher-order elements, but it does not work optimally for
anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier–Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier–Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-α
method instead. Generalized-α is a solver which has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

Both BDF and generalized-α are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-17
reduces to:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 191

 T
ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-58)

Solving Equation 3-58 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-58:

u – nojac ( u ) T
ρ ------------------------------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
Δt̃

where Δt̃ is a pseudo time step. Since u−nojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size Δt̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step Δt̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
Δt̃ = CFL loc ------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default
solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 20, 9 ), 0 ) + (3-59)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 40, 9 ), 0)

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.3 9 ≈ 10.6 . It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40

192 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-59 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Some boundary conditions are implemented using a discontinuous Galerkin
formulation. These boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero
translational velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics is the
Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG method can be
regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter in COMSOL Multiphysics is implemented
according to Ref. 16.

Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow

The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
d x
= F  t, x, 
dx
m
dt2 dt

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 193

 where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2rρ
Re p = ----------------------------
μ

where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, ρ the
fluid density, and μ the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = πr ρ u – u p ( u – u p ) [ 1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 ]

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan-Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, pp. 287–305, 1845

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

194 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZβ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery”, Int.J.Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird,W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley&Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 190, pp. 6881–
6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes”, Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 195, pp. 6011–6045,
2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods”, J. Computational and Applied Mathematics,
vol. 206, pp. 843–872, 2007.

17. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

18. G.B. Schubauer, W.G. Spangenberg, and P.S. Klebanoff, “Aerodynamic

Characteristics of Damping Screens”, NACA Technical note 2001, Jan. 1950.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 195

 19. P.E. Roach, “The Generation of Nearly Isotropic Turbulence by Means of Grids”,
Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 8, pp. 82–92, 1986.

20. J.C. Gibbings, “The Pyramid Gauze Diffuser”, Ing. Arch., vol. 42, pp. 225–233,
1973.

21. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

22. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics”, Computers and Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

23. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

196 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Turbulent Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces is described in this
section:

• Turbulence Modeling
• The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model
• The L-VEL Turbulence Model
• The k-ε Turbulence Model
• The k-ω Turbulence Model
• The SST Turbulence Model
• The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model
• The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model
• The v2-f Turbulence Model
• Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
• Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
• Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces
• Solvers for Turbulent Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence is a property of the flow field and it is characterized by a wide range of flow
scales: the largest occurring scales, which depend on the geometry, the smallest,
quickly fluctuating scales, and all the scales in between. The propensity for an
isothermal flow to become turbulent is measured by the Reynolds number

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 197

 ρUL
Re = ------------ (3-60)
μ

where μ is the dynamic viscosity, ρ the density, and U and L are velocity and length
scales of the flow, respectively. Flows with high Reynolds numbers tend to become
turbulent. Most engineering applications belong to this category of flows.

The Navier-Stokes equations can be used for turbulent flow simulations, although this
would require a large number of elements in order to capture the wide range of scales
in the flow. An alternative approach is to divide the flow quantities into mean values
and fluctuations. When solving for the mean-flow quantities, the effect of the
fluctuations is modeled using a turbulence closure. The idea behind this approach is
that solving the model for the turbulence closure is numerically less expensive than
resolving all the turbulence scales. Different turbulence closures invoke different
assumptions on the modeled fluctuations, resulting in various degrees of accuracy for
different flow cases.

This module includes turbulence models based on the Reynolds-averaged

Navier-Stokes (RANS) model, which is the model type most commonly used in
industrial flow applications.

REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES (RANS) EQUATIONS

The following assumes that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian in which case
the Navier-Stokes equations take the form:

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
∂t (3-61)
ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0

Once the flow has become turbulent, all quantities fluctuate in time and space. It is
seldom worth the extreme computational cost to obtain detailed information about
the fluctuations. An averaged representation often provides sufficient information
about the flow.

The Reynolds-averaged representation of turbulent flows divides the flow quantities

into an averaged value and a fluctuating part,

φ = φ + φ′

where φ can represent any scalar quantity of the flow. In general, the mean value can
vary in space and time. This is exemplified in Figure 3-6, which shows time averaging
of one component of the velocity vector for nonstationary turbulence. The unfiltered

198 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

flow has a time scale Δt1. After a time filter with width Δt2 >> Δt1 has been applied,
there is a fluctuating part, u′i, and an average part, Ui. Because the flow field also varies
on a time scale longer than Δt2, Ui is still time-dependent but is much smoother than
the unfiltered velocity ui.

Figure 3-6: The unfiltered velocity component ui, with a time scale Δt1, and the averaged
velocity component, Ui, with time scale Δt2.

Decomposition of the flow field into an averaged part and a fluctuating part, followed
by insertion into the Navier-Stokes equation, and averaging, gives the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations:

∂U T
ρ + ρU ⋅ ∇ U + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu' ⊗ u' ) = – ∇P + ∇ ⋅ μ ( ∇U + ( ∇U ) ) + F
∂t (3-62)
ρ∇ ⋅ U = 0

where U is the averaged velocity field and ⊗ is the outer vector product. A comparison
with Equation 3-61 indicates that the only difference is the appearance of the last term
on the left-hand side of Equation 3-62. This term represents the interaction between
the fluctuating parts of the velocity field and is called the Reynolds stress tensor. This
means that to obtain the mean flow characteristics, information about the small-scale
structure of the flow is needed. In this case, that information is the correlation between
fluctuations in all three directions.

EDDY VISCOSITY
The most common way to model turbulence is to assume that the turbulence is of a
purely diffusive nature. The deviating part of the Reynolds stress is then expressed as

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 199

 ρ T
ρ ( u' ⊗ u' ) – --- trace ( u' ⊗ u' )I = – μ T ( ∇U + ( ∇U ) )
3

where μT is the eddy viscosity, also known as the turbulent viscosity. The spherical part
can be written

ρ 2
--- trace ( u' ⊗ u' )I = --- ρk
3 3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. In simulations of incompressible flows, this

term is included in the pressure, but when the absolute pressure level is of importance
(in compressible flows, for example) this term must be explicitly included.

TURBULENT COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

If the Reynolds average is applied to the compressible form of the Navier-Stokes
equations, terms of the form

ρ′u′

appear and need to be modeled. To avoid this, a density-based average, known as the
Favre average, is introduced:

t+T

u˜i = --- lim ----

1 1
ρ T → ∞T  ρ (x,τ)u i (x,τ) dτ (3-63)
t

It follows from Equation 3-63 that

ρũ i = ρu i (3-64)

and a variable, ui, is decomposed into a mass-averaged component, ũ i , and a

fluctuating component, ui″, according to

u i = u˜ i + u i ″ (3-65)

Using Equation 3-64 and Equation 3-65 along with some modeling assumptions for
compressible flows (Ref. 7), Equation 3-14 and Equation 3-15 can be written on the
form

200 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂ρ ∂
------ + ------- ( ρũ i ) = 0
∂t ∂x i
(3-66)
∂ũ i ∂u˜ i ∂p
˜
∂   ∂u i ∂u j 2 ∂u k
˜ ˜ 
ρ -------- + ρũ j -------- = – ------- + -------  μ  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij – ρu j ″u i ″ + F i
∂t ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j   ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k 

The Favre-averaged Reynolds stress tensor is modeled using the same argument as for
incompressible flows:

 ∂u˜ i ∂u˜ j 2  ∂u˜ k 

– ρu j ″u i ″ = μ T  -------- + -------- – ---  μ T --------- + ρk δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i  3  ∂x k 

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. Comparing Equation 3-66 to its

incompressible counterpart (Equation 3-62), it can be seen that except for the term

– ( 2 ⁄ 3 )ρkδ ij

the compressible and incompressible formulations are exactly the same, except that the
free variables are u˜ i instead of

Ui = ui

More information about modeling turbulent compressible flows can be found in

Ref. 1 and Ref. 7.

The turbulent transport equations are used in their fully compressible formulations
(Ref. 8).

The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model

The algebraic yPlus turbulence model is an algebraic turbulence model based on the
distance to the nearest wall. The model is based on Prandtl’s mixing-length theory and
is suitable for internal flows. It is less mesh sensitive than transport-equation models
like Spalart–Allmaras or the k-ε model. In what follows, let y be the coordinate normal
to the wall, and U the velocity parallel to the wall. Using a mixing length formulation,
the balance for the shear stress in the wall layer may be approximated as

∂U-  ∂U
 μ + ρl 2 ------- -------- = ρu τ2
 mix
∂y  ∂y

which, expressed on dimensionless form, reduces to

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 201

  +  ∂u +
 1 + l mix ∂u
+2
---------  ---------+ = 1 (3-67)
 ∂y  ∂y
+

where y+ = yuτ/ν, u+ = U/uτ and u τ = τ w ⁄ ρ is the friction velocity. Close to the

wall, the mixing length must be zero such that u+ = y+, and far away from the wall,
+ +
l mix ≈ κy such that u+ = (1/κ)log(y+) + B. To obtain the correct behavior, the mixing
length is chosen to be


 +
y ≤ y*
l mix =  0
+
(3-68)
 κ ( y+ – y * ) y+ > y *


where y* is to be determined. Inserting Equation 3-68 into Equation 3-67


+
 1 +
y ≤ y*
∂u 
--------- =  + 2 (3-69)
∂y
+ 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) – 1 +
 ---------------------------------------------------------- y > y*
 2κ 2 ( y+ – y * ) 2


Integrating Equation 3-69

 + +
y y ≤ y*


+  * 1 – 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * )
+ 2
u =  y + ---------------------------------------------------------- (3-70)
+
 2κ 2 ( y – y * )

 1 +
+ --- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) + 2κ ( y – y * ) )
2 + +
y > y*
 κ


For large values of y+, Equation 3-70 reduces to

+ 1 + 1
u = --- log ( y ) + --- ( log ( 4κ ) – 1 ) + y *
κ κ

Comparing the above expression with the logarithmic law of the wall

+ 1 +
u = --- log ( y ) + B
κ

the value of the constant y* is obtained as

202 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1
y * = B – --- ( log ( 4κ ) – 1 )
κ

The dimensionless effective viscosity can be evaluated from

 +
 1 y ≤ y*
+ 
ν =  + 2 (3-71)
 1 + κ 2 ( y + – y * ) 2 ∂u
+ 1 + 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) +
--------- = ----------------------------------------------------------- y > y*
 ∂y
+ 2


This requires the local value of y+, which is obtained from the Reynolds number

Uy U yu τ + +
Re = -------- = ----- --------- = u y =
ν uτ ν

 y +2 +
y ≤ y*

 (3-72)
 
 y  y * + ---------------------------------------------------------- + --- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) + 2κ ( y – y * ) )
+ 1 – 1 + 4κ 2 ( y+ – y* )2 1 + 2 +
  + κ 
 2κ 2 ( y – y * )
 +
 y > y*

The nonlinear algebraic Equation 3-72 has to be solved at each node point to evaluate
the effective viscosity from Equation 3-71. The local Reynolds number Re = Uy/ν is
formed with the local absolute value of the velocity and the distance to the nearest wall.
This implicitly assumes that the main flow direction is parallel to the wall.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance, y is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface that is
included when using the Algebraic yPlus model. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref
is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 203

 WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The Algebraic yPlus turbulence model is consistent with a no slip boundary condition,
that is u = 0. Since the turbulence model is algebraic, no additional boundary
condition is needed. This boundary conditions is applied for Wall Treatment equal to
Low Re.

The low-Reynolds-number formulation of the Algebraic yPlus model can be

considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of order unity. l c+ is the distance,
measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall adjacent cell and can
be evaluated as the boundary variable: lplus_cc.

Automatic Wall Treatment

The default boundary treatment for Algebraic yPlus is the Automatic wall treatment.
The automatic wall treatment assumes that there is a small gap, δw = hw/2, between
the computational domain and the physical wall. Here, hw is the height of the mesh
cell adjacent to the wall. wall (see Figure 3-7).

Mesh cells
hw

δw

Solid wall

Figure 3-7: The computational domain is located a distance δw from the wall.

The boundary conditions for the velocity is a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and

a shear stress condition

2 u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -------
u

where

K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )

and

204 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u
u τ = -----+-
u

The automatic wall treatment tends to the low-Reynolds-number formulation when

hw tends to zero, and it becomes a wall function formulation when the resolution in
viscous units, Δw+ increases. The resolution in viscous units is available as a
postprocessing variable, Delta_wPlus.

See also Wall for boundary condition details.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The L-VEL Turbulence Model

The L-VEL (Length-VELocity) turbulence model is an algebraic turbulence model
often used in electronic cooling applications. It is less mesh sensitive than
transport-equation models like Spalart–Allmaras or the k-ε model. It was developed by
Agonafer et al. (Ref. 23) for internal flows and uses an extension of the logarithmic law
of the wall which applies all the way down to the wall

+ 2 + 3 + 4
+ ( κu ) ( κu ) ( κu )
y = u + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – ----------------- – -----------------
+ + 1 κu +
E 2 6 24  (3-73)
+ +
where y = yu τ ⁄ ν , u = U ⁄ u τ , U is the local flow speed, y is the distance to the
nearest wall, ν is the kinematic viscosity and u τ is the friction velocity. κ is the von
Kàrman constant and E=8.6 is another constant needed to fit the logarithmic law of
the wall. The shear stress in the wall layer is given by

∂U ν T u τ2 1 1
ρ ( ν + ν T ) -------- = ρu τ2  1 + ------ = ------ ------------------ = --------------------------------------------------- 
∂y ν ν ∂U ⁄ ∂y ∂ ( U ⁄ u τ ) ⁄ ∂ ( yu τ ⁄ ν )
+ 1 -
ν = ----------------------
+ +
∂u ⁄ ∂y

Differentiating Equation 3-73 with respect to y+, the dimensionless effective viscosity
is obtained as

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 205

 + 2 + 3
κ κu+ + ( κu ) ( κu )
ν = 1 + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – -----------------
+
E 2 6  (3-74)

If the local value of u+ is known, the effective viscosity can be evaluated from
Equation 3-74. The value of u+ is obtained by forming a local Reynolds number

Uy U yu τ + +
Re = -------- = ----- --------- = u y =
ν uτ ν
+ 2 + 3 + 4
(3-75)
+ ( κu ) ( κu ) ( κu )
= u  u + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – ----------------- – ----------------- 
+ + 1 κu+
 E 2 6 24

where the last expression follows from Equation 3-73. Hence, the nonlinear algebraic
Equation 3-75 has to be solved at each node point to evaluate the effective viscosity.
The local Reynolds number Re = Uy/ν is formed with the local absolute value of the
velocity and the distance to the nearest wall. This implicitly assumes that the main flow
direction is parallel to the wall.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance, y is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface that is
included when using the L-VEL model. The solution to the wall distance equation is
controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The L-VEL turbulence model is consistent with a no slip boundary condition; that is,
u = 0. Since the turbulence model is algebraic, no additional boundary condition is
needed. This boundary conditions is applied for Wall Treatment equal to Low Re.

206 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The L-VEL model can be considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of order unity.
l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell and can be evaluated as the boundary variable: lplus_cc.

Automatic Wall Treatment

The default boundary treatment for Algebraic yPlus is the Automatic wall treatment.
The details are described in Wall Boundary Condition for The Algebraic yPlus
Turbulence Model.

See also Wall for boundary condition details.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The k-ε Turbulence Model

The k-ε model is one of the most used turbulence models for industrial applications.
This module includes the standard k-ε model (Ref. 1). The model introduces two
additional transport equations and two dependent variables: the turbulent kinetic
energy, k, and the turbulent dissipation rate, ε. The turbulent viscosity is modeled as

k2
μ T = ρC μ ------ (3-76)
ε

where Cμ is a model constant.

The transport equation for k reads:

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇k + P k – ρε (3-77)
∂t   σk 

where the production term is

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
(3-78)
3 3

The transport equation for ε reads:

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 207

 ∂ε μT ε ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C ε1 --- P – C ε2 ρ ----- (3-79)
∂t   σε   k k k

The model constants in Equation 3-76, Equation 3-77, and Equation 3-79 are
determined from experimental data (Ref. 1) and the values are listed in Table 3-4.
TABLE 3-4: MODEL CONSTANTS

CONSTANT VALUE

Cμ 0.09
Cε1 1.44
Cε2 1.92
σk 1.0
σε 1.3

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

Equation 3-77 and Equation 3-79 cannot be implemented directly as written. There
is, for example, nothing that prevents division by zero. The equations are instead
implemented as suggested in Ref. 10. The implementation includes an upper limit on
lim :
the mixing length, l mix

3/2
l mix = max  C μ -----------, l mix
lim 
k
 (3-80)
ε

lim should not be

The mixing length is used to calculated the turbulent viscosity. l mix
active in a converged solution but is merely a tool to obtain convergence.

REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS
The eddy-viscosity model of the Reynolds stress tensor can be written

2
ρu i u j = – 2μ T S ij + --- ρkδ ij
3

where δij is the Kronecker delta and Sij is the strain-rate tensor. The diagonal elements
of the Reynolds stress tensor must be nonnegative, but calculating μT from
Equation 3-76 does not guarantee this. To assert that

ρu i u i ≥ 0 ∀i

the turbulent viscosity is subjected to a realizability constraint. The constraint for 2D

and 2D axisymmetry without swirl is:

208 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρk 2
μ T ≤ ----------------------- (3-81)
3 S ij S ij

and for 3D and 2D axisymmetry with swirl flow it reads:

ρk
μ T ≤ --------------------------- (3-82)
6 S ij S ij

Combining equation Equation 3-81 with Equation 3-76 and the definition of the
mixing length gives a limit on the mixing length scale:

k
l mix ≤ 2
--- ------------------- (3-83)
3 S ij S ij

Equivalently, combining Equation 3-82 with Equation 3-76 and Equation 3-80 gives:

1 k
l mix ≤ ------- ------------------- (3-84)
6 S ij S ij

This means there are two limitations on lmix: the realizability constraint and the
imposed limit via Equation 3-80.

The effect of not applying a realizability constraint is typically excessive turbulence

production. The effect is most clearly visible at stagnation points. To avoid such
artifacts, the realizability constraint is always applied for the RANS models. More
details can be found in Ref. 4, Ref. 5, and Ref. 6.

MODEL LIMITATIONS
The k-ε turbulence model relies on several assumptions, the most important of which
is that the Reynolds number is high enough. It is also important that the turbulence is
in equilibrium in boundary layers, which means that production equals dissipation.
These assumptions limit the accuracy of the model because they are not always true. It
does not, for example, respond correctly to flows with adverse pressure gradients and
can result in under-prediction of the spatial extent of recirculation zones (Ref. 1).
Furthermore, in simulations of rotating flows, the model often shows poor agreement
with experimental data (Ref. 2). In most cases, the limited accuracy is a fair tradeoff for
the amount of computational resources saved compared to using more complicated
turbulence models.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 209

 WALL FUNCTIONS
The flow close to a solid wall is for a turbulent flow very different from the free stream.
This means that the assumptions used to derive the k-ε model are not valid close to
walls. While it is possible to modify the k-ε model so that it describes the flow in wall
regions (see The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model), this is not always
desirable because of the very high resolution requirements that follow. Instead,
analytical expressions are used to describe the flow near the walls. These expressions
are known as wall functions.

When using wall functions in COMSOL Multiphysics, a theoretical lift-off from the
physical wall is assumed as shown in Figure 3-7. Expressed in viscous units, the wall
lift-off is defined as

ρC μ1 / 4 k
+ = max  h
δw --- ----------------------- , 11.06
2 μ 

The first argument is derived from the law of the wall. The second argument is the
distance from the wall, in viscous units, where the logarithmic layer meets the viscous
sublayer (or rather would meet it if there were no buffer layer in between). This lower
limit ensures that the wall functions remain non-singular for all Reynolds numbers.

The wall lift-off, δw, is defined as

δw +μ
δ w = ----------
ρu τ

where the friction velocity, uτ, is defined by

u τ = max  C μ1 / 4 k, --------
u
 u+ 
1
u + = ----- log ( δ w
+)+B
κv

where in turn, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41) and B is a constant
that by default is set to 5.2. The two arguments for uτ are under some addition
assumptions theoretically identical in the logarithmic layer (Ref. 1), but deviate in
stagnation points and when the local Reynolds number becomes low. The definition
of δw is such that it becomes h/2 when δ w + > 11.06 , but it can become larger when the

lower limit for δ w , 11.06, takes effect.

+

210 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall functions give reasonable predictions as long as δ w
+ is lower than some upper limit

that depends on the turbulent Reynolds number (Ref. 28). The upper limit is hardly
ever lower than 50, and in many practical applications as high as a few hundred.
Highest accuracy is obtained if δ w
+ is also everywhere larger than 25, which

approximately corresponds to the beginning of the logarithmic layer. It can also be

worthwhile to check that δw is small compared to the dimensions of the geometry,
especially if δ w
+ = 11.06 for a significant fraction of the wall area.

The boundary conditions for the velocity is a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and

a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -----+-
u

where

K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )

is the viscous stress tensor.

The turbulent kinetic energy is subject to a homogeneous Neumann condition

n ⋅ ∇k = 0 and the boundary condition for ε reads:

C μ3 / 4 k 3 / 2
ε = -----------------------
κv δw

See Ref. 10 and Ref. 11 for further details.

WALL FUNCTIONS FOR ROUGH WALLS

The physics interfaces Wall and Interior Wall have an option to apply wall roughness
by modifying the wall functions. Cebeci (Ref. 21) suggested a model which adjusts the
friction velocity for surface roughness,

u
u τ = ------------------------------------------- (3-85)
1
----- ln δ w + B – ΔB
+
κv

where

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 211

  0 k s+ ≤ 2.25

 k s+ – 2.25
 1-
---- ln ------------------------ + C s k s+ sin [ 0.4258 ( ln k s+ – 0.811 ) ] 2.25 ≤ k s+ ≤ 90
ΔB =  κv 87.75

 1
 ----- ln ( 1 + C s k + ) k s+ ≥ 90
 κv s

k s+ is the roughness height in viscous units,

ρC μ1 / 4 k
k s+ = ----------------------- k s
μ

The roughness height, ks, is the peak-to-peak value of the surface variations and the
wall is relocated to their mean level.

Figure 3-8: Definitions of the roughness height and the modified wall location.

Hence, when Equation 3-85 is used the lift-off is modified according to,

+
δw
+ = max { 11.06, k + ⁄ 2, h ⁄ 2 }
s

where h+ is the height of the boundary mesh cell in viscous units. Cs is a parameter
that depends on the shape and distribution of the roughness elements. When the
turbulence parameters κν and B have the values 0.41 and 5.2, respectively, and
Cs = 0.26, ks corresponds to the equivalent sand roughness height, kseq, as
introduced by Nikuradse (Ref. 22). A few characteristic values of the equivalent sand
roughness height are given in Table 3-5 below,
TABLE 3-5: EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHTS kseq
SURFACE TYPE EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHT

Steel, new 50 μm
Galvanized steel 0.13 mm
Riveted steel 0.9-9 mm
Cast iron, new 0.25 mm
Galvanized iron 0.15-0.30 mm

212 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 3-5: EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHTS kseq
SURFACE TYPE EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHT

Cast iron, rusted 1.0-1.5 mm

Bituminized steel or iron, new 30-50 μm
Glass 0.3 μm
Drawn tubing 1.5 μm
Wood, new 0.5 mm
Concrete, new 0.3-3 mm
Use other values of the roughness parameter Cs and roughness height ks to specify
generic surface roughnesses.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values for a stationary simulation are (Ref. 10),

u=0
p=0
 10 ⋅ μ  2
k =  -------------------------------
lim )
ρ ( 0.1 ⋅ l mix
C μ k init 3/2
ε = ----------------------
-
0.1 ⋅ l mix lim

lim is the mixing length limit. For time-dependent simulations, the initial value
where l mix
for k is instead

μ
k =  -------------------------------2
 ρ ( 0.1 ⋅ l lim )
mix

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The k-ε equations are derived under the assumption that the flow has a high enough
Reynolds number. If this assumption is not fulfilled, both k and ε have very small
magnitudes and behave chaotically in the manner that the relative values of k and ε can
change by large amounts due to small changes in the flow field.

A time-dependent simulation of a turbulent flow can include a period when the flow
is not fully turbulent. A typical example is the startup phase when for example an inlet
velocity or a pressure difference is gradually increased. To sort out numerical

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 213

 fluctuations in k and ε during such periods, the default time-dependent solver for the
k-ε model employs unscaled absolute tolerances for k and ε. The tolerances are set to

k scale = ( 0.01U scale ) 2

(3-86)
3/2 ⁄ (L
ε scale = 0.09k sclae fact ⋅ l bb, min )

where Uscale and Lfact are input parameters available in the Advanced Settings section
of the physics interface node. Their default values are 1 m/s and 0.035 respectively.
lbb,min is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. Equation 3-86 is closely
related to the expressions for k and ε on inlet boundaries (see Equation 3-149).

The practical implication of Equation 3-86 is that variations in k and ε smaller than
kscale and εscale respectively, are regarded as numerical noise.

The Realizable k-ε Turbulence Model

The Realizable k-ε turbulence model (Ref. 14) is an extension to the standard k-ε
model with built-in realizability conditions,

2
ui ≥ 0
2 (3-87)
ui uj
-------------
-≤1
2 2
ui uj

The transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is the same as for the standard
k-ε model, Equation 3-77, while Equation 3-88 is solved for the turbulent dissipation
rate,

∂ε μT ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C 1 ρSε – C ε2 ρ -------------------- (3-88)
∂t  σε   k + νε

where,

 η  Sk 1  ∂u i ∂u j
C 1 = max  0.43, ------------- , η = -------, S= 2S ij S ij, S ij = ---  -------- + -------- (3-89)
 5 + η ε 2  ∂x j ∂x i 

The turbulent viscosity is given by Equation 3-76, but Cμ is not constant for the
realizable k-ε model,

214 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1
C μ = ----------------------------------- (3-90)
(*) k
A 0 + A s U ---
ε

with,

2 2S ij S jk S ki
6 cos  --- acos ( 6W ) ,
1 (3-91)
As = W = ------------------------------------
-
3  3
S

and,

(*) 1  ∂u i ∂u j (3-92)
U = S ij S ij + Ω ij Ω ij, Ω ij = ---  -------- – --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

Sij and Ωij are the mean strain- and rotation-rate tensors respectively. The default
constants for the Realizable k-ε model are,

C ε2 = 1.9 A 0 = 4 σ k = 1 σ ε = 1.2 (3-93)

MODEL PROPERTIES
Compared to the standard k-ε model, the realizable k-ε model yields better predictions
for certain flows. One example is the round jet, for which the standard k-ε model
overestimates the spreading rate. In general, since the realizability conditions in
Equation 3-87 are approached asymptotically, the turbulence characteristics are more
consistent than for the standard k-ε model. The realizable k-ε model uses wall
functions and has the same default initial conditions and scalings as the standard k-ε
model (see Wall Functions, Initial Values and Scaling for Time-Dependent
Simulations).

The k-ω Turbulence Model

The k-ω model solves for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and for the dissipation per
unit turbulent kinetic energy, ω. ω is also commonly know as the specific dissipation
rate. The CFD Module has the Wilcox revised k-ω model (Ref. 1)

∂k
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇k = P k – ρβ * kω + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ * μ T ) ∇k )
∂t (3-94)
∂ω ω
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇ω = α ---- P k – ρβω 2 + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σμ T ) ∇ω )
∂t k

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 215

 where

k
μ T = ρ ---- (3-95)
ω

13 1 1
α = ------ β = β 0 f β β * = β 0* f β σ = --- σ * = ---
25 2 2

13 1 + 70χ ω Ω ij Ω jk S ki
β 0 = ---------- f β = ----------------------- χ ω = --------------------------
125 1 + 80χ ω ( β 0* ω ) 3

 1 χk ≤ 0

β 0* = ---------- f β * =  1 + 680χ 2
9 1
χ k = ------3- ( ∇k ⋅ ∇ω ) (3-96)
100  -------------------------k- ω
 1 + 400χ 2 χ k > 0
 k

where in turn Ωij is the mean rotation-rate tensor

1  ∂u i ∂u j
Ω ij = ---  -------- – --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

and Sij is the mean strain-rate tensor

1  ∂u i ∂u j
S ij = ---  -------- + --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

Pk is given by Equation 3-78. The following auxiliary relations for the dissipation, ε,
and the turbulent mixing length, l∗, are also used:

k (3-97)
ε = β * ωk l mix = -------
ω

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT AND REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS

The implementation of the k-ω model relies on the same concepts as the k-ε model
(Ref. 10). This means that the following approximations have been used:

216 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ω ρ
---- ≈ ---------------------------------
k max ( μ T, eps )
l mix ρl mix 2 ρ
l mix
1- -----------
--- =
k - --------
= - = l mix  ------------
- ≈ ---------------------------------
ω ω k k  μ T  max ( μ T, eps )

l mix = min  -------, l mix

k lim 
, l r
ω

where lr is the limit given by the realizability constraints (Equation 3-83 and
Equation 3-84).

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. For the specific dissipation, these solutions read

6ν uτ
ω visc = ------------2- ω log = ----------------------- (3-98)
β0 δw β0 κv δw
*

The corresponding expressions for the velocity is

νU || U ||
u τvisc = ----------- u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-99)
δw 1-
---- log ( δ w +)+B
κv

where δw is the distance to the nearest wall, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default
value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to the wall and B is a constant that by default is
set to 5.2. Menter and others (Ref. 9) suggested the following smooth blending
expressions for ω and uτ:

ω = ω visc
2 + ω2
log (3-100)

and

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-101)

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 217

 These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The wall condition for ω is given by Equation 3-100 and the
conditions for the momentum equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and
a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -----+- (3-102)
u

The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in the log-layer, so
this condition is applied for all δw+.

The system given byEquation 3-85 through Equation 3-102 are, however, nonlinear
in uτ and not very stable. To circumvent this, a variable u∗, log is introduced (see
Ref. 10 and Ref. 11) such that

u *, log = 4 β 0* k (3-103)

This is then used in an alternative expression for the friction velocity:

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-104)

Equation 3-104 is in turn is used to calculate an alternative dimensionless wall distance

u * δw
* = ------------
δw - (3-105)
ν

Equation 3-104 is used instead of uτ in the expression for ωlog and Equation 3-105 is
used instead of δw+ in the expression for uτlog. The traction condition in
Equation 3-102 is replaced by

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-106)
u

Observe that the variable u+ is calculated using equation Equation 3-101.

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable

Delta_wPlus.

Wall Functions
When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, wall boundaries are treated with the same
type of boundary conditions as for the k-ε model (see Wall Functions) with Cμ replaced
by β 0* and the boundary condition for ω given by

218 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρk -
ω w = ------------- (3-107)
κδ w +μ

Low Reynolds Number

The k-ω turbulence model can be integrated all the way down to the wall and is
consistent with the no-slip condition u = 0. Since all velocities must disappear on the
wall, so must k. Hence, k=0 on the wall.

The corresponding boundary condition for ω is

6μ
lim ω = ---------------
- (3-108)
lw → 0 ρβ 0 l w 2

To avoid the singularity at the wall, ω is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid
wall. Instead, its value is prescribed by Equation 3-108 (using the variable ωw, which
only exists in those cells). Accurate solutions in the near-wall region require that,

+ = ρu l ⁄ μ ∼ 1
lw (3-109)
τ w

where uτ is the friction velocity which is calculated from the wall shear-stress τw,

uτ = τw ⁄ ρ (3-110)

The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc, is available to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough. According to Equation 3-109, l c+ should be
about 0.5. Observe that very small values of l c+ can reduce the convergence rate.

Since the ωw requires the wall distance, a wall distance equation must be solved prior
to solving a k-ω model with low-Reynolds-number wall treatment.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values are the same as for the k-ε model (see Initial Values) but with
the initial value of ω given by

k init
ω init = ----------------------
-
0.1 ⋅ l mix lim

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The k-ω model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations) except that the scale for ω is given by

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 219

 k scale
ω scale = ---------------------------------
L fact ⋅ l bb, min

MODEL PROPERTIES
The k-ω model can in many cases give results that are superior to those obtained with
the k-ε model (Ref. 1). It behaves, for example, much better for flat plate flows with
adverse or favorable pressure gradients. However, there are two main drawbacks. The
first is that the k-ω model can display a relatively strong sensitivity to free stream inlet
values of ω. The other is that the k-ω model is numerically less robust than the k-ε
model.

The SST Turbulence Model

To combine the superior behavior of the k-ω model in the near-wall region with the
robustness of the k-ε model, Menter (Ref. 18) introduced the SST (Shear Stress
Transport) model which interpolates between the two. The version of the SST model
in the CFD Module includes a few well-tested (Ref. 17, Ref. 19) modifications, such
as production limiters for both k and ω, the use of S instead of Ω in the limiter for μT
and a sharper cutoff for the cross-diffusion term.

It is also a low Reynolds number model, that is, it does not apply wall functions. A “low
Reynolds number” refers to the region close to the wall where viscous effects
dominate. The model equations are formulated in terms k and ω,

∂k
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇k = P – ρβ 0* kω + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ k μ T ) ∇k )
∂t
(3-111)
∂ω ργ ρσ ω2
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇ω = ------ P – ρβω 2 + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ ω μ T ) ∇ω ) + 2 ( 1 – f v1 ) ------------- ∇ω ⋅ ∇k
∂t μT ω

where,

P = min ( P k, 10ρβ 0* kω ) (3-112)

and Pk is given in Equation 3-78. The turbulent viscosity is given by,

ρa 1 k
μ T = ---------------------------------------- (3-113)
max ( a 1 ω, Sf v2 )

where S is the characteristic magnitude of the mean velocity gradients,

220 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 S = 2S ij S ij (3-114)

The model constants are defined through interpolation of appropriate inner and outer
values,

φ = f v1 φ 1 + ( 1 – f v1 )φ 2 for φ = β, γ, σ k, σ ω (3-115)

The interpolation functions fv1 and fv2 are defined as,

f v1 = tanh ( θ 14 )
 k 500μ 4ρσ ω2 k
θ 1 = min max  ---------------- , -------------- , --------------------- (3-116)
β
 0 w * ωl ρωl 2 CD l 2
w kω w

2ρσ ω2
CD kω = max  ----------------- ∇ω ⋅ ∇k, 10 -10
 ω 

and,

f v2 = tanh ( θ 22 )
 2 k 500μ (3-117)
θ 2 = max  ---------------- , -------------
-
 β 0* ωl w ρωl w 2


where lw is the distance to the closest wall.

Realizability Constraints are applied to the SST model.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the SST model. The solution to the wall distance equation
is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 221

 The default model constants are given by,

β 1 = 0.075, γ 1 = 5 ⁄ 9, σ k1 = 0.85, σ ω1 = 0.5

β 2 = 0.0828, γ 2 = 0.44, σ k2 = 1.0, σ ω2 = 0.856 (3-118)
β 0* = 0.09, a 1 = 0.31

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

When Wall Treatment is set to Automatic the same type of formulation described for the
k-ω model is applied at the boundary but with β1 instead of β0. See Automatic Wall
Treatment for more details.

Low Reynolds Number

The SST model is low-Reynolds-number model, so the equations can be integrated all
the way through the boundary layer to the wall, which allows for a no slip condition
to be applied to the velocity, that is u = 0.

Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k = 0 on the wall.

The corresponding boundary condition for ω is

6μ
lim ω = ---------------
- (3-119)
lw → 0 ρβ 1 l w 2

To avoid the singularity at the wall, ω is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid
wall. Instead, its value is prescribed by Equation 3-108 (using the variable ωw, which
only exists in those cells). Accurate solutions in the near-wall region require that,

+ = ρu l ⁄ μ ∼ 1
lw (3-120)
τ w

where uτ is the friction velocity which is calculated from the wall shear-stress τw,

uτ = τw ⁄ ρ (3-121)

The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc, is available to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough. According to Equation 3-109, l c+ should be
about 0.5. Observe that very small values of l c+ can reduce the convergence rate.

222 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY
The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the SST model.

FAR-FIELD BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The SST model was originally developed for exterior aerodynamic simulations. The
recommended far-field boundary conditions (Ref. 18) can be expressed as,

10 -5 U ∞ 2 0.1U ∞2
-------------------- < k ∞ < -----------------
Re L Re L
(3-122)
U U
-------∞- < ω ∞ < 10 -------∞-
L L

where L is the approximate length of the computational domain.

INITIAL VALUES
The SST model has the same default initial guess as the standard k-ω model (see Initial
lim replaced by l .
Values) but with l mix ref

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The SST model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ω model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model

When the accuracy provided by wall functions in the k-ε model is not enough, a so
called low Reynolds number model can be used. “Low Reynolds number” refers to the
region close to the wall where viscous effects dominate.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 223

 Most low Reynolds number k-ε models adapt the turbulence transport equations by
introducing damping functions. This module includes the AKN model (after the
inventors Abe, Kondoh, and Nagano; Ref. 12). The AKN k-ε model for compressible
flows reads (Ref. 8 and Ref. 12):

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇k + P k – ρε
∂t   σ k 
(3-123)
∂ε μT ε ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C ε1 --- P – f ε C ε2 ρ -----
∂t   σε   k k k

where

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
 3  3
k2
μ T = ρf μ C μ ------
ε
(3-124)
f μ = ( 1 – e – l ⁄ 14 ) ⋅  1 + -----------
* 2 5 - – ( R t ⁄ 200 ) 2
e
R t3 / 4 
2
fε = ( 1 – e –l ⁄ 3.1 ) 2 ⋅ ( 1 – 0.3e – ( R t ⁄ 6.5 ) )
*

l * = ( ρu ε l w ) ⁄ μ R t = ρk 2 ⁄ ( με ) u ε = ( με ⁄ ρ ) 1 / 4

and

C ε1 = 1.5 C ε2 = 1.9 C μ = 0.09 σ k = 1.4 σ ε = 1.4 (3-125)

lw is the distance to the closest wall.

Realizability Constraints are applied to the low Reynolds number k-ε model.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the low Reynolds number k-ε model. The solution to the
wall distance equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects
larger than lref is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively
diminished by appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable
feature in turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on
the solution if the wall distance were measured exactly.

224 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. A formulation for ω-based methods was
described by Menter et al. in Ref. 9. The Low-Reynolds number model uses a similar
formulation and defines

νU ||
u τvisc = ----------- u *, log = 4 Cμ k (3-126)
δw

and

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-127)

δw is the distance to the closest wall. The boundary conditions for the momentum
equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-128)
u

In Equation 3-128, u+ = U||/uτ with

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-129)

where in turn

U ||
u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-130)
1-
---- log ( δ w +) +B
κv

Here, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to
the wall and B is a constant that by default is set to 5.2.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 225

 These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in
the log-layer, so this condition is applied for all δw+.

The conditions for the turbulent dissipation, ε, is given by the Wolfshtein model, which
is commonly employed in two-layer k-ε implementations (Ref. 13):

k3 / 2
ε = -----------
lε
– Re δw ⁄ A ε
lε = Cl δw ( 1 – e ) C l = κ v C μ–3 ⁄ 4 (3-131)

δw k
A ε = 2C l Re y = --------------
ν

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The damping terms in the equations for k and ε allow for a no slip condition to be
applied to the velocity, that is u=0 which is the case when Wall Treatment is set to Low
Re.

Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k=0 on the wall.

The correct wall boundary condition for ε is

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

where n is the wall normal direction. This condition is however numerically very
unstable. Therefore, ε is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and instead
the analytical relation

μk
ε = 2 --- ----- (3-132)
ρ lw 2

is prescribed in those cells (using the variable εw, which only exists in those cells).
Equation 3-132 can be derived as the first term in a series expansion of

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

For the expansion to be valid, it is required that

l c+ < 0.5

226 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc,
is available to ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe that it is unlikely that a
solution is obtained at all if

l c+ » 0.5

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY

The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the low-Reynolds number k-ε model.

INITIAL VALUES
The low-Reynolds number k-ε model has the same default initial guess as the standard
lim replaced by l .
k-ε model (see Initial Values) but with l mix ref

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

In some cases, especially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using the ordinary k-ε model and then to use that solution as an initial
guess for the low-Reynolds number k-ε model. The procedure is then as follows:

1 Solve the model using the k-ε model.

2 Switch to the low-Reynolds number k-ε model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
down to the second step in the new study.
5 Solve the new study.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 227

 SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
The low-Reynolds number k-ε model applies absolute scales of the same type as the
k-ε model (see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model

The Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model is a one-equation turbulence model
designed mainly for aerodynamic applications. It is a low Reynolds number model, that
is, it does not utilize wall functions. “Low Reynolds number” refers to the region close
to the wall where viscous effects dominate.

The model gives satisfactory results for many engineering applications, in particular for
airfoil and turbine blade applications for which it is calibrated. It is however not
appropriate for applications involving jet-like free shear regions. It also has some
nonphysical properties. For example, it predicts zero decay rate for the eddy viscosity
in a uniform free-stream (Ref. 1).

Compared to the low Reynolds number k-ε model, the Spalart–Allmaras model is
generally considered more robust and is often used as a way to obtain an initial solution
for more advanced models. It can give reasonable results on relatively coarse meshes
for which the low Reynolds number k-ε model does not converge or even diverges.

This module includes the standard version of the Spalart–Allmaras model without the
trip term (see Ref. 1 and Ref. 15). The model solves for the undamped turbulent
kinematic viscosity, ν̃ :

∂-----
ν̃- ν̃ 2 1 c b2
+ u ⋅ ∇ν̃ = c b1 S̃ν˜ – c w1 f w  ----- + --- ∇ ⋅ ( ( ν + ν̃ ) ∇ν̃ ) + -------- ∇ν̃ ⋅ ∇ν̃ (3-133)
∂t lw σ σ

The model includes the following auxiliary variables

c b1 1 + c b2 ν̃ χ3 -
- + -----------------,
c w1 = ------- χ = ---, f v1 = -------------------
κ v2 σ ν χ 3 + c v1 3

228 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1/6
χ  1 + c w3 6 
f v2 = 1 – --------------------, f w = g  --------------------
- , g = r + c w2 ( r 6 – r )
1 + χf v1 6
 g + c w3 6


ν̃ ν̃ -
r = min  -----------------, 10 , ˜ = max  Ω + C min ( 0, S – Ω ) + -----------
S f , 0.3Ω
S˜ κ 2l 2  Rot
κ 2 l 2 v2 
v w v w

S= 2S ij S ij Ω= 2Ω ij Ω ij

where

S ij = 0.5 ( ∇u + ∇u T ) Ω ij = 0.5 ( ∇u – ∇u T )

are the mean strain rate and mean rotation rate tensors, lw, is the distance to the closest
wall and ν = μ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity. The turbulent viscosity is calculated by

μ T = ρν̃f v1

The default values for the modeling parameters are:

c b1 = 0.1355 c b2 = 0.622 c v1 = 7.1 σ = 2⁄3

c w2 = 0.3 c w3 = 2 κ v = 0.41 C Rot = 2.0

The implementation of the production term S ˜ includes the rotation correction

˜ are furthermore regularized
suggested in Ref. 15. See also Ref. 16. The terms r and S
according to Ref. 15.

Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models is by default applied to the
stationary form of the Spalart–Allmaras model.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

For the Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model, the following relation is valid from the
wall all the way through the log layer (Ref. 25):

+ ν̃ κ v δ w u τ + (3-134)
ν̃ = κ v δ w u τ ⇔ ν̃ = --- = ------------------ = κ v δ w
ν ν

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 229

 δw+ from Equation 3-134 can be used in Equation 3-99 to calculate uτlog which in
turn gives uτ through Equation 3-101. With uτ, the boundary condition for ν̃ is given
by ν̃ = κ δ u .
v w τ

These relations are applied to the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7, which gives
δw = hw/2. The boundary conditions for the momentum equations are a
no-penetration condition, u·n = 0 and the traction condition given by
Equation 3-102.

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The Spalart–Allmaras model is consistent with a no-slip boundary condition; that is,
u=0. Since there can be no fluctuations on the wall, the boundary condition for ν̃ is
ν̃ = 0 .

The Spalart–Allmaras model can be considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of

order unity. l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center
of the wall adjacent cell and can be evaluated as the boundary variable:
Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc. See also Wall for boundary condition
details.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values for the Spalart–Allmaras version of the physics interface are:

u=0
p=0
μ
ν̃ = ---
ρ

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The Spalart–Allmaras model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model
(see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations) except that the scale for ν̃ is given
directly by the νscale parameter available in the advanced section of the physics
interface node. The default value for νscale is 5·10−6 m2/s.

The v2-f Turbulence Model

2
For the v2-f model, the turbulent viscosity is based on the velocity fluctuations, v ,
normal to the streamlines. This makes it possible to model turbulence anisotropy, and

230 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

to separate between low-Reynolds number effects and wall blockage. Nonlocal effects
of the pressure fluctuations on the turbulent fields are included by applying elliptic
relaxation to the pressure strain term (Ref. 26, Ref. 27). The formulation
implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics, solves for the normalized velocity
fluctuations,

2
v
ζ = ----- (3-135)
k

and an elliptic blending function, α, which is used to combine near-wall effects with
those in the far-field. The complete model for compressible flow reads,

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇k + P k – ρε
∂t  σ kv2f 
∂ε μT
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇ε + --- ( C' ε1 P k – C' ε2 ρε )
1
∂t   σ εv2f  τ
∂ζ μT μT
ρ ----- + ρu ⋅ ∇ζ = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇ζ + ---  α μ + ------------ ∇k ⋅ ∇ζ
2 3 (3-136)
∂t   σ ζv2f   k  σ kv2f
ζ 3 3
– --- P k + α f h + ( 1 – α )f w
k
2 α–1
∇ α = ------------
2
-
L

where

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
3 3
μ T = ρC μv2f kζτ
ρ Pk
f h = – ---  C 1 – 1 + C 2 ------  ζ – ---
2
τ ρε   3 (3-137)
ζ
f w = – ρ --- ε
k
3/2 3 1/4
ν ν
L = C L max -----------, C η  -----
k k
τ = max ---, C τ ---
ε  ε ε ε

where ν = μ ⁄ ρ . The modified coefficients in the ε-equation are given by

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 231

 C' ε1 = C ε1v2f  1 + A 1 ( 1 – α ) -------
3 1
ζ
(3-138)
3  μ T ∇ 2 k 3/2
C' ε2 = C ε2v2f + α ( 1 – C ε2v2f ) tanh  -----------------
- 
 ρε 

with the default turbulence parameters

C ε1v2f = 1.44 C ε2v2f = 1.83 C μv2f = 0.22 σ kv2f = σ ζv2f = 1

σ ε = 1.22 C 1 = 1.7 C 2 = 1.2 C η = 86 (3-139)
Cτ = 6 A 1 = 0.04

Realizability Constraints are applied to the turbulent viscosity.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the v2-f model. The solution to the wall distance equation
is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. A formulation for ω-based methods was
described by Menter et al. in Ref. 9. The v2-f model uses a similar formulation and
defines

232 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 νU ||
u τvisc = ----------- u *, log = 4 C μv2f ζ k (3-140)
δw

and

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-141)

δw is the distance to the closest wall. The boundary conditions for the momentum
equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-142)
u

In Equation 3-142, u+ = U||/uτ with

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-143)

where in turn

U ||
u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-144)
1-
---- log ( δ w +) +B
κv

Here, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to
the wall and B is a constant that by default is set to 5.2.

These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in
the log-layer, so this condition is applied for all δw+.

The conditions for the turbulent dissipation rate, ε, is similar to that in the Wolfshtein
model which is commonly employed in two-layer k-ε implementations (Ref. 13):

3/4 3 / 2
( C μv2f ζ 0 ) k
ε = --------------------------------------------
lε
2 (3-145)
lε = L ( 1 – e– Re L ( δ w ⁄ L ) )

3/4
( C μv2f ζ 0 ) kL
Re y = ---------------------------------------------
2ν

where

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 233

 ζ 0 = ---  1 – --------------------
2 1
(3-146)
3 C 1 + C 2

The boundary conditions applied on ζ and α are given by

2
δw –δw ⁄ L
ζ = ζ 0 -------------------
2 2
α = 1–e (3-147)
δw + L

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The no slip condition, that is u=0 is applied when Wall Treatment is set to Low Re.
2
Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k and ζ (since k ∼ y and
2 4
v ∼ y ). Hence, k=0 and ζ=0 on the wall. By definition, α=0 on the wall.

The correct wall boundary condition for ε is

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

where n is the wall normal direction. This condition is however numerically very
unstable. Therefore, ε is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and instead
the analytical relation

μk
ε = 2 --- ----- (3-148)
ρ lw 2

is prescribed in those cells (using the variable εw, which only exists in those cells).
Equation 3-132 can be derived as the first term in a series expansion of

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

For the expansion to be valid, it is required that

l c+ < 0.5

l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc,
is available to ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe that it is unlikely that a
solution is obtained at all if

234 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 l c+ » 0.5

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY

The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the v2-f model.

INITIAL VALUES
The v2-f model has the same default initial guess as the standard k-ε model (see Initial
lim replaced by l . The default initial values for ζ and α are 2/3 and
Values) but with l mix ref
1 respectively.

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

In some cases, especially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using the ordinary k-ε model and then to use that solution as an initial
guess for the v2-f model. The procedure is then as follows:

1 Solve the model using the k-ε model.

2 Switch to the v2-f model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
down to the second step in the new study.
5 Solve the new study.

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The v2-f model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 235

 Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
If inlet data for the turbulence variables are not available, crude approximations for k,
ε, ω and ζ can be obtained from the following formulas:

3 2
k = --- ( U I T )
2
3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
ε = Cμ -----------
LT
(3-149)
k
ω = --------------------------
( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T
2
ζ = ---
3

where IT is the turbulent intensity and LT is the turbulence length scale.

A value of 10−3 (0.1%) is a low turbulent intensity IT. Good wind tunnels can produce
values as low as 5·10−4 (0.05%). Fully turbulent flows usually have intensities between
0.05 (5%) and 0.1 (10%).

The turbulence length scale LT is a measure of the size of the eddies that are not
resolved. For free-stream flows these are typically very small (on the order of
centimeters). The length scale cannot be zero, however, because that would imply
infinite dissipation. Use Table 3-6 as a guideline when specifying LT (Ref. 3) where lw
is the wall distance, and

+
lw = lw ⁄ l*

TABLE 3-6: TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

FLOW CASE LT L
Mixing layer 0.07L Layer width
Plane jet 0.09L Jet half width
Wake 0.08L Wake width
Axisymmetric jet 0.075L Jet half width
Boundary layer (∂p/∂x = 0) +
κl w ( 1 – exp ( – l w ⁄ 26 ) )
– Viscous sublayer and log-layer Boundary layer
– Outer layer 0.09L thickness

Pipes and channels 0.07L Pipe diameter or

(fully developed flows) hydraulic diameter
or channel width

236 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence
When the flow is compressible or weakly compressible, an additional contribution to
the production of turbulent kinetic energy may be added. This contribution can be
expressed in terms of Favre averaged fluctuations or conventional time-filtered
fluctuations according to,

∂p ρ′u i ′ ∂p
P kb = – u i ″ ------- = ------------ ------- ≈ ρ′u i ′g i (3-150)
∂x i ρ ∂x i

where gi is the gravitational acceleration and the last approximation is applicable for
small Froude numbers. Applying a gradient-diffusion modeling approach,
Equation 3-150 can be recast into,

μ T g i ∂ρ
P kb = – ------- ----- -------- (3-151)
σ T ρ ∂x i

where σT is the turbulent Schmidt number. The production term in the ε equation is
derived from the production term in the k equation. Hence, the corresponding term
in the ε equation becomes,

ε
P εb = C ε1 --- max ( P kb, 0 ) sin θ (3-152)
k

where θ is the angle between u and g, accounting for the difference between buoyant
vertical shear layers and buoyant horizontal shear layers. Using the relation between k,
ε, and ω, the buoyancy production term in the w equation can be derived as,

ω
P ωb = ---- [ ( α + 1 )max ( P kb, 0 ) sin θ – P kb ] (3-153)
k

The expressions for the various ε based and ω based turbulence models differ only in
terms of constants and damping functions. Note that the v2-f turbulence model uses
the wall distance to determine the relation between the wall-normal turbulent
fluctuations and the acceleration of gravity. When the buoyancy contribution is
determined from a multiphysics node, density variations with respect to the variable in
the coupled physics interface are considered. For example, in nonisothermal flow the
coupled interface is a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface, and, Equation 3-151 is
replaced by,

μ T ∂T ˜
P kb = α p ---------- g i -------- (3-154)
Pr T ∂x i

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 237

 Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
For this module, the turbulent intensity IT, turbulence length scale LT, and reference
velocity scale Uref values are related to the turbulence variables via

3
3⁄4 2 ---
3 2 C μ  3 ( I T U ref )  2 3 I T U ref 2
k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ε = ------------  ---------------------------- , ω= --- -------------------------- , ζ = ---
2 LT  2  2 ( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T 3

For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Also see Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces

A major advantage with the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface feature is that it
can express initial values for the new turbulence model in terms of the original model.
This makes it possible to first solve a problem using a simple, but robust, turbulence
model, such as the k-ε model, and then switch to a more advanced model.

Unless the Initial value from study is None, the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface
initial values for velocity and pressure are taken directly from the solution of the parent
model. The initial values of turbulent dependent variables are estimated using the
solution from the selected study:

• When the parent model is a Laminar Flow model, or when Initial value from study
is None, turbulent dependent variables get their default initial values.
• Initial values of dependent variables that exist in both the parent model and the
generated model are taken directly from the selected study.
• When the parent model is Turbulent Flow, k-ε or Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds
k-ε or v2-f and the generated model is Turbulent Flow, k-ω or SST, the initial value
of ω is
ω init = ρk ⁄ μ T

• When the parent model is k-ω or SST, and the generated model is k-ε or Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial value of ε is
2
ε init = C μ ρk ⁄ μ T

238 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• When the parent model is Algebraic yPlus, and the generated model is k-ε, Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial values of k
and ε are:

2 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( C μ L T )

3/4 3⁄2
ε init = ( C μ ⁄ L T )k init

y∗ υ
where L T = max  κ a y ,--------- and u τ = u ⁄ u .
+
 uτ 
• When the parent model is Algebraic yPlus and the generated model is k-ω or SST,
the initial values of k and ω are

2 * 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( β 0 L T )

*1 ⁄ 4
ω init = k init ⁄ ( β 0 LT )

• When the parent model is L-VEL, and the generated model is k-ε, Low Reynolds
k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial values of k and ε are

2 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( C μ L T )

3/4 3⁄2
ε init = ( C μ ⁄ L T )k init

where L T = max ( κ l y ,( κ l υE l ) ⁄ u τ ) .
• When the parent model is L-VEL, and the generated model is k-ω and SST, the
initial values of k and omega are

2 * 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( β 0 L T )

*1 ⁄ 4
ω init = k init ⁄ ( β 0 LT )

• When the parent model is Spalart–Allmaras and the generated model is k-ε, Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial value of k
and ε are:

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 239

 2
f ν1 ν̃ 2
k init = ----------- ⋅ min   --------- ,ν Ω 
Cμ κν y

8
χ 1 ν̃ 4
ε init = ---------------------------3- ⋅ min  ---  --------- ,ν Ω 
2
3 3 ν κν y
( χ + c ν1 )

• When the parent model is Spalart–Allmaras and the generated model is k-ω or SST
the initial values of k and ω are

2
f ν1 ν̃ 2
k init = ---------- ⋅ min   --------- ,ν Ω 
* κν y
β0

2
χ 1 ν̃ 2
⋅ min  ---  --------- , Ω 
1
ω init = ---------- --------------------
3 3  ν  κ ν y 
β 0 χ + c ν1
*

• When the generated model is Spalart–Allmaras turbulent mode, and the parent
model any turbulence model but Spalart–Allmaras, the initial value of the dependent
variable is ν̃ init = μ T ⁄ ρ .

Solvers for Turbulent Flow

The nonlinear system that the Navier-Stokes (RANS) and turbulence transport
equations constitute can become ill-conditioned if solved using a fully coupled solver.
Turbulent flows are therefore solved using a segregated approach (Ref. 20):
Navier-Stokes in one group and the turbulence transport equations in another.

For each iteration in the Navier-Stokes group, two or three iterations are performed
for the turbulence transport equations. This is necessary to make sure that the very
nonlinear source terms in the turbulence transport equations are in balance before
performing another iteration for the Navier-Stokes group.

The default iterative solver for the turbulence transport equations is a damped Newton
method with constant damping factor. In each iteration, a linearized version of the
nonlinear system is solved using GMRES accelerated by Smoothed Aggregated
Algebraic Multigrid (SAAMG). The default smoother is SOR Line.

240 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the application
requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, Geometric
Multigrid (GMG) requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of multigrid levels can
be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also superior for cluster
computations and for shared memory computations with many cores. When the
default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear solver node is
available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models

• Multigrid, Stationary Solver, Iterative, and SOR Line in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual

Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models

The default stationary solver applies pseudo time stepping for both 2D and 3D models.
This improves the robustness of the nonlinear iterations as well as the condition
number for the linear equation system. The latter is especially important for large 3D
models where iterative solvers must be applied. The turbulence equations use the same
Δt̃ as the momentum equations.

The default manual expression for CFLloc is, for 2D models:

1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 25, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 25, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 50, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 50, 9 ), 0 )

and for 3D models:

1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 30, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 30, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 60, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 60, 9 ), 0 )

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.

2. D.M. Driver and H.L. Seegmiller, “Features of a Reattaching Turbulent Shear Layer
in Diverging Channel Flow”, AIAA Journal, vol. 23, pp. 163–171, 1985.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 241

 3. H.K. Versteeg and W. Malalasekera, An Introduction to Computational Fluid
Dynamics, Prentice Hall, 1995.

4. A. Durbin, “On the k-ε Stagnation Point Anomality”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow,
vol. 17, pp. 89–90, 1986.

5. A, Svenningsson, Turbulence Transport Modeling in Gas Turbine Related

Applications”, doctoral dissertation, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers
University of Technology, 2006.

6. C.H. Park and S.O. Park, “On the Limiters of Two-equation Turbulence Models”,
Int. J. Computational Fluid Dynamics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 79–86, 2005.

7. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat

Transfer, doctoral dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.

8. L. Ignat, D. Pelletier, and F. Ilinca, “A Universal Formulation of Two-equation

Models for Adaptive Computation of Turbulent Flows”, Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 189, pp. 1119–1139, 2000.

9. F. Menter, J.C. Ferreira, T. Esch, and B. Konno, “The SST Turbulence Model with
Improved Wall Treatment for Heat Transfer Predictions in Gas Turbines”, Proceedings
of the International Gas Turbine Congress, IGTC2003-TS-059, Nov. 2–7, 2003.

10. D. Kuzmin, O. Mierka, and S. Turek, “On the Implementation of the k-ε
Turbulence Model in Incompressible Flow Solvers Based on a Finite Element
Discretization”, Int.J. Computing Science and Mathematics, vol. 1, no. 2–4,
pp. 193–206, 2007.

11. H. Grotjans and F.R. Menter, “Wall Functions for General Application CFD
Codes”, ECCOMAS 98, Proceedings of the Fourth European Computational Fluid
Dynamics Conference, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1112–1117, 1998.

12. K. Abe, T. Kondoh, and Y. Nagano, “A New Turbulence Model for Predicting
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Separating and Reattaching Flows — I. Flow Field
Calculations”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 139–151, 1994.

13. H.C. Chen and V.C. Patel, “Near-Wall Turbulence Models for Complex Flows
Including Separation”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 641–648, 1988.

14. T.H. Shih, W.W. Liou, A. Shabir, Z. Yang and J. Zhu, “A New k-e Eddy Viscosity
Model for High Reynolds Number Turbulent Flows-Model Development and
Validation”, NASA Technical Memorandum 106721, ICOMP-94-21,
CMOTT-94-6, 1994

242 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

15. “The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model”,
http://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/spalart.html.

16. J. Dacles-Mariani, G.G. Zilliac and J.S. Chow, “Numerical/Experimental Study of

a Wingtip Vortex in the Near Field”, AIAA Journal, vol. 33, no. 9, 1995.

17. “The Menter Shear Stress Transport Turbulence Model”,

http://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/sst.html.

18. F.R. Menter, “Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity Turbulence Models for Engineering

Applications”, AIAA Journal, vol. 32, no. 8, 1994.

19. F.R. Menter, M. Kuntz, and R. Langtry, “Ten Years of Industrial Experience with
the SST Turbulence Model”, Turbulence Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 4, 2003.

20. M. Vázquez, M. Ravachol, F. Chalot, and M. Mallet, “The Robustness Issue on

Multigrid Schemes Applied to the Navier-Stokes Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent, Incompressible and Compressible Flows”, Int. J.for Numerical Methods
in Fluids, vol. 45, pp. 555–579, 2004.

21. T. Cebeci, Analysis of Turbulent Flows, 2nd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004.

22. J. Nikuradse, “Strömungsgesetze in rauhen Rohren”, Forschg. Arb. Ing.-Wes., no.

361, 1933 (in German).

23. D. Agonafer, L. Gan-Li, and D.B. Spalding, “LVEL turbulence model for
conjugate heat transfer at low Reynolds numbers”, EEP 6, ASME International
Mechanical Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, 1996.

24. L. Prandtl, “Über die ausgebildete Turbulenz”, ZAMM 5, 1925 (in German).

25. P.R. Spalart and S.R. Allmaras, “A one-equation turbulence model for
aerodynamic flows”, La Aerospatiale, no. 1, pp. 5–21, 1994.

26. P.A. Durbin, “Application of a near-wall turbulence model to boundary layers and
heat transfer”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 14, no. 4, 1993.

27. K. Hanjalic, M. Popovac, and M. Hadziabdic, “A robust near-wall

elliptic-relaxation eddy-viscosity turbulence model for CFD”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid
Flow, vol. 25, no. 6, 2004.

28. S.B. Pope, Turbulent Flow, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 243

 Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation
Interfaces
Large Eddy Simulations offer an alternative approach to turbulent flow simulations as
compared to the RANS approach (see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces). In
LES, the larger three-dimensional, unsteady eddies are resolved, whereas the effect of
the smaller eddies is modeled. This requires the simulations to be three-dimensional
and time dependent. The current implementation of the LES interfaces is suitable for
incompressible flow only. The velocity and pressure fields are divided into resolved and
unresolved scales. Denoting the fields containing all scales with capital letters, the
decomposition can be expressed as

U = u + u' (3-155)
P = p + p'

Inserting Equation 3-155 into the incompressible form of the Navier–Stokes equation
and the continuity equation yields

∂u
ρ  ------ + ( u + u' ) ⋅ ∇u + ∇p – ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ] = (3-156)
∂t
∂u'
– ρ  ------- + ( u + u' ) ⋅ ∇u' – ∇p' + ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u' + ( ∇u' ) T ) ]
 ∂t 

∇ ⋅ u = – ∇ ⋅ u'

Next, Equation 3-156 is projected onto the finite element sub-spaces of the resolved
velocity and pressure scales. Denoting the test functions for these scales by v and q,
respectively, the projection can be expressed as

∂u
(v, ρ ------ ) – (∇ ⋅ v, p) Ω + (∇v, μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )) Ω + (q, ∇ ⋅ u) Ω – (v, f) ∂Ω = (3-157)
∂t Ω
( ∇ ⋅ v, p' ) Ω + (∇q, u') Ω + (∇v, ρ ( u ⊗ u + u ⊗ u' + u' ⊗ u + u' ⊗ u' ) ) Ω

In Equation 3-157, f is the applied traction force on the boundary ∂Ω of the spatial
domain Ω, and the stresses in the last term on the right-hand side are the resolved
nonlinear advection term, the two cross-stresses, and the Reynolds stress. By assuming
that the unresolved scales are orthogonal to the inner-product space of the resolved
scales, the unresolved time derivative and viscous terms vanish. Another assumption

244 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

made in the derivation of Equation 3-157 is that u' vanishes on ∂Ω (see Ref. 1 for
further details).

In the Residual Based Variational Multiscale (RBVM) method, the unresolved velocity
and pressure scales are modeled in terms of the equation residuals for the resolved
scales

u' = – τ m res m
(3-158)
p' = – τ c res c

where the momentum and continuity equation residuals are given by

∂u
res m = ρ  ------- + u ⋅ ∇u + ∇p – ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ] (3-159)
 ∂t 

res c = ρ∇ ⋅ u

and the intrinsic time-scales are given by

1
τ m = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-160)
C ρ
 ----------
1 
2
2 2
+ 4ρ u ⋅ Gu + C 2 μ G:G
 Δt 
–1
τ c = C 3 ( ρτ m trace ( G ) )

Here, C1 is a constant depending on the temporal scheme, C2 a constant depending

on the shape of the element, and C3 a constant depending on both the order of the
shape functions and the shape of the element. G is the covariant metric tensor. When
the Use dynamic subgrid time scale option is selected, the first term under the
square-root in Equation 3-160 is replaced by an estimate of the time-derivative based
on the resolved scales.

In certain cases, the residual-based Reynolds-stress contribution has been found to be

too small (see Ref. 2). For this reason, the Residual Based Variational Multiscale with
Viscosity (RBVMWV) method adds a residual based viscosity term to the right-hand
side of Equation 3-157,

˜
– (∇v, ρC u' h ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )) Ω (3-161)
˜
where C is a model constant, and h is a measure of the element size.

For the Smagorinsky model, the Reynolds stress term is replaced by,

THEORY FOR THE LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 245

 – (∇v, ρC s S ⁄ trace ( G ) ( S – S )) Ω (3-162)

where,

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) (3-163)
2

and S is the projection of S onto the space of constant shape functions. This
corresponds to a further decomposition of the resolved scales into large resolved scales
and small resolved scales, in which only the latter are affected by the Reynolds stress
(see Ref. 3). Since the term, Equation 3-162, identically vanishes for linear shape
functions, the Dicretization must be set to at least P2-P2 in order to include the
Reynolds stress contribution in the Smagorinsky model (see Discretization).

Note that all three models require equal-order interpolation for velocity and pressure.

Furthermore, adequate resolution of wall-layers, u τ h w ⁄ ν < 1 , and convective time

scales, UΔt ⁄ h U < 0.5 , is essential in order to obtain accurate results in LES. Here, uτ
is the friction velocity, hw the thickness of the first mesh-cell next to the wall, and hU
the mesh size in the streamline direction.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

When Wall treatment is set to Low Re, a Dirichlet condition is imposed on the velocity
field at the walls. Adequate resolution of the wall layers requires that h w ∼ ν ⁄ u τ ,
where hw is the thickness of the mesh cells next to the wall and u τ = τ w ⁄ ρ is the
friction velocity based on the tangential stress τw at the wall.

Automatic Wall Treatment

When Wall treatment is set to Automatic, a Dirichlet condition is imposed on the
wall-normal velocity component and a traction force is applied in the tangential
direction opposite to the local velocity vector. To evaluate the magnitude, ρu τ2 , of the
traction force, the Reynolds number based on the magnitude of the tangential velocity
and the normal distance, y, to the wall,

u tang y u tang u τ y + +
Re = ---------------- = ------------ ⋅ --------- = u y
ν uτ ν

is evaluated halfway between the wall and the first vertexes inside the domain, at y = δw.
Asymptotic solutions to the L-VEL equation (Equation 3-75) can be found for low

246 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

and high values of the Reynolds number. For low values of the Reynolds number
(inside the viscous wall layer),

+
u lin = Re

and for large values of the Reynolds number (inside the logarithmic layer),

log ( log ( κERe ) )

u log = ---  1 – ------------------------------------------ log ( κERe )
+ 1
κ 1 + log ( κERe ) 

The two expressions are blended according to

+ + -7 + -7 -1/7
u = ( ( u lin ) + ( u log ) )

and the friction velocity is finally obtained from

u tang
u τ = -----------
+
-
u

The Automatic option should be used with caution since boundary layers, especially on
smooth surfaces, in many cases need to be resolved down to the top of the viscous wall
+
layer ( y ∼ 5 ). When the point of boundary-layer separation is known, such as for the
flow around bodies with sharp edges, the Automatic option may be used to reduce the
number of DOFs in the model.

TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
Adequate resolution of the convective time scale requires that

Δt < 0.5h U ⁄ U

where hU is the mesh size in the streamline direction. Larger values of Δt may lead to
damping of turbulence and in some cases even convergence issues. The built-in
variable spf.dt_CFL may be used to limit the maximum time step.

References for LES

1. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, J.A. Cottrell, T.J.R. Hughes, A. Reali, and G. Scovazzi,
“Variational multiscale residual-based turbulence modeling for large eddy simulation
of incompressible flows,” Comput. Methods Appl Mech. Engrg., 197 (2007),
173-201.

THEORY FOR THE LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 247

 2. J. Liu. “Residual-based variational multiscale models for large eddy simulations of
compressible and incompressible flows,” Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Ph.D.
Thesis, 2012.

3. J. Volker and K. Songul, “A finite element variational multiscale method for the
Navier–Stokes equations,” SIAM J. Sci. Comput., vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 1485–1503,
2005.

248 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Rotating Machinery
Interfaces
The theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery,
Turbulent Flow interfaces is described in this section:

• About Rotating Machinery

• Frozen Rotor
• Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model
• References

About Rotating Machinery

Both the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow
interfaces model flow in geometries with rotating parts. For example, stirred tanks,
mixers, and pumps.

The Navier–Stokes equations formulated in a rotating coordinate system read (Ref. 1

and Ref. 2)

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0 (3-164)
∂t

∂v
ρ ------ + ρ ( v ⋅ ∇ )v + 2ρΩ × v =
∂t
(3-165)
∂Ω
∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F – ρ  ------- × r + Ω × ( Ω × r )
∂t

where v is the velocity vector in the rotating coordinate system, r is the position vector,
and Ω is the angular velocity vector. The relation between v and the velocity vector in
the stationary coordinate system is

∂r
u = v + ------
∂t

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces solve Equation 3-164 and
Equation 3-165, but reformulated in terms of a nonrotating coordinate system; that
is, they solve for u. This is achieved by invoking the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 249

 Formulation (ALE) machinery. In rotating domains, x = x(Ω, t) as prescribed in the
Rotating Domain under Definitions. The Navier–Stokes equations on rotating
domains then read

∂ρ- ------
∂x
------ – - ⋅ ∇ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-166)
∂T ∂T

∂u ∂x
ρ  ------- – ------- ⋅ ∇u + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (3-167)
∂T ∂T

The derivative operator ∂ρ/∂T is the mesh time derivative of the density and appears in
the equation view as d(rmspf.rho,TIME). Analogously, ∂U/∂T is the mesh time
derivative of the velocity. The variable TIME replaces t as the variable for time.

The user input for a rotating domain prescribes the angular frequency, w. To calculate
Ω, the physics interfaces set up an ODE variable for the angular displacement ω. The
equation for ω is

dω-
------- = w (3-168)
dt

Ω, is defined as w times the normalized axis of rotation. In 2D, the axis of rotation is
the z direction while it in 3D is specified in the Rotating Domain features. If the model
contains several rotating domains, each domain has its own angular displacement ODE
variable.

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary Navier–Stokes equations are solved. The

rotating and fixed parts need to be coupled together by an identity pair, where a
continuity boundary condition is applied.

Wall and Interior Wall boundary conditions apply in the rotating domain provided that
the Translational velocity under Wall Movement uses the default Automatic from
frame option.

Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Formulation (ALE) in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Frozen Rotor
Equation 3-166 through Equation 3-168 must be solved using a Time Dependent
study. This can be computationally expensive. The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow

250 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

interfaces therefore support the so-called frozen rotor approach. The frozen rotor
approach assumes that the flow in the rotating domain, expressed in the rotating
coordinate system, is fully developed. Equation 3-164 then reduces to

∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0 (3-169)

and Equation 3-165 to

ρ ( v ⋅ ∇ )v + 2ρΩ × v = (3-170)
∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F – ρΩ × ( Ω × r )

Frozen rotor is both a study type and an equation form. When solving a rotating
machinery model using a Frozen Rotor study step, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interfaces effectively solve Equation 3-170 and Equation 3-170 in a “rotating”
domain, but “rotating” domains do not rotate at all. Boundary conditions remain
transformed as if the domains were rotating, but the domains remain fixed, or frozen,
in position. As in the time-dependent case, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow
interfaces solve for the velocity vector in the stationary coordinate system, u, rather
than for v.

To make Equation 3-166 and Equation 3-167 equivalent to Equation 3-169 and
Equation 3-170, the Frozen Rotor study step defines a parameter TIME, which by
default is set to zero (TIME appears in the Parameters node under Global Definitions).
Equation 3-168 is replaced by

ω = wTIME

Since TIME is a parameter and x is a function of TIME, ∂x/∂T evaluates to its correct
value. Finally, ∂ρ/∂T = 0 and the mesh time derivative of the velocity is replaced by

∂u
------- = Ω × u
∂T

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary, stationary Navier–Stokes equations are solved.

The Frozen Rotor study step invokes a stationary solver to solve the resulting equation
system.

The frozen rotor approach can in special cases give the same solution as solving
Equation 3-166 through Equation 3-168 to steady state. This is the case if, for
example, the whole geometry is rotating, or if the model is invariant with respect to
the position of the rotating domain relative to the nonrotating domain. The latter is
the case for a fan placed in the middle of a straight, cylindrical duct.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 251

 In most cases, however, there is no steady-state solution to the rotating machinery
problem. Only a pseudo-steady state where the solution varies periodically around
some average solution. In those cases, the frozen rotor approach gives an approximate
solution to the pseudo-steady state. The approximation depends on the position in
which the rotor is frozen, and the method cannot capture transient effects (see Ref. 3
and Ref. 4). An estimate of the effect of the rotor position can be obtained by making
a parametric sweep over TIME.

The frozen rotor approach is very useful for attaining initial values for time-dependent
simulations. Starting from a frozen rotor solution, the pseudo-steady state can be
reached within a few revolutions, while starting from u = 0 can require tens of
revolutions. See, for example, Ref. 5.

Only interfaces that explicitly support frozen rotors are included in a Frozen Rotor
study step.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces primarily handle two types of
geometries with rotating parts.

The first type is where the whole geometry rotates. Typical examples are individual
parts in turbomachinery and lab-on-a-chip devices. For such cases, the selection for the
Rotating Domain under the Definitions node should be all domains in the geometry.

The other type is geometries where it is possible to divide the modeled device into
rotationally invariant geometries. The operation can be, for example, to rotate an
impeller in a baffled tank, as in Figure 3-9 where the impeller rotates from position 1
to 2.

The first step to set up these type of models is to divide the geometry into two parts,
as shown in Step 1a. Draw the geometry using separate domains for fixed and rotating
parts. If you intend to do a time-dependent simulation, activate the assembly (using an
assembly instead of a union, see Geometry Modeling and CAD Tools in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual) and create identity pairs, which makes it possible to
treat the domains as separate parts in an assembly.

252 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The second step is to remove the non rotating domains from the Rotating Domain
selection (Step 1b).

Once this is done, proceed to the usual steps of setting the fluid properties, boundary
conditions. Apply a Flow Continuity to assembly pairs (Step 2a). Then mesh and solve
the problem.

1 2

1a 1b 2a

Figure 3-9: The modeling procedure in the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface.

References
1. H.P. Greenspan, The Theory of Rotating Fluids, Breukelen Press, 1990.

2. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

2000.

3. CFD Online, Best practice guidelines for turbomachinery CFD,

https://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Best_practice_guidelines_for_turbomachinery_
CFD.

4. A. Brucato, M. Ciofalo, F. Grisafi, and G. Micale, “Numerical Prediction of Flow

Fields in Baffled Stirred Vessels: A Comparison of Alternative Modelling Approaches”,
Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 53, no. 21, pp. 3653–3684, 1998.

5. J.-P. Torré, D.F. Fletcher, T. Lasuye, and C. Xuereb, “Single and Multiphase CFD
Approaches for Modelling Partially Baffled Stirred Vessels: Comparison of
Experimental Data with Numerical Predictions”, Chemical Engineering Science,
vol. 62, no. 22, pp. 6246–6262, 2007.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 253

 Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow
Interface
The theory for the Viscoelastic Flow interface is described in this section:

• General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface is used to simulate incompressible and isothermal flow
of viscoelastic fluids. It solves the continuity equation, the momentum balance
equation, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress contribution.
The continuity and momentum balance can be expressed as

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-171)

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (3-172)
∂t

where τ is the extra stress tensor, which is defined as a sum of a viscous and a viscoelastic
or elastic contribution as

τ = 2μ s S + T e (3-173)

where μs is the solvent viscosity, S is the strain-rate tensor, and Te is the elastic (or
viscoelastic) stress tensor. To adequately describe a flow of fluid with a complex
rheological behavior, the symmetric stress tensor Te is represented as a sum of the
individual modes:

Te =  Tem (3-174)
m

To close the equation system, the constitutive relation for each mode is required.

254 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Several commonly used constitutive models can be written as a hyperbolic partial
differential transport equation of the form

1 - λ em ∇
------------- f rm ( T e ) + -------------
- = f pm ( T e )S (3-175)
2μ em m 2μ em T em m

where the relaxation function f rm and the viscosity factor f pm are model-specific
functions of stress, λ em is a relaxation time, μ em is a polymer viscosity, and the upper
convective derivative operator is defined as

∇ ∂T T
T≡ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T – [ ( ∇u )T + T ( ∇u ) ] (3-176)
∂t

The first two terms on the right-hand side represent the material derivative, and the
other two terms represent the deformation. For more information, see Ref. 1.

OLDROYD-B MODEL
For the Oldroyd B model, the relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

f rm = T e , f pm = 1 (3-177)
m

The Oldroyd-B model can be derived from the kinetic theory representing the
polymer molecules as suspensions of the Hookean spring in a Newtonian solvent.
While demonstrating some basic features of viscoelasticity, the model can only predict
a constant shear viscosity and gives unrealistic results for purely extensional flows due
to the lack of a mechanism that limits the extensibility.

FENE-P MODEL
The finitely extensible nonlinear elastic model (FENE) is based on the kinetic theory
that describes the polymer chains as a non-linear elastic springs and account for finite
extension of the polymers monoculars. The FENE model with Peterlin closure
(FENE-P) shows a finite extensibility and a shear-thinning behavior. The expressions
for the relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

1 - 3 λ em  1
f rm = 1 + ----------  --------------------------- + ---------- tr ( T e ) T e , f pm = ---------------------------
(3-178)
2
Le  1 – 3 ⁄ Le
2 μ em
m
 m
1 – 3 ⁄ L em
2
m m

where L em is the extensibility.

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 255

 GIESEKUS MODEL
The Giesekus model is often used to model the flow of the semi-diluted and
concentrated polymers. It adds the quadratic nonlinearity that is attributed to the
effect of the hydrodynamic drag induced by the polymer-polymer interactions. The
corresponding relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

λ em
f rm =  1 + α em ---------
-  , f pm = 1 (3-179)
μ e T em T em
m

where α em is the dimensionless mobility factor.

The theory about boundary conditions is found in the section Theory for the
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces. Note that for the viscoelastic models, the extra stress
tensor is defined as a sum of a viscous and an elastic contribution: τ = K + Te.
Therefore, an additional term should be added to the expression for the normal extra
stress: Kn = Kn + Ten.

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The constitutive equations (Equation 3-175) can easily become unstable if discretized
using the Galerkin finite element method (Ref. 2). Stabilized finite element methods
are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The streamline diffusion
method is used for the equations for the elastic stress tensor.

The theory about stabilization of the momentum equations Equation 3-171–

Equation 3-172 is found in Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid
Flow.

Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

256 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow
The default solver suggestions for single phase flow interfaces are discused in Solvers
for Laminar Flow. Note that if an iterative solver is used, the separate hybrid
preconditioners are used for the velocity group and the viscoelastic stresses.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Selecting a Preconditioner for an Iterative Linear System Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives. Solving
Equation 3-171 through Equation 3-175 requires a starting guess that is close enough
to the final solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be
solved instead. This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational
time. An intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative. Further details is
found in Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

1. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2005.

2. T.J. Craven, J.M. Rees, and W.B. Zimmerman, “Stabilized finite element modelling
of Oldroyd-B viscoelastic flow,” COMSOL Conference 2006, Birmingham, U.K.,
2006.

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 257

258 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

Interfaces
There are several physics interfaces included in the CFD Module to model heat
transfer and nonisothermal flow. This chapter describes the physics interfaces found
under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) as well as those under the
Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch ( ). The Modeling Heat Transfer in the
CFD Module section helps you choose the best physics interface to start with.

• Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow,
Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
The documentation of all features in the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface
is now found in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide, specifically in the
following sections:

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

259
 Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD
Module
Heat transfer is an important phenomenon in many industrial processes. Often, a fluid
plays a major role in transporting the heat and a detailed description of the flow field
is necessary to accurately describe such processes. Typical examples are heating and
cooling operations. Chemical reactions and phase changes are other commonly
occurring phenomena. The temperature, in turn, affects the fluid properties and can
alter the flow field. Natural convection is an example of this.

In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Heat Transfer branch ( ) included with this module has a number of physics
interfaces that can be used to model energy transport. One or more of these can be
added; either by themselves or together with other physics interfaces, typically flow
physics interfaces.

While the standard COMSOL Multiphysics package includes physics interfaces for
simulating heat transfer through conduction and convection, this module provides
extra functionality within the standard Heat Transfer interfaces. The CFD Module also
includes additional Heat Transfer interfaces such as The Heat Transfer in Porous
Media Interface.

For heat transfer in single-phase flows, the CFD Module provides several turbulent
(RANS) versions of the Nonisothermal Flow ( ) (located under the Fluid Flow branch)
and Conjugate Heat Transfer ( ) (located under the Heat Transfer branch)
multiphysics interfaces as well as three turbulent (LES) versions of the Nonisothermal
Flow ( ) multiphysics interfaces, and the Brinkman Equations ( ) multiphysics
interface, in addition to the laminar version available with the standard COMSOL
Multiphysics package. The multiphysics interfaces automatically couple the flow and
heat equations and they also provide functionality, such as support for turbulent heat
transfer, that is not readily available when adding the interfaces separately.

260 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS OR FLUIDS, AND JOULE HEATING
The Heat Transfer in Solids ( ), Heat Transfer in Fluids ( ) (general convection and
conduction), and Electromagnetic Heating>Joule Heating interfaces ( ), all belong to
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package.

HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface ( ) is an extension of a the generic heat
transfer interface that includes modeling heat transfer through convection, conduction
and radiation, conjugate heat transfer, and nonisothermal flow. The ability to define
material properties, boundary conditions, and more for porous media heat transfer is
also activated by selecting the Heat transfer in porous media check box on any heat
transfer interface.

NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER

The Nonisothermal Flow ( ) and Conjugate Heat Transfer ( ) interfaces solve the
Navier-Stokes equations together with an energy balance. They can also solve for heat
transfer in solids.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer differ by their default features. The
default heat transfer domain feature for Nonisothermal Flow is a Heat Transfer in
Fluids node while Conjugate Heat Transfer has a Heat Transfer in Solids node as its
default domain feature.

The Laminar Flow versions of the physics interfaces are used primarily to model slowly
flowing fluids in environments where energy transport is also an important part of the
system and application, and must be coupled or connected to the fluid flow in some
way. Stokes’ law (creeping flow) can be activated from the Nonisothermal Flow,
Laminar Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow interfaces if wanted. If you
expect the flow to become turbulent, select one of the versions of the turbulent flow
interfaces. Each physics interface includes a RANS or LES turbulence model to
calculate the turbulence and algebraic models for the turbulent Prandtl number.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer laminar and turbulent (RANS)
flow interfaces can solve the fully compressible form of the Navier-Stokes equations.
But boundary conditions and stabilizations are provided for Mach numbers less than
0.3. If you expect the Mach number in your model to become higher than 0.3, use

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER IN THE CFD MODULE | 261

 The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces. The Nonisothermal Flow, LES interfaces
are only applicable to incompressible flow.

• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module in the Heat Transfer Module
User’s Guide
• The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Often, you are simulating applications that couple heat transfer in turbulent flow to
another type of phenomenon described by another physics interface. This can, for
example, include chemical reactions and mass transport, as covered by the physics
interfaces in the Chemical Species Transport branch.

Furthermore, the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module includes, not only support
for setting up and simulating chemical reactions, but also for simulating reaction
kinetics through the temperature-dependent Arrhenius Expression and Mass Action
Law. This physics interface also includes support for including and calculating
thermodynamic data as temperature-dependent expressions, for both reaction kinetics
and fluid-flow.

In addition, if you also have the Heat Transfer Module, it includes more detailed
descriptions and tools for simulating energy transport, such as surface-to-surface and
participating media radiation.

Viscous Heating in a Fluid Damper: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Nonisothermal_Flow/fluid_damper

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections of the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Solver Settings

262 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

Also see The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces and Theory for the Heat Transfer
Module.

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER IN THE CFD MODULE | 263

 The Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar
Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES
Interfaces
In this section:

• Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface
• Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
• Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features
• Nonisothermal Flow
• Marangoni Effect

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces combine the heat
equation with either laminar flow or turbulent flow and use either a Heat Transfer in
Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids domain model. The advantage of using the multiphysics
interfaces is that predefined couplings are available in both directions. In particular,
physics interfaces use the same definition of the density, which can therefore be a
function of both pressure and temperature. Solving this coupled system of equations
usually requires numerical stabilization accounting for the couplings, which the
predefined multiphysics interfaces also set up.

See also Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling in the Heat Transfer
Module User’s Manual for more information.

264 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch
of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces
(laminar or turbulent flow) and Heat Transfer are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 • The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

• The LES RBVM interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with an
LES RBVM interface.

• The LES RBVMWV interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
an LES RBVMWV interface.

• The LES Smagorinsky interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface

with an LES Smagorinsky interface.

The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Heat Transfer and one of the
Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.

266 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 • The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( )combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface

When the Brinkman Equations multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, the Heat
Transfer in Porous Media and the Brinkman Equations interfaces are added to the Model
Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings may not be automatically included.

For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click this
node, you can add the Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature, but the modified settings
are not included. To get all the modified settings presented below automatically, you

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 may instead right-click the component node, select Add Multiphysics, and add the
Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature from the Add Multiphysics window.

TABLE 4-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES.

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Solids Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
A Heat Transfer in Fluids feature is added with a
default editable selection set to All domains. The
Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section) and
the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection section)
are automatically set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling
feature.
Heat Transfer in Fluids The Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section)
and the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection
section) are automatically set to the variables
from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are
preselected
The Compressibility option of the fluid flow
interface is set to Weakly Compressible for the
laminar and turbulent (RANS) flow interfaces
and to Incompressible for the LES interfaces.

Coupling Feature
The Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is described in this section.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

268 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS (NONISOTHERMAL FLOW)

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in the
section The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface. Also see Fluid in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS (CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER)

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in the
section The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. Also see Solid in the Heat Transfer
Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface are
listed in the section The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface. Also see Porous
Medium in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interfaceare listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , R E A L I Z A B L E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SPALART-ALLMARAS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, V2-F

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES RBVM
The available physics features for The LES RBVM Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES RBVMWV
The available physics features for The LES RBVMWV Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES SMAGORINSKY
The available physics features for The LES Smagorinsky Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

270 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The available physics features for The Brinkman Equations Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface.

Nonisothermal Flow
Use the Nonisothermal Flow ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate fluid flows where
the fluid properties depend on temperature. Models can also include heat transfer in
solids or in porous media as well as surface-to-surface radiation and radiation in
participating media, with the Heat Transfer Module. The laminar and turbulent
(RANS) physics interface supports low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). The
LES interfaces only support incompressible flow.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface solves for conservation of energy, mass
and momentum in fluids and porous media and for conservation of energy in solids.

It defines p and u variables in order to set the Absolute pressure in the Model Input
section and the Velocity field in the Heat Convection section of the Fluid feature and
subfeature, in the Heat Transfer interface. In addition it provides all the fluids
quantities that may be needed by the Heat Transfer interface (for example, viscosity,
turbulence parameters).

In the Fluid Flow interface, it sets the Temperature in the Model Input section and
defines the Density in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties and Fluid and
Matrix Properties features.

It synchronizes also the definition of the reference temperature to be used for

incompressible flows, and the features from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow interfaces
when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Screen and Interior
Fan feature from the flow interface to account for thermal effects.

In addition, it also accounts for the multiphysics stabilization terms, for the heat
transfer changes in the turbulent regime (for example, thermal wall functions), for
work due to pressure forces and viscous dissipation, and for natural convection,
including a Boussinesq approximation.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer trigger pseudo time

stepping when Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form in the
Fluid Flow interface is set to Automatic from physics.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 The multiphysics stabilizations (streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion) are controlled by the Fluid Flow interface. For example, the
multiphysics streamline diffusion can be disabled in a Laminar Flow physics
node, in the Stabilization section. The stabilization selected in the Heat
Transfer physics interface has no effect if the multiphysics coupling
stabilization is active, but remains active if not. However, the isotropic
diffusion is not a multiphysics stabilization and is controlled by each
physics interface. The crosswind diffusion stabilization is turned off for
the LES interfaces.

Finally, when one of the physics interfaces or the multiphysics coupling is

not solved in a study step, then the stabilization of each solved physics is
used instead of the coupled stabilization, and the solver suggestions are
uncoupled.

The pressure, velocity, and temperature variables of the Nonisothermal

Flow coupling node are set to the Common Model Input values of the
Default Model Inputs node on its complementary selection, that is, all
domains except those from the Selection list. It allows to couple multiple
fluid flow interfaces with a single heat transfer interface. See Default
Model Inputs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitf1.

272 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 DOMAIN SELECTION
The Nonisothermal Flow coupling node selection is locked to the union of:

• The intersection of the Fluid or Moist Air feature’s selection with the Fluid Properties
feature’s selection.
• The intersection of the Porous Medium feature’s selection within the Heat Transfer
in Porous Media interface and the Porous Medium feature’s selection within the
Brinkman Equations interface.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created:

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Heat Transfer in
Fluids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple
to.

HEAT TRANSFER TURBULENCE MODEL

This section is available when the fluid flow interface uses a turbulence model. When
a RANS turbulence model is used, select an option from the Heat transport turbulence
model list: Kays-Crawford (the default), Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined
turbulent Prandtl number.

For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).

For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number PrT
(dimensionless).

When the flow interface uses a RANS turbulence model, the conductive heat flux is
defined as

q = – ( k + k T ) ∇T

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 with the turbulent thermal conductivity defined as

μT Cp
k T = --------------
Pr T

where μT is defined by the flow interface, and PrT depends on the Heat transport
turbulence model. See Turbulent Conductivity for details.

This section is also available when either of the LES interfaces RBVMWV or
Smagorinsky is used. For these two LES models, additional diffusion terms,
corresponding to the ones in the momentum equation, appear in the energy equation.
The magnitude of these terms can be controlled by a turbulent Prandtl number.

The Turbulence model type used by the fluid flow interface can be displayed by selecting
the Show or Hide Physics Property Settings button at the right of the Fluid flow list.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Boussinesq Approximation
When the Compressibility setting in the fluid flow interface is set to Incompressible,
select the Boussinesq approximation check box in order to use material data evaluated
at the reference temperature and reference pressure. If gravity is included in the
physics, it is linearized with respect to temperature.

Density
Select an option from the Specify density list: From heat transfer interface (the default),
From fluid flow interface, Custom, linearized density, or Custom:

• For From heat transfer interface: define the Density ρ in the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface. Depending on the
Fluid type option in this node, the density may bet taken from material, set directly,
or computed by using the ideal gas law. The same value is automatically set in the
Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled
interface.
• For From fluid flow interface: define the Density ρ in the Fluid Properties section of
the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface. The same value is
automatically set in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat
Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, linearized density, enter the Reference density ρref (SI unit: kg/m3) and
the Coefficient of thermal expansion αp(SI unit:1/K), or select From material, or
select a variable in the list if available. Regardless how the properties are defined they

274 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 should be constant. If material properties are not constant you should consider
using any of the other options to define the density. Also, if Custom, linearized
density is used for incompressible flow, the density ρ is evaluated to ρref. In this case
αp is not used unless Boussinesq approximation is selected. The same value is
automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the
Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid
node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, enter a Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), or select a density in the list if
available. The same value is automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the
Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the
Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled
interface.

See Fluid Properties and Fluid in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

When the coupled heat transfer interface is also coupled to a phase transport interface
via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify density must be
set to From fluid flow interface.

The density definition in the Nonisothermal Flow node ensures that the same definition
of the density is used on the fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces. When Include gravity
is selected and the Compressibility is set to Incompressible flow in the fluid interface
properties, the gravity forces are defined using the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Along with the fact that the material properties are evaluated for a constant
temperature and pressure, this gravity force definition corresponds to Boussinesq
approximation. Unless the density is defined as Custom, linearized density the
coefficient of thermal expansion is evaluated from the fluid density.

Reference Temperature
Select an option from the Specify reference temperature list — From heat transfer
interface, From fluid flow interface (the default), or User defined.

For From heat transfer interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in the
Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Heat transfer list of the Coupled
Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Fluid flow interface is
synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.

For From fluid flow interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in the
Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Fluid flow list of the Coupled

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Heat transfer interface is
synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.

For User defined, set a value or expression. The Reference temperature inputs in the
Physical Model sections of the Heat transfer and Fluid flow interfaces are synchronized
to the same value or expression, and are not editable.

When the coupled heat transfer interface is also coupled to a phase transport interface
via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify reference
temperature must be set to From fluid flow interface.

FLOW HEATING
The Include viscous dissipation check box is selected by default to account for the heat
source corresponding to viscous heating. Because it may induce an extra
computational cost it should be only selected in application where such effect is
expected. If no information on this is available, selecting the option ensures that the
energy balance for the heat and the flow equation is respected.

When an interface is selected from the Heat transfer list, some of its model
inputs are forced with values from the Nonisothermal Flow node. In
addition, it defines how the turbulence has to be accounted for,
depending on the Fluid flow interface’s turbulence settings.

Therefore, each fluid flow interface should be used in at most one

Nonisothermal Flow node. In cases where multiple fluid flow interfaces are
used, they can be coupled with a single heat transfer interface, using an
equal number of Nonisothermal Flow nodes to define proper multiphysics
couplings. In the Heat transfer interface, the inputs for pressure and
velocity are then taken from the first Nonisothermal Flow node.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

276 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 See also Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat
Transfer Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Manual for more
information.

Marangoni Effect
The Marangoni Effect multiphysics coupling ( ) accounts for Marangoni convection.
Marangoni convection occurs when the surface tension of a fluid-fluid interface
(generally liquid-air) depends on the concentration of a species or on the temperature
distribution. In the case of temperature dependence, the Marangoni effect is also called
thermo-capillary convection. It is of primary importance in the fields of welding,
crystal growth, and electron beam melting of metals.

The Marangoni effect is a shear stress that depends on the tangential and normal
variations of surface tension with temperature gradient. It has the following
contribution described by forces induced on the fluid/fluid interface:

T 2
– pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = σ ( ∇ t ⋅ n )n – ∇ t σ
3

where σ is the surface tension coefficient (N/m). The first term on the right-hand-side
accounts for the normal forces related to curvature effects, while the second term
stands for tangential forces. Note that this formulation is intended for laminar flow
regimes only.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mar1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE TENSION
Select a Surface tension coefficient type: Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface, or User
defined (the default).

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface choose an option from the Library surface
tension coefficient list.
• For User defined enter a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

CONTACT ANGLE
The attachment angle between the fluid/fluid interface and the adjacent walls can be
specified in this section.

Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI unit:
J/m2).

278 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow
and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces
• The Boussinesq Approximation
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition
• References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

In industrial applications it is common that the density of a process fluid varies. These
variations can have a number of different sources but the most common one is the
presence of an inhomogeneous temperature field. This module includes the
Nonisothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate systems in which
the density varies with temperature.

Other situations where the density might vary includes chemical reactions, for instance
where reactants associate or dissociate.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces contain the fully
compressible formulation of the continuity and momentum equations:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
(4-1)
∂u
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
∂t  3 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

280 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)
• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is given by

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + τ:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (4-2)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where in addition to the quantities above

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kgK))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s)
1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

• Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)

The work done by pressure changes term

∂p 1 ∂ρ
α p T  ------ + u ⋅ ∇ p with α p = – --- ------- .
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p

and the viscous heating term

τ:S

are often negligible. The pressure work term is included by default, while the viscous
heating term is optional. The latter can be accounted for by selecting the
corresponding check-box in the Nonisothermal Flow feature. Observe that the
pressure in the pressure work term always is the absolute pressure even if a reduced
pressure is used in the momentum equation. For a detailed discussion of the
fundamentals of heat transfer in fluids, see Ref. 3.

The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids:

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 281
 ∂T
ρC p ------- = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + Q + Q ted
∂t

where Qted is the thermoelastic damping heat source (SI unit: W/(m3)). This term is
not included by default but must be added by selecting corresponding check-box.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Manual.
• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces

Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory

Turbulent energy transport is conceptually more complicated than energy transport in
laminar flows since the turbulence is also a form of energy.

Equations for compressible turbulence are derived using the Favre average. The Favre
˜
average of a variable T is denoted T and is defined by

˜ ρT
T = -------
ρ

where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as

˜
T = T + T''

With this notation the equation for total internal energy, e, becomes

˜ ˜ u˜ i u˜ i ρu i''u i''
∂-----   ˜ u i u i ρu i''u i'' ------ ∂
ρ e + ----------- + ------------------- + -  ρũ j  h˜ + ----------- + u˜ j ------------------- =
∂t   2  2  ∂x j  2  2
(4-3)
∂ ρu j''u i''u i'' ∂ ˜
-------  – q j – ρu j''h'' + τ ij u i'' – --------------------------
- + ------- ( u i ( τ ij – ρu i''u j'' ) )
∂x j  2  ∂x j

where h is the enthalpy. The vector

∂T
q j = – λ ------- (4-4)
∂x j

282 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

is the laminar conductive heat flux and

2 ∂u k
τ ij = 2μS ij – --- μ --------- δ ij
3 ∂x k

is the laminar, viscous stress tensor. Notice that the thermal conductivity is denoted λ.

The modeling assumptions are in large part analogous to those for incompressible
turbulence modeling. The stress tensor

– ρu i''u'' j

is modeled using the Boussinesq approximation:

˜ ˜
1 ∂u k  2
– ρu i''u'' j = ρτ T ij = 2μ T  S ij – --- --------- δ ij – --- ρkδ ij (4-5)
 3 ∂x k  3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn is defined by

1
ρk = --- ρu i''u i'' (4-6)
2

The correlation between u j'' and h'' in Equation 4-3 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is modeled analogously to the laminar conductive heat flux

˜ μ T C p ∂T ˜
∂T
ρu j''h'' = q T j = – λ T ------- = – -------------- ------- (4-7)
∂x j Pr T ∂x j

The molecular diffusion term,

τ ij u i''

and turbulent transport term,

ρu j''u i''u i'' ⁄ 2

are modeled by a generalization of the molecular diffusion and turbulent transport

terms found in the incompressible k equation

ρu j''u i''u i'' μ T ∂k

τ ij u i'' – --------------------------- =  μ + ------ ------- (4-8)
2  σ k  ∂x j

Inserting Equation 4-4 through Equation 4-8 into Equation 4-3 gives

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 283
 ˜ ˜ u˜ i u˜ i
∂-----   ˜ u i u i ∂
ρ e + ----------- + k  + -------  ρũ j  h˜ + ----------- + k  =
∂t   2   ∂x j   2 
(4-9)
∂ μ T ∂k  ∂ ˜
-------  – q j – q T j +  μ + ------ ------- + ------- ( u ( τ + ρτ T ij ) )
∂x j   σ k  ∂x j ∂x j i ij

The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 4-5, can be written

∂----- ∂ ∂p ∂
( ρũ i ) + ------- ( ρũ j u˜ i ) = – ------- + ------- ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) (4-10)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

Taking the inner product between u˜ i and Equation 4-10 results in an equation for the
resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 4-9 with the following
result:

∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j
( ρ ( e˜ + k ) ) + ------- ( ρũ j ( e˜ + k ) ) = – p -------- +
∂t ∂x j ∂x j
(4-11)
∂ - μ T ∂k ∂
------
 – q j – q T j +  μ + ------ ------- + ------- ( u˜ i ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) )
∂x j  σ k  ∂x j ∂x j

where the relation

h˜ = e˜ + p ⁄ ρ

has been used.

According to Wilcox (Ref. 1), it is usually a good approximation to neglect the

contributions of k for flows with Mach numbers up to the supersonic range. This gives
the following approximation of Equation 4-11 is

∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j ∂ ∂
( ρẽ ) + ------- ( ρũ j e˜ ) = – p -------- + ------- ( – q j – q T j ) + ------- ( u˜ i ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) ) (4-12)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

Larsson (Ref. 2) suggests to make the split

τ ij = τ̃ ij + τ ij''

Since

284 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 τ̃ ij » τ ij''

for all applications of engineering interest, it follows that

τ ij ≈ τ̃ ij

and consequently

˜
∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j ∂  ∂T  ∂
( ρẽ ) + ------- ( ρũ j e˜ ) = – p -------- + -------  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + ------- ( u˜ i τ̃ ij
Tot
) (4-13)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j  ∂x j ∂x j

where

 ˜ ˜
Tot 2 ∂u k 
τ̃ ij = ( μ + μ T )  2S ij – --- --------- δ ij
 3 ∂x k 

Equation 4-13 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation and can be
expanded using the same theory (see for example Ref. 3):

 ∂T ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
∂T  ∂  ∂T  ˜ T ∂ρ ∂p ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u˜ j ------- = -------  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + τ̃ ij S ij – ---- -------  ------ + u˜ j -------
 ∂ t ∂ x j ∂ x j ∂ x j ρ ∂T ˜ ∂ t ∂ xj
p

which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.

TURBULENT CONDUCTIVITY

Kays-Crawford
This is a relatively exact model for PrT, while still quite simple. In Ref. 4, it is compared
to other models for PrT and found to be a good approximation for most kinds of
turbulent wall bounded flows except for turbulent flow of liquid metals. The model is
given by

 1 0.3 C p μ T Cp μT 2  –1
Pr T =  ----------------- + ------------------ -------------- –  0.3 -------------- ( 1 – e –λ ⁄ ( 0.3C p μT Pr T∞ ) )
 (4-14)
 2Pr T∞ Pr T∞ λ  λ  

where the Prandtl number at infinity is PrT∞ = 0.85 and λ is the conductivity.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 285
 Extended Kays-Crawford
Weigand and others (Ref. 5) suggested an extension of Equation 4-14 to liquid metals
by introducing

100λ
Pr T∞ = 0.85 + -------------------------------
-
C p μRe ∞0.888

where Re∞, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.

TEMPERATURE CONDITION FOR AUTOMATIC WALL TREATMENT AND

WALL FUNCTIONS
Both automatic wall treatment and wall functions introduce a theoretical gap between
the solid wall and the computational domain for the fluid and temperature fields. See
Wall Boundary Conditions described for The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model and
The k-ε Turbulence Model). This theoretical gap applies also to the temperature fields
but is most often ignored when the computational geometry is drawn.

The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:

ρC p u * ( T w – T f )
q wf = -----------------------------------------
-
T+

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, u∗ is the friction velocity given
by the wall treatment (u∗ for two-equation RANS models with automatic wall
treatment and uτ for all other cases). T+ is the dimensionless temperature and is given
by (Ref. 6):

+
Prδ w for δ w
+ < δ+
w1

 15Pr 2 / 3 – 500
---------- + ≤ δ+ < δ+
for δ w1
T+ =  δ +2  w w2
w
Pr T
--------- lnδ w
+ +β for δ w2
+ ≤ δ+
κ w

where in turn

286 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k 10 -
+ = ------------------------------
δw + = ------------
δ w1
μ Pr 1 / 3
κ Cp μ
+ = 10 10 --------
δ w2 - Pr = ----------
Pr T λ
Pr T κ
β = 15Pr 2 / 3 – ---------  1 + ln  1000 --------- 
2κ Pr T

λ is the thermal conductivity, and κ is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41.

The distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is always hw/2
for automatic wall treatment where hw is the height of the mesh cell adjacent to the
wall. hw/2 is almost always very small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest,
at least if a boundary layer mesh is used. For wall functions, δw is at least hw/2 and can
be bigger if necessary to keep δw+ higher than 11.06. So the computational results for
wall functions should be checked so that the distance between the computational fluid
domain and the wall, δw, is everywhere small compared to any geometrical quantity of
interest. The distance δw is available for evaluation on boundaries.

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces

The current versions of the Nonisothermal Flow, LES interfaces only support
incompressible flow. When gravity is active in the model, buoyancy effects may be
taken into account using The Boussinesq Approximation. For large eddy simulations
(LES) of nonisothermal flow, the temperature field is divided up into resolved and
unresolved scales, T + T' in the same way as is done for the velocity and pressure fields
(see Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces). For incompressible flow, the
energy equation can be projected onto the resolved scales, w, producing the following
weak form equation,

∂T-
 w, ρC ------
 p ∂t  + ( ∇w, K ∇T ) Ω – ( w, τ:S + Q ) Ω + ( w, q ) ∂Ω =
Ω (4-15)
( ∇w, ρC p ( uT + uT' + u'T + u'T' ) ) Ω

where q is the inward heat flux on the boundary ∂Ω of the spatial domain Ω . The
unresolved temperature scales are modeled in terms of the residual to the energy
equation and the intrinsic time-scale,

T' = – τ e res e (4-16)

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 287
 with,

∂T
res e = ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇T – ∇ ⋅ ( K ∇T ) – τ:S – Q
 ∂t 
1 (4-17)
τ e = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C 1 ρC
 -----------------p
2
2 2
- + 4ρ C p2 u ⋅ Gu + C 4 K G:G
 Δt 

Here, C4 is a constant depending on the shape of the element and G is the covariant
metric tensor.

For the RBVMWV LES models, an additional heat-diffusion term is added to the
right-hand side of the energy equation,

˜
ρC p C u' h
– (∇w, ---------------------------- ∇T) (4-18)
Pr T Ω

For the Smagorinsky LES model, the last term on the right-hand side is replaced by,

ρC p C s S
– (∇w, -------------------------------------- ( ∇T – ∇T )) (4-19)
2Pr T trace ( G ) Ω

For further details, see Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TEMPERATURE CONDITION FOR AUTOMATIC WALL TREATMENT

When automatic wall treatment is applied in an LES model, a flux condition is imposed
for the temperature equation. The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and
a wall with temperature Tw, is,

ρC p u τ ( T w – T f )
q wf = ----------------------------------------
-
T+

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, u τ is the friction velocity and
T+ is the dimensionless temperature, given by,

+ +
T = Prδ w
+
for δ w < δ w
* , and,

288 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 + Pr T +
* + --------
T = Prδ w * ) 2 + 2κ ( δ + – δ * ) )
- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
κ w w


  + * ) 2 – 1 )
 ( 2Pr T – Pr ) ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
- tan-1  -------- - , Pr ≥ Pr T
Pr
 ---------------------------- - – 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------
  Pr T + 
Pr
κ --------- – 1  2κ ( δ – δ *)

 Pr T
w w


–  + * ) 2 – 1 )
Pr- (----------------------------------------------------------------
1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
  1 + 1 – -------- -
 ( 2Pr T – Pr )  Pr T 2κ ( δ
+
– δ *) 
 ------------------------------ log  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w w  , Pr < Pr
 Pr  + 2  T
 2κ 1 – ---------  Pr ( 1 + 4κ ( δ w – δ w ) – 1 ) 
2 *
 Pr T  1 – 1 – --------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- -
  Pr T +
2κ ( δ – δ * )
w w



+
for δ w ≥ δ w
* , where,

---  1 + log  ------

* = 1 E 
δw
κ  4κ 

E and κ are the L-VEL parameters used in the automatic wall treatment expressions
(see Automatic Wall Treatment).

The Boussinesq Approximation

The Boussinesq approximation assumes that density variations only contribute to
buoyancy effects, of which thermal effects are considered herein

ρ = ρ0 ( 1 – αp ( T0 ) ( T – T0 ) ) (4-20)

where ρ0, α and T0 are constants and T is the temperature. Constant temperature and
pressure are assumed when evaluating all other material properties. Provided that αp
and T − T0 are small enough, Equation 4-1 and Equation 4-2 reduce to

ρ0 ∇ ⋅ u = 0
∂u
ρ 0 ------- + ρ 0 u ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + μ 0 ∇ ⋅ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) + F (4-21)
∂t
∂T
ρ 0 C p0  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = ( ∇ ⋅ K 0 ∇T ) + τ:S + Q
 ∂t 

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 289
 where K0 is the constant thermal conductivity.

The Boussinesq approximation is commonly used to simulate buoyancy-driven flows.

In this case

F = ( ρ 0 + Δρ )g = – ρ 0 ( 1 – α p ( T 0 ) ( T – T 0 ) )g (4-22)

where g is the gravity vector. A further useful simplification is possible by writing

Equation 4-22 in terms of a potential, Φ:

F = – ∇ ( ρ 0 Φ ) + Δρg

The first part can be canceled out by splitting the true pressure, p, into a hydrodynamic
component, P, and a hydrostatic component, −ρ0Φ such that P = p + ρ0Φ. This
reduced Equation 4-21 to:

ρ0 ∇ ⋅ u = 0
∂u
ρ 0 ------- + ρ 0 u ⋅ ∇u = – ∇P + μ 0 ∇ ⋅ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) + ρ 0 α p ( T 0 ) ( T – T 0 )g(4-23)
∂t
∂T
ρ 0 C p0  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = ( ∇ ⋅ K 0 ∇T ) + τ:S + Q
 ∂t 

The gravity force is added on the form given by Equation 4-22 if Include gravity is
selected in the fluid flow interface. The form in Equation 4-23 is obtained when
selecting the Use reduced pressure option.

When an LES turbulence model is applied, an additional contribution,

ρ 0 α p ( T 0 )T'g

is added to the buoyancy force in Equation 4-22 and Equation 4-23. See Theory for
the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces for more information.

The main assumption in the Boussinesq approximation is that the density fluctuations
must be small; that is, Δρ/ρ0 << 1. There are also some more subtle constraints that,
for example, make the Boussinesq approximation unsuitable for systems of very large
dimensions. It can also be observed the energy equation in Equation 4-23 retains both
the viscous heating term and the pressure work term. These can, however, almost
always be neglected in situations when the Boussinesq approximation is valid (see, for
example, Ref. 7). But there are situations where they need to be retained (Ref. 8). In
particular, the pressure work term can be of importance for liquids where Cp ≠ Cv

290 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

(Ref. 9). An excellent discussion of the Boussinesq approximation and its limitations
appears in Chapter 14 of Ref. 7.

Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across a screen in isothermal flow are complemented by:

[ H 0 ] -+ = 0 (4-24)

where H0 is the total enthalpy.

• See Screen for the feature node details.

• Also see Screen Boundary Condition described for the single-phase
flow interfaces.

Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the temperature
field is discontinuous over the fan and the conditions that apply across an interior fan
are complemented by:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined by:

 

 up ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   down ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

• If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined
by:

 

 down ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   up ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces
1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 291
 2. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat
Transfer, Doctoral Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.

3. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

4. W.M. Kays, “Turbulent Prandtl Number — Where Are We?”, ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, vol. 116, pp. 284–295, 1994.

5. B. Weigand, J.R. Ferguson, and M.E. Crawford, “An Extended Kays and Crawford
Turbulent Prandtl Number Model”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 40, no. 17,
pp. 4191–4196, 1997.

6. D. Lacasse, È. Turgeon, and D. Pelletier, “On the Judicious Use of the k-ε Model,
Wall Functions and Adaptivity”, Int. J. Thermal Sciences, vol. 43, pp. 925–938, 2004.

7. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, 1988.

8. D.D. Gray and A. Giorgini, “The Validity of the Boussinesq Approximation for
Liquids and Gases”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 19, pp. 545–551, 1967.

9. P.G. Drazin and W.H. Reid, Hydrodynamic stability, Cambridge University Press,
1981.

292 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 5

High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

This chapter discusses physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>High Mach
Number Flow branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

• The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow Interfaces
• The Compressible Euler Equations Interface
• Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

293
 The High Mach Number Flow
Interfaces
There are three versions of the same predefined multiphysics interface (all with the
name hmnf) that combine the heat equation with either the laminar or turbulent flow
equations. The advantage of using the multiphysics interfaces — compared to adding
the individual physics interfaces separately — is that a set of two-way couplings has
been predefined. In particular, the physics interfaces use the same definition of the
density, which can therefore be a function of both pressure and temperature. Solving
this coupled system of equations usually requires numerical stabilization, which the
predefined multiphysics interface also sets up.

These physics interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 5-1) or
selections from check boxes or lists under the Physical Model and Turbulence sections
for the physics interface.
TABLE 5-1: THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME TURBULENCE TURBULENCE HEAT

MODEL TYPE MODEL TRANSPORT
TURBULENCE
MODEL

High Mach Number Flow, hmnf None N/A N/A

Laminar
High Mach Number Flow, hmnf RANS k-ε Kays-Crawford
k-ε
High Mach Number Flow, hmnf RANS Spalart-Allmaras Kays-Crawford
Spalart- Allmaras

Most of the other physics nodes share the same setting options as
described in this section and in Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair
Nodes for the High Mach Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent
Interfaces. See also The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about the Heat Transfer in
Solids physics node.

294 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 • The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface
• Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the Fluid
Flow>High Mach Number Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to
model gas flows at low and moderate Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude
is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, laminar flows in the transonic and
supersonic range. This state is often connected to very low pressures.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass and momentum. The
interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation.

This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Laminar

Flow interface, applied to compressible flow, in combination with a Heat Transfer
interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 295

 TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By definition, no turbulence model is needed when studying laminar flows. The
default is None. See The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface or The High Mach
Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface for the settings if RANS is chosen as the
Turbulence model type.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The names can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic calculates the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) from a built-in expression. For Manual enter a Local CFL number
CFLloc.

By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach
Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to

296 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

model gas flows at high Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude is comparable
to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in the transonic and supersonic range.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and momentum.
Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation k-ε model with
realizability constraints. Flow and heat transfer close to walls are modeled using wall
functions. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as
surface-to-surface radiation.

This is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Turbulent Flow k-ε interface,

applied to compressible flow, in combination with a heat transfer interface. As shown
in Table 5-1, the turbulent versions of the physics interfaces differ by where they are
selected when adding a physics interface and the default turbulence model selected —
k-ε for this physics interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is k-ε, and the
default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford. Alternatively, select
User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl number model describes
the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature field. It is always
possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl number. Enter the
user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number in the Model Inputs
section of the Fluid feature node.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 297

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Edit the model parameters of the k-ε model as needed. Turbulence model parameters
are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the
turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent
dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3) variables are also available.

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the
High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface,
is used to model gas flows at high Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude is
comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in the transonic and
supersonic range.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and momentum.
Turbulence effects are modeled using the one-equation Spalart-Allmaras turbulence
model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which
means that it resolves the velocity, pressure, and temperature fields all the way down
to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. It also supports heat
transfer in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation.

298 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

This is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Turbulent Flow,
Spalart-Allmaras interface, applied to compressible flow, in combination with a Heat
Transfer interface. As shown in Table 5-1, the turbulent versions of the physics
interfaces differ by where they are selected when adding a physics interface and the
default Turbulence model selected — Spalart-Allmaras for this physics interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is
Spalart-Allmaras., and the default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford.
Alternatively, select User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl
number model describes the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature
field. It is always possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl
number. Enter the user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number
in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid feature node.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m) and Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s) variables are also available.

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

Transonic Flow in a Sajben Diffuser: Application Library path

CFD_Module/High_Mach_Number_Flow/sajben_diffuser

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 299

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces has these domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

The following nodes are slightly different from those in the other physics interfaces and
are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):

• Continuity • Inlet
• Fluid • Outlet
• Initial Values • Symmetry

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• Volume Force • Interior Wall

• Wall • Pressure Point Constraint

The Interior Wall feature requires appropriate conditions for the

temperature. Use a Thermal Insulation or Temperature node together
with Interior Wall to get appropriate boundary conditions for all the flow
and heat variables.

For The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface, the same nodes are selected from
the Turbulent Flow, k-ε submenus. For The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface, the same nodes are selected from the Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
submenus.

300 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The following physics nodes and subnodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described
for the Heat Transfer interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide.
Additional features can also be available when you have additional licenses:

• Boundary Heat Source • Point Heat Source

• Heat Flux • Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface
• Heat Source Radiation Interface)

• Solid • Temperature

• Line Heat Source • Thermal Insulation

• Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)

Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Continuity
The Continuity node can be added to pair boundaries. It prescribes that the flow and
temperature fields are continuous across the boundary. Flow characteristics at the
boundary, described in Plane Wave Analysis of Inviscid Flow, are utilized to implement
the continuity of the flow and temperature fields. When added to pair boundaries, the
Continuity feature is applicable where the boundaries match, that is, when the source
boundary has a corresponding destination boundary and vice-versa. Elsewhere in the
pair boundaries, the Fallback feature is activated.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 301

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field, the pressure and the
temperature that can serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver. For turbulent flow there are also initial values for the
turbulence model variables. The surface radiosity is only applicable for
surface-to-surface radiation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s),
the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values are
0 m/s for the velocity, 1 atm for the pressure, and 293.15 K for the temperature.

In a turbulent flow interface, initial values for the turbulence variables are also
specified. By default these are specified using the predefined variables defined by the
expressions described in Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces under
Initial Values.

Fluid
The Fluid node adds the continuity, momentum and temperature equations for an ideal
gas but omits volume forces and heat sources. Volume forces and heat sources can be
added as separate physics features. Viscous heating and pressure work terms are added
by default to the temperature equation.

When the turbulence model type is set to RANS, the Fluid node also adds the equations
for k and ε, or the undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity, depending on the
turbulence model used.

The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q and
the temperature gradient ∇T as in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

HEAT CONDUCTION
Select a Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) from the list — Sutherland’s Law
(the default), From material, or User defined. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter
another value or expression in the field or matrix.

302 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Sutherland’s Law
For Sutherland’s Law enter the following model parameters:

• Conductivity at reference temperature kref (SI unit: W/(m·K))

• Reference temperature Tk,ref (SI unit: K)
• Sutherland constant Sk (SI unit: K)
Sutherland’s law describes the relationship between the thermal conductivity and the
total temperature of an ideal fluid according to

T 3 / 2 T k, ref + S k
k = k ref  -------------- ---------------------------
 T k, ref T + Sk

THERMODYNAMICS
The High Mach Number Flow interface is applicable for ideal gases. Specify the
thermodynamics properties by selecting a gas constant type and selecting between
entering the heat capacity at constant pressure or the ratio of specific heats. For an ideal
gas the density is defined as

Mn pA pA
ρ = ---------------- = -----------
RT Rs T

where pA is the absolute pressure, and T is the temperature.

• Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). The default setting is to use the property value
From material. For User defined enter another value or expression for either material
property. For Mean molar mass the universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K),
which is a built-in physical constant, is also used.

• From the Specify Cp or γ list, select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp

(SI unit: J/(kg·K)) or Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless). The default setting is
to use the property value From material. For User defined enter another value or
expression for either material property.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid.

Select a Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) from the list — Sutherland’s Law (the
default), From material, or User defined.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 303

 Sutherland’s Law
For Sutherland’s Law enter the following model parameters:

• Dynamic viscosity at reference temperature μref (SI unit: Pa·s)

• Reference temperature Tμ,ref (SI unit: K)
• Sutherland constant Sμ (SI unit: K)

Sutherland’s law describes the relationship between the dynamic viscosity and the total
temperature of an ideal fluid according to

T 3 / 2 T μ, ref + S μ
μ = μ ref  -------------- ---------------------------
 T μ, ref T + Sμ

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

This section is available for the Turbulent Flow, k-ε model.

The k-ε turbulence model needs an upper limit on the mixing length to be numerically
robust. Select a Mixing length limit — Automatic (the default) or Manual.

• For Automatic this limit is automatically evaluated as:

lim = 0.5l
l mix (5-1)
bb

where lbb is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is a
complicated system of very slender entities, for example, Equation 5-1 tends to give
lim manually.
a result that is too large. In such cases, define l mix
lim (SI unit: m).
• For Manual enter a value or expression for the Mixing length limit l mix

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras since a Wall Distance
interface is then included.

Select how the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is defined — Automatic (default)
or Manual:

• For Automatic the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually quite accurate but it can
sometimes give a too high value if the geometry consists of several slim entities. In
such cases, define the reference length scale manually.
• For Manual it defines a different value or expression for the length scale. The default
is 1 m.

304 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

lref controls the result of the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than lref
are effectively be diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.

Inlet
The Inlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid flow and
temperature conditions at an inlet. The applied conditions are controlled by the Flow
Condition.

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Characteristics based (the default) or Supersonic.

For Characteristics based the current flow situation is analyzed using the inviscid flow
characteristics at the inlet. This can be used to specify either a subsonic (Ma < 1) inlet
or a supersonic inlet (Ma > 1).

For Supersonic the inlet flow is assumed to be supersonic.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Specify the flow properties at the inlet in terms of the static or total pressure, static or
total temperature, Mach number, and flow direction. By default Static input variables
are used.

Select an Input state — Static (the default) or Total. For either selection also enter
values or expressions for the Mach number Ma0 (dimensionless) at the inlet. The default
is 1.5.

• For Static enter values or expressions for the Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa) and
Static temperature T0,stat (SI unit: K).
• For Total enter values or expressions for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa) and
Total temperature T0,tot (SI unit: K).

The relationships between the static and total states are:

γ
-----------
p tot  γ–1 2 γ–1
- = 1 + ----------- Ma 
---------
p stat  2  (5-2)
T tot 
- = 1 + γ----------- Ma 
–1 2
----------
T stat  2 

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 305

 Select a Flow direction — Normal inflow (the default) or User defined to specify an
arbitrary flow direction. Then enter the components of the direction normal nM
(dimensionless).

TURBULENCE PROPERTIES
This section displays when RANS is selected as Turbulence model type.

Using a turbulence model, specify the turbulence properties at an inlet. For the
Turbulent Flow, k-ε model, specify turbulence quantities according to one of the
following options:

• Select Specify turbulence length scale and intensity to enter values or expressions for
the Turbulent intensity IT (dimensionless) and Turbulence length scale LT
(SI unit: m). IT and LT values are related to the turbulence variables via

3 2 3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
k = --- ( U I T ) , ε = Cμ -----------
2 LT

• For Specify turbulence variables enter values or expressions for the Turbulent kinetic
energy k0 (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0 (SI unit: m2/s3).

For The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface, enter a

value or expression for the Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 (SI
unit: m2/s).

For background on the derivation and implementation of the conditions,

see Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Outlet
The Outlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid flow and
temperature conditions at an outlet. The applied conditions are controlled by the Flow
Condition.

306 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Hybrid (the default), Supersonic, or Subsonic.

• Using a Hybrid condition, both subsonic (Ma < 1) and supersonic flow (Ma > 1)
conditions at the outlet are supported.
• Select Supersonic when the flow at the outlet is known to be supersonic.
• Select Subsonic when the flow at the outlet is known to be subsonic.

FLOW PROPERTIES
This section displays when the Hybrid or Subsonic flow condition is selected.

Hybrid
For Hybrid an outlet pressure is specified. This pressure is enforced at the outlet when
the flow is subsonic. Select an Input state — Static (the default) or Total. The relation
between the static and total pressure is defined in Equation 5-2.

• For Static enter a value or expression for the Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa). The
default is 1 atm.
• For Total enter a value or expression for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa). The
default is 1 atm.

Subsonic
For Subsonic select the Boundary condition — Normal Stress (the default) or Pressure.
Then enter a value or expression for the Normal stress f0 (SI unit: N/m2) or Pressure
p0 (SI unit: Pa). The defaults are 1 atm for both.

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no heat flux, no penetration and
vanishing shear stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of Dirichlet
conditions and a Neumann condition.

q ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ n = 0,   – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3  

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 307

 These conditions correspond to the ones for the Single-Phase Flow,
Laminar Flow interface. See Inlet and Outlet.

For a background on the derivation and implementation of the

conditions, see Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier-Stokes equations is

not a trivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at
an outflow boundary, extend the computational domain to include this
phenomenon.

308 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow Interfaces
The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow branch, found under the Fluid
Flow>High Mach Number Flow branch ( ), contains three variations of the same
predefined multiphysics interface (all with the name hmnf) for modeling gas flows
where one or more of the boundaries rotate in a periodic fashion and the velocity
magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound in the gas; that is, it flows in the
transonic and supersonic range. The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar ( ) and High
Mach Number Flow, Turbulent ( ) versions can be found under the High Mach Number
Flow>Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow branch ( ), when adding a physics
interface. The physics interfaces can be used to model high-speed turbomachinery
equipment.

The physics interfaces support Sutherland’s law for Thermal conductivity and Dynamic
viscosity as the default option.

• Moving Mesh
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Moving Mesh
The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow interfaces rely on ALE (arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian) moving mesh functionality for their rotating domain
implementation.

ROTATING DOMAINS
When a Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow interface is added using the Model
Wizard, a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder under the
Definitions>Moving Mesh node. It contains settings for specifying the rotation of one or
several domains. By default, All domains are selected. Under the Rotating Domain, you

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 309

 can exclude any non-rotating fluid domains. For both 3D and 2D components, the
Rotation type should be set to Specified rotational velocity.

Select a Rotational velocity expression — General revolutions per time (the default),
Constant revolutions per time, General angular velocity, or Constant angular velocity.

• For Constant revolutions per time, or General revolutions per time, enter a value or
expression respectively in the Revolutions per time input field and optionally an Initial
angle. The angular velocity in this case is defined as the input multiplied by 2π.
• For Constant angular velocity, or General angular velocity enter a value or an
expression respectively in the Angular velocity input field and optionally an Initial
angle.

3D Components
For 3D components, select the Rotation axis base point, rax. The default is the origin.
Select the Rotation axis, urot, the z-axis is the default. If the x-axis is selected, it
corresponds to a rotational axis (1, 0, 0) with the origin as the base point, and
correspondingly for the y-axis and z-axis.

2D Components
For 2D components, enter coordinates for the Rotation axis base point, rax. The
default is the origin (0, 0).

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface

The Laminar Flow version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow (hmnf)
interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas flows in geometries with one or
more rotating parts and gas at low and moderate Reynolds number where the velocity
magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, laminar flows in the transonic
and supersonic range. This state is often connected to very low pressures. The physics
interface is available for 3D and 2D components and it combines the High Mach Number
Flow, Laminar interface ( ), with a Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and
momentum. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as

310 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent to pair boundaries
are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, Laminar — Fluid, Initial Values, Wall
and Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity node is
automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement,
for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You can also
right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See Moving
Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the Model
Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By definition, no turbulence model is needed when studying laminar flows. The
default is None. See The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface or The High Mach
Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface for the settings if RANS is chosen as the
Turbulence model type.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The names can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 311

 ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic calculates the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) from a built-in expression. For Manual enter a Local CFL number
CFLloc.

By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k- ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow
(hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating Machinery,
High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas flows in
geometries with one or more rotating parts and gas at high Reynolds number where
the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in
the transonic and supersonic range. The physics interface is available for 3D and 2D
components and it combines the High Mach Number Flow, k-ε interface ( ), with a
Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and
momentum. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation k-ε
model with realizability constraints. Flow and heat transfer close to walls are modeled

312 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

using wall functions. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well
as surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent to pair
boundaries are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, k-ε — Fluid, Initial Values, Wall and
Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity node is
automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement,
for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You can also
right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See Moving
Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the Model
Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is k-ε, and the
default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford. Alternatively, select
User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl number model describes
the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature field. It is always
possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl number. Enter the
user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number in the Model Inputs
section of the Fluid node.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Edit the model parameters of the k-ε model as needed. Turbulence model parameters
are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 313

 turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent
dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3) variables are also available.

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras

Interface
The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating
Machinery, High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas
flows in geometries with one or more rotating parts and gas at high Reynolds number
where the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent
flows in the transonic and supersonic range.The physics interface is available for 3D
and 2D components and it combines the High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
interface ( ), with a Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. Turbulence effects are modeled using the one-equation Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a so-called low-Reynolds number
model, which means that it resolves the velocity, pressure, and temperature fields all
the way down to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the

314 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. A Wall
Distance Initialization study type is automatically added. It also supports heat transfer
in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent
to pair boundaries are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras — Fluid, Initial
Values, Wall and Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity
node is automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You
can also right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See
Moving Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the
Model Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is
Spalart-Allmaras., and the default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford.
Alternatively, select User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl
number model describes the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature
field. It is always possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl
number. Enter the user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number
in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid node.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m) and Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s) variables are also available..

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 315

 The Compressible Euler Equations
Interface
The Compressible Euler Equations (cee) interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>High
Mach Number Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model
transient isentropic gas flows where the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed
of sound, that is, compressible flows in the transonic and supersonic range. This state
is often connected to very low pressures.

The interface is based on the discontinuous Galerkin method (DG-FEM) and uses a
time-explicit solver. The method is very memory lean. The physics interface solves for
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, neglecting dissipative effects. The
dependent variables are the density, momentum, and total energy. Simulations using
the Compressible Euler Equations interface are always time dependent.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions, volume
forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the Compressible Euler Equations node
to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cee.

PHYSICAL MODEL
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Euler equations.

316 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

NUMERICAL FLUX
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed.

Select the Numerical flux — Lax-Friedrichs (the default) or Osher-Solomon Riemann

solver.

LIMITER
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed. Note that these settings are ignored when the discretization is set to
Constant.

If the WENO limiter is selected from the Limiter list, the following settings are available:

• Choose the Trouble cell indicator: TVB (default) or Off. If TVB is selected, provide a
TVB constant (default: 10). The TVB method is used to limit the elements where the
WENO limiter is applied. This will reduce the cost of the limiter. A larger value of
the TVB constant means that a smaller number of cells will use WENO.
• Select the Positivity-preserving limiter for density and pressure check box to maintain
the positivity of pressure and density and prevent numerical blow-ups.

Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the CFL number. This CFL number will be used when defining the Cell time scale
expression cee.wtc used in the Time-Explicit Solver if the Time stepping is set to From
expressions. Note that the method will be unstable for CFL numbers larger than 1.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Explicit Solver

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 317

 DISCRETIZATION
In this section you can select the order of the shape function of the dependent
variables. The Compressible Euler Equations interfaces uses Nodal discontinuous
Lagrange functions. Select the Element order — Linear (default) or Constant.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Density rho (SI unit: kg/m3), the
Momentum m (SI unit: kg/(m2 s)), and the Total energy etot (SI unit: J/m3). The
names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a component.

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Compressible
Euler Equations Interface
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users):

• Continuity • Interior Wall

• Fluid Properties • Outlet
• Gravity • Symmetry
• Heat Source • Volume Force
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

318 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the continuity, momentum, and energy equations
solved by the physics interface, except for volume forces and heat sources, which are
added by the Volume Force and Heat Source features. Gravity is added by a global
Gravity feature when Include gravity is selected in the Physical Model settings. The Fluid
Properties node also provides settings for defining the material properties of the fluid.

THERMODYNAMICS
The Compressible Euler Equations interface is applicable for ideal gases. Specify the
thermodynamics properties by selecting a ratio of specific heats and selecting between
entering the specific gas constant, the heat capacity at constant pressure, or the mean
molar mass. For an ideal gas the density is defined as

Mn pA pA
ρ = ---------------- = -----------
RT Rs T

where pA is the absolute pressure, and T is the temperature.

Enter a value for the Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless). The ratio of specific heats
must be a real number larger than 1.

Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), Heat capacity
at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol).
The default setting is to use the property value From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression for either material property. For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, is
also used.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
You can provide initial values for the Primitive Variables (default) or Conservative
Variables.

• If Primitive Variables is selected, provide a value for the density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3),
velocity u (SI unit: m/s), and pressure p (SI unit: Pa).
• If Conservative Variables is selected, provide a value for the density ρ (SI unit:
kg/m3), momentum m (SI unit: kg/(m2 s), and total energy e (SI unit: J/m3).

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 319

 Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation, and a source term on the right-hand side of the energy equation.

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = F
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = F ⋅ u
∂t

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum and energy equations.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter a value for the volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Heat Source
This node describes heat generation within the domain. Express heating and cooling
with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as needed — all
heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source.

A source term Q is added to the right-hand side of the energy equation.

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = Q
∂t

HEAT SOURCE
Enter a value for the heat source Q (SI unit: W/m3).

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at walls. A no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0 , is enforced. Since viscous effects are
neglected, no boundary layer develops.

The no-penetration condition is imposed weakly setting the following flux:

Γρ ⋅ n = 0

– Γ m ⋅ n = pn

320 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 Γe ⋅ n = 0

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

Inlet
This condition provides the fluxes to describe the flow conditions at an inlet. The
applied conditions are controlled by the Flow Condition.

This condition uses the Osher-Solomon Riemann Solver (Ref. 4) to determine the
incoming and outgoing characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Supersonic (the default) or Subsonic.

• For Subsonic, a subsonic (Ma < 1) inlet is specified. The imposed flux uses the
imposed density and velocity, and computes the pressure from the interior of the
domain.
• For Supersonic the inlet flow is assumed to be supersonic (Ma > 1). A full set of
variables must be provided in Flow Properties. The numerical flux can determine
which characteristics are entering and leaving the domain, and can use values from
inside the domain when the condition requires it.

In transonic flows (0.8 < Ma < 1.2), or in cases where the flow may range from
subsonic to supersonic, it is safer to use the Supersonic condition and let the
characteristics based method determine the values used when computing the inlet flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Specify the flow properties at the inlet. If the inlet is Subsonic, enter values or
expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat (SI unit: Pa) and Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s).

In Supersonic inlets, the inlet can be specified in terms of primitive variables,

conservative variables, or a combination of static or total primitive variables and Mach

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 321

 number. Select an Input state — Primitive variables (the default), Conservative variables,
Static state, or Total state.

• For Primitive variables enter values or expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat
(SI unit: kg/m3), Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s), and Static pressure p0,stat
(SI unit: Pa).
• For Conservative variables enter values or expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat
(SI unit: kg/m3), Momentum m0 (SI unit: kg/(m2 s), and Total energy etot
(SI unit: J/m3).

• For Static state enter values or expressions for the Static pressure p0,stat
(SI unit: Pa), Static temperature T0,stat (SI unit: K), and Mach number Ma0
(dimensionless).
• For Total state enter values or expressions for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa)
and Total temperature T0,tot (SI unit: K), and Mach number Ma0 (dimensionless).

The relationships between the static and total states are:

γ
-----------
p tot  γ–1 2 γ–1
- = 1 + ----------- Ma 
---------
p stat  2  (5-3)
T tot 
- = 1 + γ----------- Ma 
–1 2
----------
T stat  2 

Select a Flow direction — Normal inflow (the default) or User defined to specify an
arbitrary flow direction. Then enter the components of the direction normal nM
(dimensionless).

Outlet
This condition provides the fluxes to describe the flow conditions at an outlet. The
applied conditions are controlled by the Flow Condition.

This condition uses the Osher-Solomon Riemann Solver (Ref. 4) to determine the
incoming and outgoing characteristics, and provide the appropriate flux.

322 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Subsonic (the default) or Supersonic.

• For Subsonic, a subsonic (Ma < 1) outlet is specified. The imposed flux computes
the density and velocity from inside the domain, and uses the pressure specified in
Flow Properties.
• For Supersonic the outlet flow is assumed to be supersonic (Ma > 1). All the
characteristics are assumed to be leaving the domain, and no variable needs to be
specified.

In transonic flows (0.8 < Ma < 1.2) or in cases where the flow may range from
subsonic to supersonic, it is safer to use the Subsonic condition and let the
characteristics based method determine the values used when computing the outlet
flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
This section is available when Subsonic is selected. Enter a value or expression for the
Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa).

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0 .

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0 . The software automatically provides an Axial Symmetry node
prescribing u ⋅ n = 0 on the axial symmetry boundaries.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that
it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition on interior
curves and surfaces instead.

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 323

 Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include Gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. A volume force and a source term are
added on the right-hand side of the momentum and energy equations, respectively.

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = ρg
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = ρg ⋅ u
∂t

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s2, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

324 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the High Mach Number
Flow Interfaces
In some industrial applications involving fluid flow, the flow velocity is large enough
to introduce significant changes in the density and temperature of the fluid. This
occurs because the thermodynamic properties of the fluid are coupled. Appreciable
changes in the fluid properties are encountered as the flow velocity approaches, or
exceeds, the speed of sound. As a rule of thumb, velocities greater than 0.3 times the
speed of sound are considered to be high Mach number flows.

The High Mach Number Flow interface theory is described in this section:

• Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers

• Sutherland’s Law
• Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models
• References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers

The High Mach Number Flow interfaces solve the following equations

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (5-4)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (5-5)
∂t

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + τ:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (5-6)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 325

 • F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

These are the fully compressible Navier-Stokes equations for a simple compressible
fluid. As can be seen, the same set of equations can be assembled using, for example,
a Nonisothermal Flow interface or by manually coupling a Single-Phase Flow interface
with a Heat Transfer interface. The difference is that the High Mach Number Flow
interface can handle flow of any Mach numbers, while the other physics interfaces are
subject to The Mach Number Limit. The Mach number is defined as

u
Ma = -------
a

where a is the speed of sound. Equation 5-4 is hyperbolic whereas Equation 5-5 and
Equation 5-6 are parabolic for time-dependent flow and elliptic for stationary flow. If
diffusive effects can be neglected, as is usually the case for high-speed flows, the entire
system of equations becomes hyperbolic. When the Mach number passes through
unity, the direction of the characteristics associated with the hyperbolic system
changes. This means that new phenomena not observed for incompressible flows, such
as shock waves and expansion fans, can occur (Ref. 2). The stabilization and boundary
conditions must be adapted to the change in direction of the characteristics.

Note that the diffusive effects do not disappear entirely unless these terms are explicitly
excluded from the equations. Instead, they are confined to either boundary layers or
to “shock-waves”, which are really thin regions with steep gradients. In the High Mach
Number Flow interfaces these thin regions are assumed to be underresolved, and the
stabilization takes this into account. If the details of these regions are of physical
interest they must be adequately resolved.

The physics interface assumes that the fluid is an ideal gas. This is necessary for the
formulation of the Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions. The ideal gas law relates
density and specific heats to the pressure and temperature. The viscosity and thermal

326 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

conductivity of an ideal gas can be accurately approximated using Sutherland’s Law,
which is included as an option in the High Mach Number Flow interface.

The Mach Number Limit

Sutherland’s Law
Sutherland’s law, or Sutherland’s formula, is an approximation for how the viscosity of
gases depends on the temperature. This law is based on an idealized
intermolecular-force potential and reads (Ref. 5)

μ T 3 / 2 T 0 + S μ-
------ =  ------ ------------------- (5-7)
μ0  T 0 T + Sμ

where Sμ is an effective temperature called the Sutherland constant. Each gas has its
own Sutherland constant. Equation 5-7 is strictly valid only for single-component
gases at low pressure. It does, however, work well for air because air is mainly
composed of nitrogen and oxygen, which have very similar properties. Parameter
values for some common gases are given in Table 5-2 (Ref. 5).
TABLE 5-2: SUTHERLAND’S LAW PARAMETERS FOR DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

GAS μ0 T0 Sμ

Air 1.716·10-5 273 111

Argon 2.125·10-5 273 114
C02 1.370·10-5 273 222
CO 1.657·10-5 273 136
N2 1.663·10-5 273 107
O2 1.919·10-5 273 139
H2 8.411·10-5 273 97
Steam 1.12·10-5 350 1064

The SI unit for μ0 in Table 5-2 is N·s/m2. The SI unit for T0 and Sμ is kelvin (K).

Sutherland’s law can also be formulated for thermal conductivity (Ref. 5):

T 3 / 2 T0 + Sk
=  ------ -------------------
k-
----- (5-8)
k0  T 0 T + Sk

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 327

 Values for k0, T0, and Sk for some common gases are given in Table 5-3(Ref. 5).
TABLE 5-3: SUTHERLAND’S LAW PARAMETERS FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

GAS K0 T0 S,k

Air 0.0241 273 K 194

Argon 0.0163 273 170
C02 0.0146 273 1800
CO 0.0232 273 180
N2 0.0242 273 150
O2 0.0244 273 240
H2 0.168 273 120
Steam 0.0181 300 2200

The unit for k0 in Table 5-3 is W/(m·K). The unit for T0 and Sk is kelvin (K).

Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions

In order to provide consistent inlet and outlet conditions for high Mach number flow,
the flow situation needs to be monitored at the boundary. Because all flow properties
are coupled, the number and combinations of boundary conditions needed for well
posedness depend on the flow state — that is, with which speeds the different flow
quantities are propagated at the boundary. For a detailed specification on the number
of physical boundary conditions needed for well posedness, see Ref. 1.

PLANE WAVE ANALYSIS OF INVISCID FLOW

On inlets a plane wave analysis of the inviscid part of the flow is used in order to apply
a consistent number of boundary conditions. The method used here is described in
Ref. 3.

Inviscid flow is governed by Euler’s equations, which, provided that the solution is
smooth and neglecting the gravity terms, can be written as

∂Q ∂F j ∂Q
+ --------- -------- = 0
∂t ∂Q ∂x j

Considering a small region close to a boundary, the Jacobian matrices can be regarded
as constant, which leads to a system of linear equations

∂Q  ∂F j ∂Q
+ --------- -------- = 0
∂ t  ∂Q  0 ∂x j

328 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

where the subscript 0 denotes a reference state at the boundary. Assuming that the
state at the boundary, described by a surface normal vector αi (pointing out from the
domain), is perturbed by a plane wave, the linear system of equations can be
transformed to

∂Q ∂Q
+ A 0 ------- = 0
∂t ∂ξ

where

∂F j
A 0 = α j  ---------
∂Q 0

and ξ corresponds to the direction normal to the boundary. In the unsteady case,
Euler’s equations are known to be hyperbolic in all flow regimes: subsonic, sonic, and
supersonic flow (Ref. 4). This implies that A0 has real-valued eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors, and it can therefore be diagonalized according to

–1
TA 0 T = Λ, Λ ii = { λ 1, λ 2, λ 3, λ 4, λ 5 }

The matrix T contains the (left) eigenvectors, and the matrix Λ is a diagonal matrix
containing the eigenvalues. The eigenvalues are given exactly by

λ1 = α i u i
λ2 = λ1
λ3 = λ1
λ4 = λ1 + cs
λ5 = λ1 – cs

where cs is the speed of sound. Using the primitive variables

ρ
u
Q = v
w
p

The characteristic variables on the boundary are

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 329

 p
w 1 = ρ – ---------------2-
A
( cs )
α1 v – α2 u
w 2 = -------------------------------------
α1 α1 + α2 α2

1  α1 u + α2 v 
w 3 = --------------- ( w α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2 ) – α 3  ------------------------------------- (5-9)
αi αi  α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2

1  ρ αi ui p 
A
w 4 = ---  -------A- --------------- + ---------------2-
2c αi αi ( c A ) 
s s

1  ρ αi ui p 
A
w 5 = ---  – -------A- --------------- + ---------------2-
2 c αi αi ( c A ) 
s s

Each characteristic can be interpreted to describe a wave transporting some quantity.

The first one is an entropy wave while the next two correspond to vorticity waves. The
fourth and fifth, in turn, are sound waves.

Evaluating the primitive variables in Equation 5-9, the values are taken from the
outside (specified values) or from the inside (domain values) depending on the sign of
the eigenvalue corresponding to that characteristic variable. At inlets, a negative
eigenvalue implies that the characteristic is pointing into the domain and hence outside
values are used. Correspondingly, for a positive eigenvalue the inside values are used.

Variables in Equation 5-9 with a superscript A are computed as averages of the inside
and outside values.

The characteristic variables are then transformed to consistent face values of the
primitive variables on the boundary in the manner of

330 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 ρb = w1 + w4 + w5
A
α2 w2 α1  α3 w3 cs 
u 1, b = – ------------------------------------- – ---------------  ------------------------------------- – -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 )
α1 α1 + α2 α2 αi αi  α1 α1 + α2 α2 ρ 
A
α1 w2 α2  α3 w3 cs 
u 2, b = ------------------------------------- – ---------------  ------------------------------------- – -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 ) (5-10)
α1 α1 + α2 α2 αi αi  α1 α1 + α2 α2 ρ 
A
1  cs 
u 3, b = ---------------  w 3 α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2 + α 3 -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 )
αi αi  ρ 
A 2
pb = ( cs ) ( w4 + w5 )

Characteristics Based Inlets

Applying this condition implies using the plane wave analysis described in Consistent
Inlet and Outlet Conditions. With this condition, a varying flow situation at the inlet
can be handled. This means that changes due to prescribed variations at the boundary,
due to upstream propagating sound waves or spurious conditions encountered during
the nonlinear solution procedure, can be handled in a consistent manner. The full flow
condition at the inlet is specified by the following properties

M in, p in, T in (5-11)

from which the density is computed using the ideal gas law. The dependent variables
defined in Equation 5-11 are applied as the outside values used in Equation 5-9, and
the boundary values of the dependent variables are obtained from Equation 5-10.

Supersonic Inlets
Applying a supersonic inlet, the full flow at the inlet is specified using the inlet
properties in Equation 5-11. Because the flow is supersonic, all characteristic at the
inlet are known to be directed into the domain, and the boundary values of the
dependent variables are computed directly from the inlet properties.

Hybrid Outlet
When building a model, it is recommended that it is constructed so that as little as
possible happens at the outlet. In the high Mach number flow case this implies keeping
the conditions either subsonic or supersonic at the outlet. This is, however, usually not
possible. For example, often one boundary adjacent to the outlet consists of a no slip
wall, in which case a boundary layer containing a subsonic region is present. The
hybrid outlet feature adds the following weak expression:

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 331

  0.5 ( – p – p )n ⋅ û Ma < 1
ΓW NS =  out
 ( – p )n ⋅ û else

where û is the test function for the velocity vector. This corresponds to a pressure, no
viscous stress condition in regions with subsonic flow and a no viscous stress condition
in regions with supersonic flow. When the static pressure at the outlet is not known
beforehand, it is recommended that it is set to the inlet pressure. When a converged
solution has been reached, the solution can be analyzed to find the pressure level just
outside the sonic point (Ma = 1) along the boundary. You can then apply this pressure
level instead.

Supersonic Outlet
When the outlet condition is known to be fully supersonic, the viscous stress is
specified in accordance with the equations and hence no physical condition is applied.
This is done by prescribing the boundary stress using the full stress vector:

T 2
W NS = – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I ( n ⋅ û )
3

It is often possible to use the supersonic condition at outlets that are not strictly
supersonic but mainly supersonic (the main part of the outlet boundary contains
supersonic flow).

Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models

Pseudo time stepping is per default applied to all governing equations for stationary
problems, for 2D component models as well as 3D component models. The
momentum, continuity, energy and turbulence equations (when present) use the same
expression for the pseudo time step symbol Δt̃ .

For laminar models the automatic expression for CFLloc is

1+
if ( niterCMP > 10, 1.2 min ( niterCMP – 10, 12 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 32, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 32, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 60, 40 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 60, 9 ), 0 )

while for models with turbulent flow it is

332 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 1+
if ( niterCMP > 10, 1.2 min ( niterCMP – 10, 12 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 120, 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 120, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 220, 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 220, 9 ), 0 )

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

1. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante, Theoretical and Numerical Combustion, 2nd ed.,
Edwards, 2005.

2. J.D. Anderson, Modern Compressible Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.

3. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat

Transfer Applications, Ph.D thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.

4. J.D. Tannehill, D.A. Anderson, and R.H. Pletcher, Computational Fluid

Mechanics and Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, 1997.

5. F.M. White, Viscous Fluid Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 333

 Theory for the Compressible Euler
Equations Interface
In this section:

• The Compressible Euler Equations

• The Numerical Method
• Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters
• References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

The Compressible Euler Equations

The Euler equations form a set of hyperbolic equations governing inviscid and
adiabatic flow. The Compressible Euler Equations interface solves the transient
compressible version of the Euler equations for ideal gases

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (5-12)
∂t

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = F + ρg
(5-13)
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = Q + F ⋅ u + ρg ⋅ u (5-14)
∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• ρu is the momentum vector (SI unit: kg/(m2 s))
• p is the absolute pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• etot is the total energy (SI unit: J/m3)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Q is the volumetric heat source (SI unit: W/m3)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2)
• I is the identity matrix

334 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The volume force and heat source terms can be added using the Volume Force and
Heat Source features, respectively. The gravity terms are added when Include Gravity is
selected at the interface level in the Physical Model settings.

The physics interface assumes that the fluid is an ideal gas. This is used in the definition
of the Inlet and Outlet fluxes and the positivity-preserving limiter (see Shock
Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters). The equation of state for the internal
energy per unit volume e is

p
e = -----------
γ–1

Where γ is the ratio of specific heats (dimensionless), which is assumed constant. The
total energy is expressed as the sum of the internal energy and the kinetic energy

p 1 2
e tot = ----------- + --- ρu
γ–1 2

The physics interface solves for the conservative dependent variables, which are the
density, momentum, and total energy. In some features, the primitive variables, density,
velocity, and pressure, may be used to impose initial or boundary conditions.

The absolute temperature T (SI unit: K) can be obtained from the equation of state
for an ideal gas

p
T = ----------
Rs ρ

where Rs is the specific gas constant (SI unit: J/(kg·K)).

The Numerical Method

The physics interface solves the compressible Euler equations using the Discontinuous
Galerkin (DG) method in space together with explicit time stepping. The
computations are restricted to transient problems. The basis functions are the nodal
discontinuous Lagrange shape functions.

The numerical method used solves wave problems of the form

∂w
da + ∇ ⋅ Γ(w) = f
∂t

THEORY FOR THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 335

 In the compressible Euler equations, da is an identity matrix, w is the vector of
conservative variables, Γ represents the conservative fluxes, and f includes the
volumetric forces, heat sources, and gravity terms;

ρ
w = ρu
e tot

Γρ ρu
T

Γ ( w ) = Γm = ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI
T
Γe ( e tot + p )u

0
f = F + ρg
Q + F ⋅ u + ρg ⋅ u

Γ ρ , Γ m , and Γ e represent the fluxes of the continuity, momentum, and energy

equations, respectively.

Discontinuous Galerkin methods use shape functions that are continuous in the
interior of each mesh element, but discontinuous across the element boundaries. A
numerical flux must be defined across element boundaries, and the dependent variables
are not required to be continuous on faces between adjacent mesh elements. The
default numerical flux is the Lax-Friedrichs flux, which uses an average of the physical
fluxes together with a penalty term. The Osher-Solomon flux is also available (see
Ref. 4).

After discretization in space, the system of equations is integrated in time. The

standard procedure is to use an explicit Runge-Kutta method. The physics interface
uses the third-order SSP (strong stability preserving) Runge-Kutta method per default.

The time step in explicit computations is limited by the CFL condition; see Time
Explicit Integrator in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. The maximum
stable time step is proportional to the smallest mesh element size h, and inversely
proportional to the maximum wave speed in the domain. On unstructured meshes
with local refinement regions only a few elements are small, yet these dictate the overall
time step for the whole problem. In such cases, the use of Local Time Stepping is

336 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

advisable. COMSOL Multiphysics provides the Adams-Bashforth 3 (local) time stepping
method.

Theory for the Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters

The compressible Euler equations form a system of hyperbolic conservation laws that
can develop discontinuous solutions even starting from a continuous initial solution.
These discontinuous solutions appear in the form of shock waves or contact waves, and
induce spurious oscillations and instabilities in the numerical solution when shape
functions other than constant are used. The control of oscillations around
discontinuities requires the use of a limiter to preserve the order of accuracy and
achieve sharp, non-oscillatory solutions.

The compressible Euler equations interface includes a weighted essentially

nonoscillatory (WENO) limiter for use in the discontinuous Galerkin method, which
is applied in each inner stage of the time-explicit solver. The WENO limiter
reconstructs the polynomial of the DG solution in a troubled element from a convex
combination of the polynomials in the current element and its immediate neighbors
based on smoothness indicators and nonlinear weights, and includes adjustments to
guarantee conservation. A total variation bounded (TVB) troubled cell indicator is
available to limit the use of WENO to the elements where it is needed and reduce
computational costs. The TVB constant can be set by the user and a larger value means
that a smaller number of elements will use WENO. For more information on the
WENO limiter, see Ref. 2.

The compressible Euler equations are well posed only if both density and pressure are
positive. When using constant interpolations, the positivity of density and pressure is
guaranteed if the CFL condition for the time step is satisfied. If the dependent variables
are discretized with linear shape functions, the positivity of density and pressure is not
ensured even when satisfying the CFL condition and using the WENO limiter.
Therefore, the physics interface includes a positivity-preserving limiter for density and
pressure which can be used together with WENO to prevent numerical blow-ups. See
Ref. 3 for more information.

THEORY FOR THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 337

 References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface
1. J.D. Anderson, Modern Compressible Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.

2. J. Zhu, X. Zhong, C.W. Shu, and J. Qiu, Runge-Kutta discontinuous Galerkin

method using a new type of WENO limiters on unstructured meshes, J. Comput.
Phys., vol. 248, pp. 200–220, 2013.

3. X. Zhang, Y. Xia, and C.W. Shu, Maximum-principle-satisfying and

positivity-preserving high order discontinuous Galerkin schemes for conservation
laws on triangular meshes, J. Sci. Comput., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 29–62, 2012.

4. J. Felcman & P. Šolín, On the Construction of the Osher-Solomon Scheme for 3D

Euler Equations, East-West J. Num. Math., vol. 6, pp. 43 - 64, 1998

338 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 6

Multiphase Flow Interfaces

This chapter discusses the physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase
Flow branch ( ). The section Modeling Multiphase Flow helps you choose the
best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface
• The Bubbly Flow Interfaces
• The Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces
• The Phase Transport Interfaces
• The Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

339
 • Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces
• Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces

340 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Modeling Multiphase Flow
In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• The Multiphase Flow Interface Options
• The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Certain types of multiphase flow can be described using the Phase Field
and Level Set interfaces found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ).

• The Physics Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual
• Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Multiphase Flow branch ( ) included with this module has a number of
subbranches to describe momentum transport for multiphase flow. One or more
physics interfaces can be added; either singularly or in combination with other physics
interfaces for applications such as mass transfer and energy (heat) transfer.

Different types of flow require different equations to describe them. If you know the
type of flow to model, then select it directly. However, when you are not certain of the
flow type, or when it is difficult to obtain a solution, you can instead start with a
simplified model and add complexity as you build the model. Then you can
successively advance forward, comparing models and results.

The Bubbly Flow, Mixture Model, Euler-Euler Model, and Phase Transport Mixture
Model interfaces are appropriate when you want to simulate a flow with many particles,
droplets, or bubbles immersed in a liquid. With these physics interfaces, you do not
track each particle in detail. Instead you solve for the averaged volume fraction. If you
are interested in the exact motion of individual bubbles, including how the fluid

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 341

 interface deforms due to, for instance, surface tension, use any of the Two-Phase Flow
interfaces.

To model the detailed dynamics of fluid interfaces, either use the level set method, the
phase field method, the phase field thin-film flow method, or by a moving mesh,
respectively. For problems involving topological changes (for example, jet breakup),
use either the Level Set, Phase Field or Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interfaces.These
techniques use an auxiliary function (the level set and phase field functions,
respectively) to track the location of the interface, which is necessarily diffuse. The
Level Set interface does not include the surface tension force per default, and is
recommended for use in large scale problems dominated by inertia, or when the effects
of the gradient of the surface tension coefficient are relevant. The phase field method
is physically motivated and is usually more numerically stable than the level set method.
It is can also be extended to more phases and is compatible with fluid-structure
interactions (requires the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics Module). In
general, it is not obvious which one of these to use when the flow is convection
dominated. However, when the flow is diffusion dominated, for example, in the case
of phase separation, the phase field method should be used. Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow method may be used to track the location of the interface in narrow channels,
represented by a surface or an edge within the geometry, which are thin enough for
the Reynolds equation or the modified Reynolds equation to apply.

The flow of two immiscible fluids in narrow channels can be simulated using the
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field interfaces.

The moving mesh method represents the interface as a boundary condition along a
line or surface in the geometry. Because the physical thickness of phase boundaries is
usually very small, for most practical meshes The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving
Mesh Interface describes the two-phase boundary more accurately. However, it cannot
accommodate topological changes in the boundary.

Three-phase flow can be simulated using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field
interface.

The Multiphase Flow Interface Options

For any of the Multiphase Flow interfaces, except for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow,
Phase Field interfaces, you can assume either laminar or turbulent flow as the starting
point. This enables you to make the appropriate mathematical model assumptions
required to solve the flow.

342 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces
Several of the interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 6-1,
Table 6-2, Table 6-4, and Table 6-5) in the Physical Model and Turbulence sections,
which are selected either from a check box or a list. For the Multiphase Flow branch, the
Bubbly Flow (bf), Mixture Model (mm), Euler-Euler Model (ee), and Phase Transport
subbranches have several physics interfaces each depending on the turbulence model
used. All the Two-Phase Flow interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature with
a name as (tpf). The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch contains a single interface for
laminar flow.

BUBBLY FLOW

TABLE 6-1: BUBBLY FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME LOW GAS TURBULENT TURBULENT SOLVE FOR
CONCENTRATION MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL AREA

Laminar Bubbly Flow bf Yes None n/a No

Bubbly Flow, Algebraic bf Yes RANS Algebraic No
yPlus yPlus
Bubbly Flow, L-VEL bf Yes RANS L-VEL No
Bubbly Flow, k-ε bf Yes RANS k-ε No
Bubbly Flow, Realizable bf Yes RANS Realizable No
k-ε k-ε
Bubbly Flow, k-ω bf Yes RANS k-ω No
Bubbly Flow, SST bf Yes RANS SST No
Bubbly Flow, Low Re bf Yes RANS Low No
k-ε Reynolds
number
k-ε
Bubbly Flow, bf Yes RANS Spalart-All No
Spalart-Allmaras maras
Bubbly Flow, v2-f bf Yes RANS v2-f No
The Bubbly Flow ( ) branch interfaces are used primarily to model two-phase flow
where the fluids are gas-liquid mixtures, and the gas content is less than 10%. The
Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface ( ) solves the Navier-Stokes equations with the
momentum equation corrected by a term induced by the slip velocity. The slip velocity
can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law for small spherical bubbles, a
nonlinear drag law taking surface tension into account for larger bubbles, or by
defining it on your own.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 343

 The various forms of the Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) solve the
RANS equations for the filtered velocity field and filtered pressure as well as models for
the turbulent viscosity. The Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces include all the
turbulence models available in the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces. See
The Bubbly Flow Interfaces for links to the physics interface information.

By default, the physics interfaces assume that the volume fraction of the gas is less than
0.1. It is then valid to approximate the liquid velocity as incompressible. This is
significantly easier to solve numerically. It is possible, though, to use the complete
continuity equation.

The physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the density of
both phases and for the dynamic viscosity of the liquid phase. You can also model mass
transfer between the two phases, using the two-film theory or your own expression for
interfacial mass transfer.

MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-2: MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE SOLVE FOR
LABEL PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL
AREA

Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous None n/a No

Laminar Flow particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Algebraic No
Algebraic yPlus particles flow yPlus
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS L-VEL No
L-VEL particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ε No
k-ε particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Realizable No
Realizable k-ε particles flow k-ε
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ω No
k-ω particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS SST No
SST particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Low No
Low Re k-ε particles flow Reynolds
number k-ε

344 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-2: MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE SOLVE FOR
LABEL PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL
AREA

Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Spalart-All No

Spalart-Allmaras particles flow maras
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS v2-f No
v2-f particles flow
The Mixture Model ( ) branch interfaces are similar to the Bubbly Flow interfaces
except that both phases are assumed to be incompressible. Examples include solid
particles dispersed in a liquid, and liquid droplets dispersed in another liquid when the
two liquids are immiscible.

Like the Bubbly Flow interfaces, The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface ( )
and Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) solve the flow equations,
whether described by the Navier-Stokes equations or the RANS equations with
different turbulence models, and where the momentum equation is corrected by a
term induced by the slip velocity. The slip velocity can be described by the
Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or Haider-Levenspiel method, or by
defining it on your own.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. The dynamic viscosity of the mixture can either
be of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), volume-averaged
(for gas-liquid, liquid-liquid systems), or a user-defined expression.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature. The physics interfaces also allow you to model mass transfer
between the two phases, using the two-film theory or your own expression for
interfacial mass transfer.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 345

 EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-3: EULER-EULER MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME DIPERSED DRAG MODEL TURBULENCE

PHASE MODEL TYPE

Euler-Euler Model, ee Solid Schiller-Naumann None

Laminar Flow particles
Euler-Euler Model, ee Solid Schiller-Naumann RANS, k-ε
Turbulent Flow particles

The Euler-Euler Model ( ) branch interfaces are used to model the flow of two
continuous and fully interpenetrating phases. For both phases the conservation
equations are averaged over volumes, which are small compared to the computational
domain, but large compared to the dispersed phase particles, droplets or bubbles. The
Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface solves two sets of conservation equations,
one for each phase. The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface additionally
solves transport equations for the turbulence quantities, either using a mixture
averaged turbulence models or solving separate transport equations for the turbulence
quantities of each phase. The drag model for solid particles or liquid droplets/bubbles
can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or Ishii-Zuber,
closures, or by defining it on your own. In addition the Haider-Levenspiel and
Gidaspow closures are available for solid particles, and the Tomiyama et al. closure is
available for liquid droplets/bubbles.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. Predefined expressions for the dynamic viscosity
of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), are available.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature.

346 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-4: PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE

PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL

Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous None n/a

Model, Laminar Flow particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Algebraic
Model, Algebraic yPlus particles flow yPlus
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS L-VEL
Model, L-VEL particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ε
Model, k-ε particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Realizable
Model, Realizable k-ε particles flow k-ε
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ω
Model, k-ω particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS SST
Model, SST particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Low
Model, Low Re k-ε particles flow Reynolds
number k-ε
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Spalart-All
Model, Spalart-Allmaras particles flow maras
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS v2-f
Model, v2-f particles flow

The Phase Transport Mixture Model ( ) branch interfaces are similar to the Mixture
Model interfaces. The main difference is that the Phase Transport Mixture Model
interfaces are multiphysics interfaces that couple a single-phase flow interface with a
Phase Transport interface, allowing for multiple dispersed phases.

Like the Mixture Model interfaces, The Phase Transport Mixture Model, Laminar
Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces solve the flow equations, whether described by
the Navier-Stokes equations or the RANS equations with different turbulence models,
and where the dispersed phase velocities are determined by the slip velocity. The slip
velocity can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or
Haider-Levenspiel closures, or by defining it on your own.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. The dynamic viscosity of the mixture can either

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 347

 be of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), volume-averaged
(for gas-liquid, liquid-liquid systems), or a user-defined expression.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature. The physics interfaces also enable you to model mass transfer
between the two phases.

348 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TWO-PHASE FLOW AND THREE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-5: TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME MULTIPHASE TURBULENCE TURBULENCE NEGLECT

INTERFACE LABEL FLOW MODEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL
TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Laminar, - Two-phaseflow, None n/a False

Two-Phase Flow, level set
Level Set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Algebraic False
Level Set, level set yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS L-VEL False
Level Set, L-VEL level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ε False
Level Set, k-ε level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Realizable False
Level Set, level set k-ε
Realizable k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ω False
Level Set, k-ω level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS SST False
Level Set, SST level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Low False
Level Set, Low level set Reynolds
Re k-ε number k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Spalart- False
Level Set, level set Allmaras
Spalart-Allmaras
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS v2f False
Level Set, v2f level set

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 349

 TABLE 6-6: TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE-FIELD AND THREE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME MULTIPHASE TURBULENCE TURBULENCE NEGLECT

INTERFACE LABEL FLOW MODEL MODEL TYPE MODEL TYPE INERTIAL
TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Laminar, - Two-phaseflow, None n/a False

Two-Phase Flow, phase field
Phase Field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Algebraic False
Phase Field, phase field yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS L-VEL False
Phase Field, phase field
L-VEL
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ε False
Phase Field, k-ε phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Realizable False
Phase Field, phase field k-ε
Realizable k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ω False
Phase Field, k-ω phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS SST False
Phase Field, SST phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Low False
Phase Field, Low phase field Reynolds
Re k-ε number k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Spalart- False
Phase Field, phase field Allmaras
Spalart-Allmaras
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS v2f False
Phase Field, v2f phase field
Two-Phase - Two-phase None n/a False
Thin-Film Flow, thin-film flow
Phase Field phase field
Laminar - Three-phase None n/a False
Three-Phase flow, phase field
Flow, Phase Field

350 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-7: TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME MULTIPHASE COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT

LABEL FLOW MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES FLOW)

Laminar, Two-Phase spf not applicable Incompressible None

Flow, Moving Mesh flow
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface ( ) and The Turbulent
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces ( ), found under the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
branch ( ), are used primarily to model two fluids separated by a fluid interface. The
moving interface is tracked in detail using the level set method. Surface tension acting
on the fluid interface can be included in the fluid-flow equations.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface. The Stokes’ flow option
is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface ( ) and The Turbulent
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces ( ) found under the Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field branch ( ), also model two fluids separated by a fluid interface. You can easily
switch between the physics interfaces, which can be useful if you are not sure which
physics interface provides the best description. Surface tension acting on the fluid
interface are per default included in the fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension
coefficients between a number of common substances are also available.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces. The Stokes’ flow
option is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 351

 Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface ( ) and The
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface ( ) found under the
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), model two fluids separated by a
fluid interface, in a narrow channel represented by a surface or an edge within the
geometry. Surface tension acting on the fluid interface are per default included in the
fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension coefficients between a number of
common substances are also available.

Specify the density and viscosity for each of the two fluids. Density specification is not
allowed when modified Reynolds equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow
interface.

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface found under the Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field branch ( ) models flows of three incompressible fluids separated by
sharp interfaces. Library surface tension coefficients between a number of common
substances are also available.

Specify the density for each of the three fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface , ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is used primarily to model
two fluids separated by a fluid interface. The moving interface is tracked as a boundary
condition along a line or surface in the geometry. However, the method cannot
accommodate topological changes in the boundary. Surface tension acting on the fluid
interface are per default included in the fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension
coefficients between a number of common substances are also available.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface. The Stokes’ flow
option is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

352 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
Often, you are simulating applications that couple fluid flow to another type of
phenomenon described in another physics interface. Although this is not often another
type of flow, it can still involve physics interfaces supported in the CFD Module or in
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package. This typically occurs in cases where
applications include chemical reactions and mass transport, as included in Chemical
Species Transport Interfaces, or energy transport, found in the Heat Transfer and
Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces chapter.

More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, such as those involving radiation, can be
found in the Heat Transfer Module, while tools for modeling chemical reactions and
mass transport are available in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 353

 The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and
Phase Field Interfaces
The following sections list all the physics interfaces and the physics features associated
with them under the Multiphase Flow branch ( ). The descriptions follow a
structured order as defined by the order in the branch. Because many of the physics
interfaces are integrated with each other, some nodes described also cross reference to
other physics interfaces.

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

• The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces
• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
• The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,

354 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Level Set interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
is also added, but with empty selection. Other Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling
features and The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature can be added when needed
to model walls.

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is None.

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the level set discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides exact conservation of the integral of the level
set variable when using the nonconservative form of the level set equation.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interfaces ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), are multiphysics interfaces designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be turbulent,
that is, to be of high Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible or
compressible.

When adding a Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Turbulent
Flow interface and a Level Set interface are added in the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 355
 automatically added under the Multiphysics node. Another multiphysics coupling
feature, The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature, can be added when needed.

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with
a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

Simulations using the Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interfaces are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is RANS. Turbulent flow can be simulated
by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

356 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface, and
it defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Level Set interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 357
 Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 1 μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

358 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
The default method for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In
addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or
Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function,
Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside
function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. The surface tension force is not
added to porous domains.

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 359
 The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
( ) interfaces contain an optional multiphysics coupling boundary feature, Wetted
Wall. It is an exclusive feature that overrides the Wall feature in the Laminar or
Turbulent Flow interface as well as the No Flow feature in the Level Set interface. It
cannot be used in boundaries that have a Flow Continuity feature in the flow physics
interface or a Continuity feature in the level set physics interface. It is available for
laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall functions or automatic wall treatment.

The Wetted Wall boundary condition is suitable for walls in contact with the fluid-fluid
interface. When this boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move
along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition u ⋅
nwall = 0 and adds a tangential stress on the form

μ
K nt = – --- u
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size. The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity
component to zero. However, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at
a distance β outside the wall (see Figure 6-1).

For turbulent flow, the wall is modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall
functions depending on the Wall Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the
turbulent flow interface settings.

If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation in The Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, the Wetted Wall boundary condition also adds the
following boundary force to enforce the contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

The contact angle θw is defined as the angle between the fluid interface and the wall
(see Figure 6-1). For more information, see Ref. 4 and Ref. 5. Note that the contact
angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young's equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

360 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (6-1)

where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

Fluid 1

u Wall
Wall
θ

Fluid 2
β

Figure 6-1: Definition of the contact angle θ at interface/wall contact points (left) and
an illustration of the slip length β (right).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the model)
is ww1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 361
 component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame. For 2D axisymmetric
components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface properties, the ϕ
component of utr may also be specified.

Translational velocity can also be set to Zero (Fixed wall) to force utr = 0. This is typically
used in problems where the mesh is deforming or rotating, but we want the boundary
to keep zero velocity. For example, in fixed walls tangential to a Rotating Domain.

WETTED WALL
Specify the following two properties for the wetted wall:

• The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The
slip length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length selection list in
order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).
• Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or
Through Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The
default is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for
Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface
energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Interior Wetted Wall, multiphysics coupling boundary feature can only be applied
on interior boundaries.

It is similar to The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature available on exterior boundaries of

the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

362 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

( ) multiphysics interfaces, except that it applies on both sides of an interior
boundary. It is an exclusive feature which overrides the Interior Wall feature in the
Laminar or Turbulent Flow interface as well as the Thin Barrier feature in the Level Set
interface. It is available for laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall functions or
automatic wall treatment.

The Interior Wetted Wall coupling feature allows discontinuities (velocity, pressure,
level set variable, and turbulence variables) across the boundary and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures in contact with the fluid-fluid interface. When this
boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition
u ⋅ nwall = 0 on both sides of the wall, and adds a tangential stress on the form

μ
K nt = – --- u
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size.

For turbulent flow, the wall is modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall
functions depending on the Wall Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the
turbulent flow interface settings.

If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, the Interior Wetted
Wall boundary condition also adds the following boundary force on both sides of the
walls to enforce the contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

Note that the contact angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.
For more information, see The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Interior Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the
model) is iww1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 363
 order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame. For 2D axisymmetric
components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface properties, the ϕ
component of utr may also be specified.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

WETTED WALL
Specify the following two properties for the interior wetted wall:

• The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The
slip length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length selection list in
order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).
• Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or
Through Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The
default is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for

364 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface
energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate
multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default Wetted Wall feature in the Phase
Field interface.

Wetted Wall

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is None. Turbulent flow can be simulated
by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 365
 Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides improved conservation of the integral of the
phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field equations.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), are multiphysics interfaces designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is by default assumed to be
turbulent. The fluids can be incompressible or compressible.

When adding a Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Turbulent
Flow and a Phase Field interface are added in the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is
automatically added under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate
multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default feature in the Phase Field
interface.

Wetted Wall

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.

366 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with
a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

Simulations using the Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is RANS. If None is selected for Turbulence
model type, the model becomes laminar.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, ( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow interfaces,
and it defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Phase Field interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 367
 interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

368 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of fluid
1μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau––, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–

Bulkley–Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou–––– models can alternatively be
used to specify the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 369
 The fluid defined as Fluid 1 affects the wetting characteristics on wetted walls. See the
Wetted Wall node for details.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
Select the method used for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging. The default
method for both settings is Volume average. In addition to the default method, Density
averaging can be set to Heaviside function or Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity
averaging can be set to Heaviside function, Harmonic volume average, Mass average or
Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside function is used, enter a value for the
corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ. The Shift surface tension force to the heaviest
phase check-box can be selected to diminish smoothing effects on the surface-tension
force, that may result in unphysical, strong acceleration of a much lighter phase. When
selected, enter a value for the Smoothing factor, ds,Fst.

When the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, you can select
the Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase check box. This can prevent
significant spurious oscillations in the velocity field for the lighter phase in cases with
a large difference in density between the two phases. The amount of shifting is
controlled by the Smoothing factor ds,Fst (default 0.1). The surface tension force is
then multiplied by

V f, 1 – 0.5 V f, 2 – 0.5
f s = -----------------------  ρ 1 H  ------------------------- + ρ 2 H  ------------------------- 
2
(6-2)
( ρ1 + ρ2 )   d s, Fst   d s, Fst  

Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase works better when combined with
Heaviside function for the averaging of density and viscosity.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. If the surface tension force is
included, select Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force to
account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension coefficient.

370 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and
Turbulent Flow, Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interfaces together with Level Set or
Phase Field interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for the Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow Interface are also listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LEVEL SET
The available physics features for the Level Set Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface.

PHASE FIELD
The available physics features for the Phase Field Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 371
 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase
Field Interfaces
The following sections list all the physics interfaces and the physics features associated
with the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field interfaces, located under the
Multiphase Flow branch ( ).

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

This section includes the following topics:

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface
• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Thin-Film
Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics
interface designed to track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The fluids are
assumed to flow in a narrow channel that is represented by a surface within the
geometry.

When adding the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Thin-Film Flow, Shell and a Phase-Field Thin-Film Flow, Shell interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. In addition, a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is added automatically under the
Multiphysics node.

372 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Simulations using the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides an improved conservation of the integral of
the phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field
thin-film flow equations.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics
interface designed to track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The fluids are
assumed to flow in a narrow channel that is represented by an edge within the
geometry.

When adding the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Thin-Film Flow, Edge and a Phase-Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. In addition, a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is added automatically under the
Multiphysics node.

Simulations using the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides an improved conservation of the integral of
the phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field
thin-film flow equations

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 373

 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field, ( ) interface contains a multiphysics
coupling feature, Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the
density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Thin-Film Flow interface, and it
defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Phase Field, Thin-Film Flow interface to use the
velocity field calculated from the Thin-Film Flow interface to transport the interface.

The multiphysics coupling is not available for boundaries (edges in 2D problems) with
Cavitation option enabled in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow,
Phase Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature, may be required to
define these properties.

374 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1 from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1, ρ1, and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 1, μ1, are both set to From Material.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1, ρ1, or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1, μ1,
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 375

 The specification of densities for the two fluids is not available when the Modified
Reynolds Equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
The default method for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In
addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or
Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function,
Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside
function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ.

The specification of the Density averaging is not available when the Modified Reynolds
Equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. Select a Surface tension coefficient σ
(SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

376 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Thin-Film Flow interfaces together with Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
interfaces.

THIN-FILM FLOW
The available physics features for the Thin-Film Flow interfaces are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film Flow Branch
Interfaces..

PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW

The available physics features for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interfaces are listed
in the section Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces.

All domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 377

 The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field
Interface
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to track the interfaces between three immiscible and incompressible fluids. The flow is
assumed to be laminar; that is, a flow characterized by a low-to-moderate Reynolds
number. The density of each fluid is assumed to be constant, but the there is no
restriction on the density differences between the separate fluids.

When adding the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow and a Ternary Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In
addition the Multiphysics node, including the multiphysics coupling feature Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field is added.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Simulations using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

378 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
Use the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate the flow
of a three immiscible fluids while explicitly tracking the interface separating each pair
of the fluids.

The Three-Phase Flow interface solves Navier-Stokes equations for the conservation
of momentum, and a continuity equation for the conservation of mass. The positions
of the interfaces separating the fluid phases are tracked by solving four additional
transport equations: two equations governing phase field variables and two equations
for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials. The movement of the
fluid-fluid interfaces is determined by minimization of free energy.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tfpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the three-phase flow, or
select All domains as needed.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own

THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 379

 tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of all three fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid A, Fluid B, and Fluid C, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid A from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid A list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid A ρA and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid A μA are both set to From material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the laminar flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the three fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for
Fluid A, select User defined in the Density of fluid A ρA or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid
A μA list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in

380 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces is a multiphysics interface
combining The Laminar Flow Interface and The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TERNARY PHASE-FIELD
The available physics features for The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces are listed
in Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 381

 T he L a m i na r T wo- Ph ase Fl ow, Mov i n g
M e s h I nte r f a c e
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to model laminar two–phase flow of immiscible fluids separated by a moving interface.
The velocity field, pressure, and mesh deformation are solved for, and the location of
the interface is tracked by the deformed mesh.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow interface is added to the component, and a Moving Mesh interface with a
Deforming Domain feature is added under the Definitions node. The Laminar Flow
interface adds the Navier–Stokes equations and provides a way of defining the
properties of the fluids. For each of the fluids the density and viscosity must be
specified (these are typically taken from the corresponding materials, but can be user
defined).

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history. There are additional boundary conditions to describe how the fluid-fluid
interface moves from the Laminar Flow context menu under the option Fluid Interface
Features:

• Fluid-Fluid Interface
• Free Surface
• Contact Angle (as a subfeature to the two conditions above)

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), a

specific physics interface called Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh
(tpfmm) was added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics
coupling approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options
for your modeling. For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

382 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select Laminar Flow Properties
For a full list of available properties, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This physics interface deforms the mesh within the domains on either side of the two
fluid interfaces to track its movement.

The Compressibility defaults to Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant

density) formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations. Select Compressible flow (Ma<0.3)
to use the compressible formulation.

If flow is occurring at very low Reynolds numbers, the inertial term in the Navier–
Stokes equations can be neglected and the linear Stokes equations can be solved on the
domain. This flow type is referred to as creeping flow or Stokes flow and can occur in
microfluidics and MEMS devices, where the flow length scales are very small. To make
this approximation select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box, which
significantly improves the solver speed.

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field and Pressure. The
names can be changed in the corresponding fields, but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

The following models are found at this Application Library path

CFD_Module/Multiphase_Flow/<filename>

• Drug Delivery System: viscous_catenary

• Electrowetting Lens: electrowetting_lens
• Viscous Catenary: viscous_catenary

Deforming Domain
When the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface is added using
the Model Wizard, a Deforming Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder
under the Definitions>Moving Mesh node. This node serves to represent domains and
boundaries where the mesh can deform. By default, the selection is all domains. Under
the Deforming Domain, you can also choose the Mesh smoothing type, by default set to

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 383

 Yeoh with a default Stiffening factor of 10. More information of the smoothing type can
be found in the Deforming Domain chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

By default, the mesh is fixed at all external boundaries of the geometry. Use the
Symmetry/Roller node to select the external boundaries, where the fluid-fluid
interface can slide along the boundary. You can also add other types of boundary
conditions for the mesh motion, for details see Moving Mesh Features in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fluid-Fluid Interface
The Fluid-Fluid Interface node defines the initial position of a fluid-fluid interface and
includes equations to track the evolution of the interface. The Contact Angle subnode
is added by default, and is also available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select Library
coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

384 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

NORMAL DIRECTION
The normal direction on the selected boundaries can be reversed by selecting Reverse
normal direction. The direction is indicated by a red arrow in the Graphics window.

The Fluid-Fluid Interface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the

normal direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel
to those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid-Fluid
Interface and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary
condition.

If a Fluid-Fluid Interface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the

movement of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip
condition. For laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier
Slip option should be selected. For turbulence models with wall functions
or automatic wall treatment the Wall feature with the No Slip option can
be selected.

Free Surface
The Free Surface node defines the initial position of an external fluid interface - that is,
an interface in which the viscosity in the fluid outside the domain can be neglected. By
applying this feature the motion of the two-phase interface can be tracked. In the
tangential direction the free surface motion is governed by the fluid motion in
combination with the surface tension of the fluid-fluid interface.

The Free Surface node can only be applied to outer boundaries of a Deforming Domain
that do not have any boundary condition assigned under Moving Mesh.

To control the attachment angle between the free surface and adjacent walls, a Contact
Angle subnode is by default added under the Free Surface node. A different contact
angle subnode can be added from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 385

 The Free Surface feature is supported by laminar flow and by turbulence models using
wall functions or automatic wall treatment but not low-Reynolds number wall
treatment. It also requires the study to be time dependent. The node is inactive for
Frozen Rotor studies.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

FREE SURFACE
Enter an External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa).

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The default Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select
Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid
interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

386 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Free Surface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the normal
direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel to
those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Free Surface
and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary condition.

If a Free Surface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the movement

of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip condition. For
laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier Slip option
should be selected. For turbulence models with wall functions or
automatic wall treatment the Wall feature with the No Slip option can be
selected.

Contact Angle
The Contact Angle subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Fluid-Fluid Interface, Free Surface, or Stationary Free Surface parent node) or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The condition applies forces on the wall that
balance the surface tension for the prescribed contact angle. Note that the contact
angle can only be enforced when the surface tension force is included in the
momentum equation in the parent feature.

For laminar flow with moving mesh, the Contact Angle node should be used on edges
or points where a Wall feature with the Navier Slip option is prescribed adjacent to the
free surface. In this case, the Navier Slip option is required for the contact line to move
along the wall.

The representation of the contact angle is dependent on the mesh resolution in the
region where the fluid-fluid interface attaches to the wall. If, during the simulation, the
contact angle is found to fluctuate around a given value, this indicates that the
resolution needs to be improved. This can for example be achieved by adding more
mesh boundary layers on the wall.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 387

 CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
• For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI
unit: J/m2).

NORMAL WALL VELOCITY

Select whether to Constrain the wall-normal velocity. This ensures that the fluid velocity
normal to the wall on the contact edge or point is exactly the desired value. This can
be helpful when the adjacent wall uses a Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation and the
no-penetration condition is satisfied in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
Moreover, constraining the wall-normal velocity simplifies the equilibrium of forces in
the wall-normal direction. This setting should not be selected when the adjacent
boundary has an unknown velocity.

The contact angle θw is defined between the fluid-fluid interface and the
surface of the wall adjacent to phase 1.

The moving mesh boundary condition must be compatible with the

motion of the wall for the problem to have a valid solution.

388 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Bubbly Flow Interfaces
In this section:

• The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface

• The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow

The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface

The Laminar Bubbly Flow (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model the flow of liquids
with dispersed bubbles at low and moderate Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is computed from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the effective gas density.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, that is, the
number of bubbles per unit volume which in turn can be used to calculate the
interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
laminar bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 389

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Laminar Bubbly Flow, Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary
types are No slip for the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Laminar Bubbly Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is bf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Specify if the gas concentration is low and whether or not to solve for the interfacial
area.

Low Gas Concentration

The Low gas concentration check box is selected by default. This approximation is valid
if the gas volume fraction is low ( φ g less than a few percent) and its density does not
have any significant effects on the continuity equation. It is then generally valid to
replace the continuity equation in The Bubbly Flow Equations; see Equation 6-31
with Equation 6-34).

Solve for Interfacial Area

To add a transport equation for the bubble density in order to determine the interfacial
area, select the Solve for interfacial area check box.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the liquid and the
absolute pressure pA.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA = p + pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference

390 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

pressure level is also used to define the density of the liquid. The default Reference
pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa) is 1[atm].

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the density of the
liquid. The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) is 293.15[K].

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component — that is, the velocity component u ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While u ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Also see
General Single-Phase Flow Theory in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By default no turbulence model is used.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The names can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. This section contains the settings for stabilization
of the momentum transport (the fluid flow) in the Momentum transport area and
stabilization of the equation for the dispersed phase in the Gas phase transport area.

Consistent streamline and crosswind diffusion is applied by default to both gas and
momentum transport. Additional inconsistent stabilization terms may be added when
required as isotropic diffusion.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 391

 Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. For Manual enter a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
• Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are included using an
enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface
therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

392 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Algebraic yPlus.

Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible,
but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Wall distance in viscous units
yPlus (dimensionless), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization
study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 393

 guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are included using an
enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics interface
therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is L-VEL.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters are optimized for internal flow. For certain cases,
better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description
of the turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),

394 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Tangential velocity in viscous units
uPlus (dimensionless), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, k-ε(bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
standard two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints and bubble-induced
turbulence production. The flow near walls is modeled using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 395

 TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The names of variables can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables
must be unique within a component.

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. The settings for this section are the same as for
The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface with the addition of this section: stabilization for
the turbulence variables in the Turbulence equations area.

When using a turbulence model, streamline and crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the turbulence equations.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Turbulence variables scale
parameters subsection is available when the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface, enter a
value for Uscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.

The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units

396 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
• Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces

Flow in an Airlift Loop Reactor: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/airlift_loop_reactor

The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε(bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
realizable two-equation k-ε model and bubble-induced turbulence production. The
flow near walls is modeled using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 397

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Realizable k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the Realizable k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More
options becomes available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface

The Bubbly Flow, k-ω (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints and bubble-induced

398 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

turbulence production. The k-ω model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model,
which means that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ω.

Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 399

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Specific dissipation rate om (SI unit: 1/s), the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit:
m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface

The Bubbly Flow, SST (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints and bubble-induced turbulence production. The SST model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The SST model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

400 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is SST.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Specific dissipation rate om (SI unit: 1/s), the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit:
m2/s2), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density, gas
phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 401

 It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the AKN
two-equation k-ε with realizability constraints and bubble-induced turbulence
production. The AKN model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Low Reynolds number
k-ε.

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

402 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density,
gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
Spalart–Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart–Allmaras model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The Spalart–Allmaras model depends on the distance to the closest
wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 403

 The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Spalart-Allmaras.

Wall Treatment
The Spalart–Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s), the Reciprocal wall
distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization

study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

404 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The v2-f model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is v2-f.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 405

 Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), the Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta (dimensionless), the Elliptic
blending function alpha (dimensionless), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m),
and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

406 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
The following domain and boundary nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Fluid Properties
• Volume Force (described for The Laminar Flow Interface)
• Mass Transfer
• Gravity
• Initial Values

BOUNDARY

The sections describe the available boundary conditions for the liquid and
the gas. In all equations, n denotes the outward pointing unit vector
normal to the boundary.

The boundary types for the liquid flow variables, described in this section, are:

• Wall (the default boundary condition)

• Inlet
• Outlet
• Symmetry
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall

PAIR
• Flow Continuity

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 407

 In addition to the boundary conditions for the liquid, the following boundary
conditions for the gas are available for all boundary condition types except symmetry
and interior wall:

• Gas Concentration (the default condition for inlets)

• Gas Flux
• Gas Outlet (the default condition for outlets)
• No Gas Flux (the default condition for walls)
• Symmetry

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node contains the material properties for the liquid and the gas. It
also contains settings for the slip model.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as the gas density and liquid viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

408 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIALS
Select the materials to use for the material properties of the liquid and the gas (when
they are set to take their value from the material). The default is to use the Domain
material for the Liquid and None for the Gas. Select another material to use that
material’s properties for the liquid or gas as needed.

LIQUID PROPERTIES
The default Density, liquid phase ρl (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. For User
defined enter another value or expression.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified at the
physics interface level.

The default Dynamic viscosity, liquid phase μl (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material;
the value is then defined for the material selected in the Materials section for the
continuous phase. For User defined enter another value or expression.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 409

 The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

GAS PROPERTIES
The default Density, gas phase ρg (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. For User
defined enter another value or expression. Alternatively, select Calculate from ideal gas
law and enter the Molecular weight M (SI unit: kg/mol) of the gas.

Enter the Bubble diameter db (SI unit: m). The default value is 10−3 m (1 mm).

SLIP MODEL
Select a Slip model — Homogeneous flow (the default), Pressure-drag balance, or User
defined.

Homogeneous flow assumes that the velocity of the two phases are equal; that is,
uslip = 0. For User defined enter different values or expressions for the components of
the Slip velocity uslip (SI unit: m/s).

For Pressure-drag balance it uses a model based on the assumption that the pressure
forces on a bubble are balanced by the drag force:

3 C
--- ------d- ρ l u slip u slip = – ∇p
4 db

Here db (SI unit: m) is the bubble diameter, and Cd (dimensionless) is the drag
coefficient.

Select a Drag coefficient model:

• Small spherical bubbles (Hadamard-Rybczynski) for bubbles with a diameter smaller

than 2 mm.
• Large bubbles for gas bubbles with a diameter larger than 2 mm. Then enter the
Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit N/m). The default is 0.07 N/m.

410 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Air bubbles in tap water (Schwarz-Turner) for air bubbles of 1–10 mm mean diameter
in water.
• User defined to enter a different value or expression for the Drag coefficient Cd
(dimensionless). The default value is 1.

See the Slip Model theory section.

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

This section is available for the Bubbly Flow, k-ε, Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε, and
Bubbly Flow, k-ω interfaces, where an upper limit on the mixing length is required.

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, the mixing length limit is
evaluated as the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for
example, a complicated system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such
cases, it is recommended that the mixing length limit is defined manually. Select Manual
to enter a different value or expression.

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for the Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε, Bubbly Flow, Algebraic
yPlus, Bubbly Flow, L-VEL, Bubbly Flow, SST, Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras, and
Bubbly Flow, v2-f interfaces.

When the Reference length scale lref is set to Automatic, it is evaluated one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled by the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling because small objects would have too large an impact on the
solution if the wall distance were measured exactly. The automatic value is usually a
good choice but the value can become too high if the geometry consists of several slim
entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually. Select Manual to enter a different value or expression.

Mass Transfer
Add a Mass Transfer node to include mass transfer from the gas to the liquid.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 411

 MASS TRANSFER
Select a Mass transfer model — Two-film theory, Nonequilibrium model, or User defined.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mass transfer from gas to liquid mgl
(SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Nonequilibrium Model
For Nonequilibrium model enter values or expressions for each of the following:

• Equilibrium volume fraction in dispersed phase φ eq. The default is 0.

• Inverse time scales fl and fg (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 s-1.
The mass transfer is modeled as

m gl = ρ g [ f l max ( φ g – φ eq ) – f g max ( φ eq – φ g ) ]

Two-film theory
For Two-film theory enter values for the Mass transfer coefficient k (SI unit: m/s),
Henry’s constant H (SI unit: Pa·m3/mol), the Dissolved gas concentration c (SI unit:
mol/m3), and the Molecular weight of species M (SI unit: kg/mol). Refer to the theory
below for more information.

Henry’s law gives the equilibrium concentration c* of gas dissolved in liquid:

p + p ref
c∗ = -------------------
H

where H is Henry’s constant. The molar flux per interfacial area, N (SI unit:
mol/(s·m2)), is determined by

N = k ( c∗ – c )

where k is the Mass transfer coefficient and c is the Dissolved gas concentration in
liquid.

The mass transfer from gas to liquid, mgl, is given by

m gl = NMa

where M is the Molecular weight of species and a is the interfacial area per volume
(SI unit: m2/m3).

Also see Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces for details about how a is
computed.

412 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For two-film theory, you also need to solve for the concentration of the dissolved gas;

∂c m gl
+ ∇ ⋅ ( cu l ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D∇c ) + ---------
∂t M

which can be done by adding a Transport of Diluted Species interface.

Gravity
The Gravity node adds the force ρg to the right-hand side of the momentum transport
equation. Gravity nodes are mutually exclusive, that is, there can only be one active
Gravity node per domain.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector, g (SI unit: m/s2). For 2D components
the default Gravity vector is defined as (0, −g_const). Here g_const is a physical
constant equal to 9.8066 m/s2. For 3D and 2D axisymmetric components, the gravity
acts in the negative z direction by default.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the flow variables and the effective gas
density that can serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess
for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit: m/s)
and for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0. Also enter a value or
expression for the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is
0 kg/m3.

If the Solve for interfacial area check box is selected, enter an initial value for the Number
density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The default is 0 1/m3.

For the Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence
variables should be also specified. Additional initial values may be required for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy k

• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Specific dissipation rate om

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 413

 • Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha

Wall
The Wall node adds a selection of boundary conditions that describe the existence of a
solid wall. The Wall node by default specifies no gas flux for the gas phase.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — No slip (the default) or Slip.

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the liquid. A no slip wall is a wall where
the liquid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For stationary walls, it sets the
liquid velocity to zero at the wall:

ul = 0

For turbulent bubbly flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or
modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall
Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

When Wall functions are selected, the Apply wall roughness option becomes available.
Click to select the Apply wall roughness check box to apply the roughness correction.
When the check box is selected, the default Roughness model is Sand roughness, which
is derived from the experiments by Nikuradse. Select Generic roughness to specify more
general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness enter an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq (SI unit: m). The
default is 3.2 micrometers.

414 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• For Generic roughness enter a Roughness height ks (SI unit: m). The default is
3.2 micrometers. Then enter a Roughness parameters Cs (dimensionless). The
default is 0.26.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Slip
Sets the velocity component normal to the wall to zero:

ul ⋅ n = 0

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

From the list, select a Gas boundary condition for the gas phase on the wall — No gas
flux (the default), Gas concentration, Gas outlet, Gas flux, or Symmetry.

Gas Concentration
For Gas concentration enter the Effective gas density ρ g φ g0 (SI unit: kg/m3). The
default is 0 kg/m3.If Solve for interfacial area is selected, also select either the Bubble
number density (the default) or the Bubble diameter and gas density button.

• For Bubble number density enter the Bubble number density n0 (SI unit: 1/m3). The
default is 1000 1/m3.
• For Bubble diameter and gas density enter the Bubble diameter db (SI unit: m) (the
default is 1 mm) and Density, gas phase ρg (SI unit: kg/m3) (the default is
1 kg/m3).

Gas Flux
For Gas flux enter the Gas mass flux N ρ g φ g (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) (the default is
0 kg/(m2·s)) and if the Solve for interfacial area check box is selected on the physics
interface, the Number density flux Nn (SI unit: 1/(m2·s)). The default is 0 (1/(m2·s)).

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the spatial
frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational velocity, utr. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. When Automatic from frame is selected, the physics
automatically detects if the spatial frame moves. If there is no movement, utr is set to

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 415

 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal to the frame movement. utr is accounted for
in the actual boundary condition prescribed in the Liquid boundary condition section.

When Manual is selected from Translational velocity selection list, the Velocity of moving
wall, utr can be prescribed manually. Specifying the translational velocity manually
does not automatically cause the associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh
interface needs to be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial
reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the surface is sliding in its tangential direction.
A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the boundary itself does not have to actually
move relative to the reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a selection of boundary conditions that describe inlets in fluid-flow
simulations.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — Velocity (the default), Pressure, or Fully developed
flow.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Normal inflow velocity (the default) or Velocity field buttons.

• For Normal inflow velocity enter a value or expression for U0 (SI unit: m/s).
• For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given u0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:

416 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ul = u0

PRESSURE
This condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately equal
to the pressure. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa.
Enter a relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref
defined at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.

• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the inlet
pressure, pˆ 0 ≥ p 0 , locally in order to reduce the amount of fluid exiting the domain
through the boundary. If suppress backflow is deselected, the inlet boundary can
become an outlet depending on the pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow (the default) it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined define an Inflow velocity direction, du (dimensionless). The
magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The velocity is defined by
the boundary condition of the adjacent boundary in the model.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

Select a Fully developed flow option — Average velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Average pressure.

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• For Average velocity enter Uav .

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 417

 • Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow
boundary.

Fully developed inflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the inlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

These settings are the same as for Wall. See Gas Boundary Condition. The only
difference is that Gas concentration is the default.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
This section is available for Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces. No additional
inputs are required for Fully developed flow.

No additional inlet conditions are required for the algebraic turbulence models:
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL.

For the Bubbly Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface, a value or expression for the Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 should be specified. The default value is 3*bf.nul.

For transport-equation turbulence models, apart from Spalart–Allmaras, the following

settings are available under the Specify turbulence length scale and intensity option (see
Table 3-3 for the default values):

• Turbulent intensity IT
• Turbulent length scale LT
• Reference velocity scale Uref
For the v2-f turbulence model, the additional choice between Isotropic turbulence and
Specify turbulence anisotropy appears. For Specify turbulence anisotropy, a value for the
turbulent relative fluctuations at the inlet, ζ0, may be specified. When Specify
turbulence variables is selected, values or expressions for the dependent turbulence
variables should be defined. Availability is based on the physics interface and the
boundary condition chosen.

• Turbulent kinetic energy k0

418 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0
• Specific dissipation rate ω0

• Turbulent relative fluctuations ζ0

• Elliptic blending function α0

The turbulent length scale LT and turbulence intensity IT are related to the turbulence
variables, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

See Inlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a set of boundary conditions that describe outlets in fluid-flow
simulations; that is, the conditions at boundaries where the fluid exits the domain.

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — Pressure (the default), Velocity, or Fully developed
flow.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
The Pressure condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately
equal to the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to 0 N/m2.

• Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa. Enter a
relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref defined
at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.
• Select the Normal flow check box to change the no tangential stress condition to a
no tangential velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain
perpendicularly to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Velocity field (the default) or Normal outflow velocity buttons.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 419

 • For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given u0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:
ul = u0

• For Normal outflow velocity enter a value or expression for U0 (SI unit: m/s).

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

Select a Fully developed flow option — Average velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Average pressure.

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

The settings for the Gas boundary condition are the same as for Wall. See Gas Boundary
Condition.

When the Gas boundary condition is set to Gas outlet, the Exterior gas condition(s)
section contains an input field for the Effective gas density on the downstream side of
the outlet. If Solve for interfacial area is selected at the physics interface level, additional
input fields appear for the Bubble number density or the Bubble diameter and gas density
on the downstream side of the outlet.

See Outlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds boundary conditions that describe symmetry boundaries in
fluid-flow simulations. The boundary condition for symmetry boundaries prescribes
no penetration and vanishing shear stresses:

t T  φ l ( μ l + μ T )  ∇u l + ∇u l – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u l )I  n = 0
T 2
u l ⋅ n = 0,
  3 

420 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
A boundary condition for 2D axial symmetry is not required.

For the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically provides a condition that
prescribes ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
A value or expression should be specified for the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 421

 Interior Wall
The Interior Wall node adds a wall boundary condition on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that it
applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the dependent
variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall node specifies no gas flux for the gas
phase.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — No slip (the default) or Slip.

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the liquid. A no slip wall is a wall where
the liquid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For interior stationary walls, it
sets the liquid velocity to zero on both sides of the wall:

ul = 0

For turbulent bubbly flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or
modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall
Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition. For an interior stationary
wall it sets the velocity component normal to the interior wall to zero on both sides of
the wall:

ul ⋅ n = 0

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the spatial
frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational velocity, utr. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. When Automatic from frame is selected, the physics
automatically detects if the spatial frame moves. If there is no movement, utr is set to

422 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal to the frame movement. utr is accounted for
in the actual boundary condition prescribed in the Liquid boundary condition section.

When Manual is selected from Translational velocity selection list, the Velocity of moving
wall, utr can be prescribed manually. Specifying the translational velocity manually
does not automatically cause the associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh
interface needs to be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial
reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

In addition to the boundary conditions for the liquid, specify boundary conditions for
the gas on Wall, Inlet, Outlet, and Interior Wall nodes. Select a Gas Boundary Condition:

Gas Concentration
Using this boundary condition, specify the effective gas density.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 423

 0
ρ̃ g = ρ̃ g

Gas Outlet
This boundary condition is appropriate for boundaries where the gas phase flows
outward with the gas velocity, ug, at the boundary.

Gas Flux
Using this boundary condition, specify the gas mass flux through the boundary:

– n ⋅ ( ρ̃ g u g ) = N ρg φ g

Symmetry
This boundary condition, which is useful on boundaries that represent a symmetry line
for the gas flow, sets the gas flux through the boundary to zero:

n ⋅ ( ρ̃ g u g ) = 0

No Gas Flux
This boundary condition represents boundaries where the gas flux through the
boundary is zero:

n ⋅ ( φg ug ) = 0

In walls moving with a boundary velocity u bnd , the gas flux through the boundary is:

n ⋅ ( φ g u g ) = n ⋅ ( φ g u bnd )

424 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Mixture Model Interfaces
In this section:

• The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface

• The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface
• The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface
• The Mixture Model, SST Interface
• The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface
• The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model the
flow at low and moderate Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed phase.
The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

The main physics node is the Mixture Properties feature. It adds the equations for the
mixture and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the continuous
and dispersed phases as well as which slip model and mixture viscosity model to use.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 425

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Mixture Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions
and volume forces. You can also right-click Mixture Model, Laminar Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mm.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Specify the characteristics of the dispersed phase, the model for the slip velocity, and
whether or not to solve for the interfacial area.

Dispersed Phase
To characterize the Dispersed phase, select Solid particles (the default) or Liquid
droplets/bubbles.

The selection from this list is further defined for the Mixture Properties node under
the Mixture Model section.

Slip Model
To compute the slip velocity jslip (SI unit: m/s), select a Slip model — Homogeneous
flow (the default), Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann, Haider-Levenspiel, or User
defined.

• The Homogeneous flow model assumes that the velocities of the two phases are equal,
that is, uslip = 0.
• In most cases there is a significant difference in the velocity fields due to the
buoyancy of the dispersed phase. Use one of the predefined slip models for such
cases.
• For User defined specify an arbitrary expression for the relative velocity. For example,
give a constant velocity based on experimental data. Enter the Slip velocity field uslip

426 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 (SI unit: m/s) or Slip flux jslip (SI unit: m/s) in the Mixture Properties node under
the Mixture Model section.

Solve For Interfacial Area

To add a transport equation for the number density of the dispersed particles, in order
to determine the interfacial area, select the Solve for interfacial area check box (by
default not selected).

For the Mass Transfer rate, use a two-film theory model, which includes the interfacial
area per unit volume between the two phases. It is possible to compute the interfacial
area per unit volume if the number density n (that is, the number of dispersed particles
per volume) is known. Select the Solve for interfacial area check box to add the
following equation for the number density n:

∂n
+ j ⋅ ∇n + ∇ ⋅ ( nu slip φ c ) = 0
∂t

This equation states that a dispersed phase particle cannot disappear, appear, or merge
with other particles, although it can expand or shrink.

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface calculates the interfacial area a
(SI unit: m2/m3) from

1⁄3 2⁄3
a = ( 4nπ ) ( 3φ d )

Reference values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of both phases and
the absolute pressure pA.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA = p + pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the density of both phases. The default Reference
pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa) is 1[atm].

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the density of

both phases. The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) is 293.15[K].

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 427

 Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component — that is, the velocity component j ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While j ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

The default selection is None.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), the

Mixture Model interfaces solved for the mass-averaged mixture velocity
u. Now, the volume-averaged mixture velocity j is used. For specific
details, see Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces and Mass-Averaged
Mixture Velocity.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

The consistent stabilizations Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the Navier-Stokes and dispersed phase transport equations. In addition, when
the flow is turbulent, the consistent stabilizations are also applied to the Turbulence.

428 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Additional inconsistent stabilization terms may be added when required as isotropic
diffusion.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Penalty Diffusion can be used to suppress negative values of the dispersed volume
fraction. Including this term has been observed to slow down convergence and it is
therefore disabled by default.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. For Manual enter a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface
• Slip Velocity Models and Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

Two-Phase Flow Modeling of a Dense Suspension: Application Library

path CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/dense_suspension

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 429

 The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes
equations for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated
from a mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are included
using and enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Algebraic yPlus.

Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases,
better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description
of the turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)

430 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization
study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface

The Mixture Model, L-VEL (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, L-VEL interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation, and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are included
using and enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 431

 Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is L-VEL.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized for internal flow. For certain cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the
turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step
in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

432 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard
two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 433

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Stabilization. The settings for this section are the same as for The Mixture Model,
Laminar Flow Interface with the addition of this section: stabilization for the
turbulence variables in the Turbulence equations area.

When using a turbulence model, streamline and crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the turbulence equations.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. The Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection is available when
the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface,
enter a value for Jscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters
subsection.

The Jscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units

434 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the realizable two-equation k-ε model. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Realizable k-ε.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 435

 Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the Realizable k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More
options become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ω (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, k-ω interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture

436 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints. The k-ω model is a
so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ω.

Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is to select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 437

 • Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Specific dissipation rate ω (SI unit: 1/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, SST Interface

The Mixture Model, SST (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, SST interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints. The SST model is a so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The SST model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

438 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is SST.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Specific dissipation rate ω (SI unit: 1/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 439

 The Mixture Model, SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the AKN two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The AKN model
is a so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all
the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Low Reynolds number
k-ε.

440 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 441

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes

equations for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated
from a mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the Spalart-Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a
so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the
closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Spalart-Allmaras.

442 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The Spalart-Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization

study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 443

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface

The Mixture Model, v2-f (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, v2-f interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The v2-f model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is v2-f.

444 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta (dimensionless)
• Elliptic blending function alpha (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 445

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The following domain and boundary nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Mixture Properties
• Mass Transfer
• Volume Force (described for The Laminar Flow Interface)
• Gravity
• Initial Values

BOUNDARY
The boundary types for the mixture flow variables, described in this section, are:

• Wall (the default boundary condition feature)