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Chemistry ETextbook

The document is a welcome letter from Vaibhav Bakliwal of Bakliwal Tutorials, emphasizing the importance of self-study and personal responsibility in achieving academic success. It provides strategies for effective learning and preparation for competitive examinations, along with a list of various exams and their details. The latter part includes a chemistry syllabus and a lecture schedule for foundational chemistry topics.

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Atharv Kulkarni

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

336 views257 pages

Chemistry ETextbook

Uploaded by

Atharv Kulkarni

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Dear friend,

Thanks and congratulations for choosing Bakliwal Tutorials to be your trainer. Bakliwal
Tutorial’s approach, culture, extremely competent and committed faculty team, insightful webinars,
concept of merit wise batches, quality tests with detailed analysis and thoughtfully designed material,
will definitely help you in attaining your goal.

However, there is no substitute for all the hard work that you and you alone must put in. Being
over dependent on the institute will only dim your chances of making it to the best colleges. Good
students take responsibility for their lives and understand that the institute can only act as a guide and
support.

Do not hesitate to study topics by yourselves, before they are even covered in the class. I
personally believe that learning a topic for the 1st time directly from a teacher, who because of time
constraints cannot give you ample time for thinking and reflecting, can never bring the same pleasure
and insight as one can get by reading and understanding at one’s own pace. Now when the topic is
already studied, thought over and worked upon once, the lecture then results in doubt clarification,
better comprehension and deeper understanding for the open and receptive student.

When you read for your learning cum pleasure, you can use the following strategies, which
shall help you organize and remember the information.
• Study in blocks of time: During these blocks, close all channels of communication and study as
if you are writing a test.
• Focus on main points (the heart of any topic): Put main ideas and concepts in your own words.
• Make full use of your textbook: Don’t be afraid to write in your books—you have paid for
them! Write in the margins. Be brief, but clear.
• First read, then underline and/or highlight: Reading a section first will help you see key ideas
and avoid underlining too much.
• Review what you read: Immediately after you read it; within a few days; before the test, don’t
forget to review. Also remember that reviewing is not just skimming through the chapter, but
recalling key ideas from memory. Read a heading, and then ask yourself what subheadings and
important concepts are contained within before looking them up.
• While solving a question, try to see the major theme, it falls into. Have conceptual clarity and
create solving algorithms around these major themes. Once this ability is developed, you shall
be able to solve most novel questions also by associating them with some major common
theme.
• Quality exams require more understanding and less memorisation. But wherever memorization
is needed, use techniques of repetition and association. And memorize joyfully.

Remember to ‘Read Empathetically’. Many authors talk about listening empathetically, where
you do not follow any technique, but you genuinely listen to understand. Similarly, read
empathetically, with a sincere intent to understand and not just because you want to conquer an exam.
Students who genuinely like learning are the happiest and most successful.

And finally, if you find this module tough, that’s ok. This has been made slightly challenging
on purpose. A sincere attempt at the questions in the module shall help you improve on the thinking
abilities. You may consider reading your school book on the same topic, before coming back to this
module.

I hope and wish that this book brings you conceptual clarity, newer insights, enhanced problem
solving skills and immense joy.

Your friend,
Vaibhav Bakliwal
The list of Competitive Examinations in 8th ,9th & 10th Std.

MTSE
NTSE NSEJS RMO HBBVS NSTSE IMO/NSO IPM
(MATH)

ELIGIBILIT VII -
X IX & X IX III - IX II - XII I - XII II - IX
Y XI

Textboo
Textbook
As per ks,
Pre s, Model
PCM of syllabus Model
College test Syllabus
Stage I – SSC CBSE IX VIII & of CBSC test
Math papers mentioned
SYLLABUS Stage II – &X IX From and ICSE papers
Up to publishe on SOF
CBSE PCMB SSC of publishe
class d by the website
Board respective d by the
XII conducti
classes conducti
ng body
ng body
100Q-
100M
100 Q in
80 Q – 3-hrs 90
90 min 50 Q – 90 40 Q of
MAT 50 Q, 240 M, Written Minutes,
PCB – Min +2 50 Q in 1 hr 2.5
EXAM SAT100 Q & 120 Min test M-25, P-
30 M for correct divided into marks
PATTERN Language Test M – 20, 6–7 25
each & -0.5 for 3 sections each in
50 Q P-20, C- problem C-20, B-
GK – 10 wrong 60 min
20, B-20 s 20
M
General-
10
Pre-
RMO: IMO –
TENTATIVE Level 1: Nov Aug/ Jan Nov/Dec
Nov OCT Jan APRIL
EXAM DATE Level 2: May Sep Feb NSO –
RMO: NOV/DEC
Nov
HBBVS (Dr. HomiBabha Bal Vaidnyanikspardha)

The Dr Homi Babha Balvaidnyanik Spardha is conducted since 1981 by the Mumbai science
teachers Association to encourage and motivate students to inculcate a passion for the science
and applaud the science the talent in students.

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IJSO (International Junior Science Olympiad)

The international Junior Science Olympiad is a major international academical competition

held annually and the only international academical competition that covers physics, chemistry
and biology at the same time.

Website Link : https://olympiads.hbcse.tifr.res.in/

RMO (Regional Mathematical Olympiad)

The mathematical Olympiad program in India, which leads to participation of Indian students in
the international Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is organized by the Homi Babha centre for
science Education (HBCSE) on behalf of the National Board for Higher Mathematics (NBHM)
and funded by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. This program is
one of the major initiatives undertaken by the NBHM. Its main purpose is to spot mathematical
talent among the pre – university students in the country.

Website Link : https://olympiads.hbcse.tifr.res.in/

• IPM (Institute for Promotion of Mathematics)

The All India Open Mathematics Scholarship examination, conducted by the institute for
promotion of Mathematics, not just enables students to improve their knowledge and
skill base in mathematics but also motivates meritorious students by means of attractive
prizes, awards and scholarships. The exposure children are given is very helpful because
when they have to appear for their 10th standards examinations, the novelty of the state
level exam is greatly reduced which in turn improves performance.
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• NTSE (National Talent Search Examination)

The National Talent Search Examination was introduced in 1963 as a flagship initiative
by National council of Educational Research and training (NCERT). The scheme honors
and helps talented students by providing financial assistance in the form of monthly
scholarship. For the courses in basic sciences, Social sciences and Commerce, this
assistance is provided up to Ph.D. Level.

For professional courses like Engineering, Medicine, Management and Law this
assistance is given only up to post Graduation.
NTSE Stage – I is conducted by state & UTs. The purpose of this exam is to screen the
students for Level – II, which is conducted by NCERT.

Website Link : http://www.mscepune.in/ (For level 1), &

ncert.nic.in/ (For level 2)

• IMO (International Mathematics Olympiad) & NSO(National Science

Olympiad)

These are conducted by the Science Olympiad Foundation

IMO is a means to identify and encourage the mathematical creativity of children in
schools across India and abroad.
NSO is organized every year to motivate students to strive for better and deeper
understanding of scientific facts and data and to enhance their reasoning, analytical and
problem solving skills.
Website Link : http://www.softworld.org/

• NSTSE( National Level Science Talent Search Exam)

NSTSE is a diagnostic Test which helps students improve their overall learning ability &
educational performance . The National Science Search Examination is conducted by the
unified council. Unlike regular testes which try only the find out how much a child
knows (or has memorized), NSTSE measures how well a student has understood the
concepts & given detailed feedback on the same, to help him/her improve.
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INDEX:
CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO
1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 2-47
2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 48-81
3 STRUCTURE OF ATOM 82-107
4 PERIODIC TABLE 108-138
5 TYPES OF BONDS 139 -153
6 CARBON & ITS COMPOUDS 154-187
7 ACIDS AND BASES 188-199

CHEMISTRY SOLUTION
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO
1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY 200-212
2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 213-223
3 STRUCTURE OF ATOM 224-228
4 PERIODIC TABLE 229-239
5 TYPES OF BONDS 240-242
6 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 243-245
7 ACIDS AND BASES 246-247
Foundation Basic Chem Booklet Bakliwal Tutorials - IIT
CHEMISTRY
Lecture-wise Schedule
Lecture Number Content to be covered Page
number
Lecture 1&2 What is an atom, Fundamental Particles (only 6
(Page 2-5) self-study introduction) Isotope, Isobar, Isotones,
Isoelectronic, Law of chemical combinations
Lecture 3&4 Daltons atomic theory, Modern atomic theory, 15
Atomic mass, Molecular mass, GMM, GAM
and Mole concept.
Lecture 5&6 Chemical equation, % yield, Concept of 28
limiting reagent, Molarity, Molality, Mole
fraction, % w/w, % w/v, % v/v
Lecture 7&8 Types of chemical reactions, Combination, 48
Decomposition, Displacement, Double
displacement reaction, Basic idea of oxidation
& reduction, Determination of oxidation
number
Lecture 9&10 Balancing of redox reactions and revision of 69
previous concepts
Lecture 11&12 Equivalent weight, Normality 73
Lecture 13&14 Structure of an atom: Discovery of fundamental 82
particles, Thomson’s model, Rutherford’s
model Bohr’s model
Lecture 15&16 Quantum numbers, Rules of electron filling, 89
writing of electronic configuration
Lecture 17&18 Periodic Classification: Dobereiner, Newland, 108
Luther meyer, Mendeleev’s theory [merits and
demerits] Modern periodic table
Lecture 19&20 Periodic Properties: Atomic size, I.E, EA, EN, 113
Nature of oxides, Metallic and NM nature,
Diagonal relationship
Topics for self-study to bridge between Basic and Advanced course
Lecture 21 Chemical Bonding: Ionic, Covalent, Coordinate
covalent bond, Metallic bond
Lecture 22 Carbon and its compounds
Lecture 23 Acids and Bases

Every chapter has solved examples and key points for revision, please go through them thoroughly before
attempting the questions at the end of the chapter.

CHAPTER 1- BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the science of substances, their properties, structures and their transformation. As all objects in
the universe are made of matter. Chemistry is the branch of the science which deals with the study of
material object. Study of chemistry is very interesting which covers various aspects of our culture and
environment. All developments in any science are based on scientific approach as in chemistry too. In order
to achieve correct results, one has to rely upon the various skills connected with the measurements of
quantities during a physical or chemical change. The degree of accuracy is closely linked with precision of
the measuring instrument as well as on the skill of the person engaged in measurement. So we should be
first familiar with some terminology used in chemistry.

Physical Property:
The property which can be measured without changing the chemical composition of the substance is known
as physical property like mass, volume, density, refractive index etc.

Chemical Property:

The property which can be evaluated at the cost of matter itself is known as chemical property. For example,
combustible nature of hydrogen gas can be verified by burning of hydrogen. The sweet taste of sugar can be
checked by consuming it.

Units for Measurement

All physical quantities have to be measured. The value of a physical quantity is expressed as the product of
the numerical value and the unit in which it is expressed.

Fundamental Units:
Fundamental units are those units which can neither be derived from one another nor they can be further
resolved into any other units.
The seven fundamental units of measurement in S.I. system
Name of unit Abbreviation

Mass Kilogram Kg

Length Meter m

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance Mole Mol

Time Second S

Electric current Ampere A

Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Derived unit:

Some quantities are expressed as a function of more than one fundamental units known as derived units. For
example velocity, acceleration, work, energy etc.

Velocity (v) Metre per sec ms−1

Area a. Square metre m2

Volume (V) Cubic metre m3

Density () Kilogram m−3 Kg m−3

Energy (E) Joule (J) Kg m2s−2

Force (F) Newton (N) Kg ms−2

Frequency () Hertz Cycle per sec

Pressure (P) Pascal (Pa) Nm−2

Electrical charge Coulomb c. A-s (ampere – second)

Units and Dimensional Analysis: Conversion of Units

The simplest way to carry out calculations that involve different units is to use dimensional analysis. In this
method a quantity expressed in one unit is converted into an equivalent quantity with a different unit by
using conversion factor which express the relationship between units:

Original quantity  conversion factor = equivalent quantity

(in former unit) (in other unit)
This is based on the fact that ratio of each fundamental quantity in one unit with their equivalent quantity in
other unit is equal to one
For example, in case of mass

1Kilogram 1Kilogram
=1=
2.205Pound 1000gm

So1 kg = 2.205 pound = 1000 gm

In this way any derived unit first expressed in dimension and each fundamental quantity like mass length
time are converted in other system of desired unit to work out the conversion factor.
For example: How unit of work / energy i.e. joule, in S.I. system is related with unit erg in C.G.S system

Dimension of work = force  displacement = MLT-2 L = ML2T-2

1 joule = 1 kg (1 metre)2 (1sec)-2

1000𝑔𝑚 100𝑐𝑚 2
1𝐾𝑔 × × [1𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 × 1𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒] × [1𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 ]
1𝐾𝑔

 1000 gm  (100)2 1 cm2 (1 sec)-2

 100010000  1 gm1 cm2 1 sec-2

 1 joule = 107 erg

BRANCHES AT- AUNDH | CAMP|FC ROAD|PAUD ROAD| PCMC |VIMAN NAGAR|WANOWRIE|PIMPLE SAUDAGAR|
SATARA RD|HADAPSAR|SINHAGAD ROAD|SOLAPUR
Page 3
Foundation Basic Chem Booklet Bakliwal Tutorials - IIT
Similarly, we can deduce other conversion factor for other quantity in different unit by the dimensional
analysis method Another interesting example is the conversion of litre – atmosphere to joule (the SI unit of
energy) by multiplying with two successive unit factors. Thus,
10−3 𝑚3 101325𝑃𝑎
1𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × ( )× = 101.325𝑃𝑎 𝑚3
1𝐿 1𝑎𝑡𝑚

(where Pa is Pascal unit of Pressure and is 1 Newton per square meter, 1m3= 1000L , Newton is derived unit
of force 1Newton = 1kg m s-2)

N
Knowing that Pa = , we can write where.
m2
 N 
101.325 Pa m3 = 101.325  2  m3 = 101.325 N m =101.325 J (as 1 joule = 1 Nm)
m 

Hence 1 L atm = 101.325 J

Example. What is the mass of 1 L of mercury in grams and in kilograms if the density of liquid mercury is
12.5 g cm−3 ?

Hint: 1cm3 = 1mL

Matter: Anything that exhibits inertia is known as matter. The quantity of matter is its mass. e.g., chalk
table.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER: This classification of matter is based upon chemical composition of various
substances. According to this matter can be further divided into two types, pure substance and mixture. Mixtures are
also of two types, homogenous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.

Elements:
The primary stuff present in all the substance is known as element, whose smallest unit is known as atom.
Total 118 elements are known till date of which 24 are synthetic elements. There are about 91 metals, 17
nonmetals and 6 metalloids (The six commonly recognised metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium,
arsenic, antimony, and tellurium).

The non-metals in the periodic table.

Compound:

A non-elemental pure substance is called a compound in which more than one atom of elements are linked
by chemical bonds formed due to chemical reaction. The resulting molecule is a electrically neutral particle
of constant continuous composition.

Mixture:

Mixtures are the aggregate of more than one type of pure substance whose chemical identity remains
maintained even in mixtures. Their constituent ratio may vary unlike compound.

For example – sugar + water = sugar syrup, Gunpowder 75 % KNO3, 10% sulphur + 15% carbon

There are two types of mixture.

a. Homogeneous

b. Heterogeneous

a. Homogeneous mixtures are those whose composition for each part remains constant. For example,
aqueous and gaseous solution
b. Heterogeneous mixtures are those whose composition may vary for each part. For example, soil
concrete mixtures.

The term ‘Paramanu’ for the smallest particles of matter (padarth) was given by - Maharishi Kanad
Atomic Number: The atomic number of an element is the number of protons present in its nucleus. It is
denoted by symbol ‘Z’.
Thus, the atomic number Z of an atom is
= number of protons in the nucleus
= number of positive charges in the nucleus
= number of electrons around the nucleus only in the neutral atom.

Mass Number: The sum of number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number and is
denoted by the letter ‘A’.
Thus, mass number A.
=Number of protons +number of neutrons
=number of nucleons (particles present inside the nucleus)
An element is represented as ZXA, where X denotes the symbol of the element, subscript Z denotes the
atomic number and superscript A denotes the mass number.

Isotopes: These are the elements having the same atomic number but different mass number. They have the
same atomic number because the number of protons inside their nuclei remain same. The difference in their
mass number is due to the difference in their number of neutrons.

Eg: 1H1 (Hydrogen or Protium), 1H2 (Deuterium), 1H3 (Tritium) are isotopes of hydrogen and 17Cl35, 17Cl37
are isotopes of chlorine.

Isobars: These are atoms of different elements having same atomic mass but different atomic number.
Isotopes are chemically same and physically different. But the converse is true for isobars. These are
elements, which are chemically different but physically same.

Eg: 32Ce76, 34 Se76 and 26Fe58, 27Ni58.

Isotones: These are elements having the same number of neutrons with different atomic number.

Eg: 17Cl37 and 19K39 both have 20 neutrons in their nuclei.

Isoelectronic: Any species having same number of electrons , for example : H2O = 2(1) + 8 = a total of ten
electrons, Ne atom as 10 electrons , so Ne and H2O are isoelectronic.

(will be explained in the lecture)

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

In order to understand the composition of the compounds, it is necessary to have a theory which accounts
for both qualitative and quantitative observations during chemical changes. Observations of chemical
reactions were most significant in the development of a satisfactory theory of the nature of matter. These
observations of chemical reactions are summarized in certain statements known as laws of chemical
combination.
Law of conservation of mass: (Lavoisier in 1789)

Example: 100 g of CaCO 3 when heated produced 44 g of Carbon dioxide and the residue (CaO) was left
behind. Show that these results illustrate the law of conservation of mass.

Law of constant composition (Proust in 1794)

A chemical compound always contains same elements in definite proportion by mass and it does not depend
on the source of compound.
For example
C + O2 ⎯⎯
→ CO2

CaCO3 ⎯⎯ → CaO + CO2
Na2CO3 + 2HCl ⎯⎯
→ 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯
→ CO2 + 2H2O

12
The composition of CO2 obtained by different means always having same C:O ratio = = 0.375 .
32

Example: NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl From the equation it is clear that one mole of Ammonia reactsowith
one mole of HCl to form one mole of Ammonium chloride, then the mass of HCl required to react with 10 g
Ammonia to give NH4Cl will be:
(A)2.147 g (B) 21.47 g (C)214.7 g (D) 2.547 g

Solution : NH3 + HCl → NH 4Cl from the equation it’s clear that 17g of NH3 reacts with 36.5g of HCl to
give 53.5g of NH4Cl , now by using unitary method 10g NH3 will require ‘x’g of HCl

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

17g 36.5g
10 g xg so x = (10  36.5) /17 = 21.47 g
Law of multiple proportions (John Dalton in 1803): When two elements combine to form two or more
than two different compounds then the different masses of one element B which combine with fixed mass of
the other element bear a simple ratio to one another.

For example: Carbon forms two oxides in oxygen

1
Carbon monoxide C+ O2 = CO
12 2 16

Carbon oxide C+
12
O2 = CO2
32

The ratio of masses of oxygen in CO and CO2 for fixed mass of carbon (12) is 16: 32 = 1: 2.

Example: The law of multiple proportions is illustrated by the pair of compounds:

Solution: (A) Sodium chloride and sodium bromide NaCl and NaBr are different compounds
(B) Water and heavy water, H2O and D2O called as heavy water ( D is deuterium , isotope of H)
(C) Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide
SO2 and SO3 fixed mass of S is reacting with multiple weights of O.
(D) Magnesium hydroxide and magnesium oxide
Mg(OH)2 and MgO are different compounds …
So the answer is C option.

Example: Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain 42.9% and 27.3% of carbon respectively.
Show that these figures illustrate the law of multiple proportions.

Solution: Step 1: To calculate the percentage composition of carbon and oxygen in each of the two
oxides
First oxide Second oxide
Carbon 42.9% 27.3% (Given)
Oxygen 57.1% 72.7%
(by difference)
Step 2: To calculate the weights of carbon which combine with a fixed weight i.e., one part by weight of
oxygen in each of the two oxides.
In the first oxide, 57.1 parts by weight of oxygen combine with carbon = 42.9 parts.
42.9
1 part by weight of oxygen will combine with carbon = 0.751
57.1

In the second oxide 72.7 parts by weight of oxygen combine with carbon = 27.3 parts.

27.3
1 part by weight of oxygen will combine with carbon = 0.376
72.7

Step 3: To compare the weights of carbon which combine with the same weight of oxygen in both the
oxides-
The ratio of the weights of carbon that combine with the same weight of oxygen (1 part) is 0.751:
0.376 or 2:1
Since this is a simple whole number ratio, so the above data illustrate the law of multiple
proportions.
Law of reciprocal proportion (J Ritcher in 1792): If two elements B and C react with the same mass of a
third element a., the ratio in which they do so will be the same or simple multiple if B and C react with each
other.
The above law is the basis of law of equivalent masses, which will be described latter in details.
For example: ratio of masses of carbon and sulphur which combine with
fixed mass (32 parts) of oxygen is

In CS 2 ratio of masses of carbon and sulphur is

C S2 12:64 or 3:16 …(2)

12 64

3 3
The two ratios (1) and (2) are related to each other by : or 2:1
8 16

or 3 : 2  3 

8  16 

i.e. first ratio is integral multiple of second.

Example 2 for Reciprocal Proportions
For example, oxygen and sulphur react with copper to give copper oxide and coppersulphide
respectively. Suphur and oxygen also react with each other to give SO2. Then,
In CuS, Cu:S = 63.5:32
In CuO, Cu:O = 63.5:16
S:O = 32:16
S:O = 2:1
Now in SO2
S:O = 32:32
S:O = 1:1
Thus the ratio between the two ratios is
2 1
: = 2 :1 i.e a simple multiple ratio.
1 1

Example 3: Although at first glance, this law may sound complicated, it is easy to understand with the
help of an example. If 1 gram of hydrogen reacts with 3 grams of carbon thereby forming methane, and
if 8 grams of oxygen react with 1 gram of hydrogen thereby forming water, then according to the law
that we defined above, 3 grams of carbon can react with 8 grams of oxygen (because both 3 grams of
carbon and 8 grams of oxygen react with the same mass (1 gram) of hydrogen).

In the same way, 8 grams of oxygen and 3 grams of carbon can react with some other element (not just
the mentioned 1 gram of hydrogen) with a certain and constant mass. Thus, 3 grams of carbon and 8
grams of oxygen can also react with 35.5 grams of chlorine, giving carbon tetrachloride or in the other
case, dichlorine monoxide.

Gay Lussac’s law of combiningVolumes: At given temperature and pressure the volumes of all gaseous
reactants and products bear a simple whole number ratio to each other.

i.e. one volume of hydrogen reacts with one volume of chlorine to form two volumes of HCl gas. i.e. the
ratio by volume which gases bears is 1:1:2 which is a simple whole number ratio.

Similarly other examples are:

2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3 2 : 1: 2
2 volume 1 volume 2 volume

2𝑁𝐻3 ⇌ 𝑁2 + 3𝐻2 [2: 1: 3]

2𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 3𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

NH3 (g)+ HCl(g) → NH4 Cl(v) [1: 1: 1]

1volume 1volume 1volume

Example: In the reaction, 𝑁2 + 3𝐻2 ⇌ 2𝑁𝐻3 , the ratio of volumes of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia is
1: 3: 2. These figures illustrate the law of:

(A) Constant proportions (B) Gay-Lussac

(C) Multiple proportions (D) Reciprocal proportions

Solution: The above ratio of 1:3: 2 illustrates the Gay-Lussac law of combining volume.

Hence b. is correct.

Example:. For the gaseous reaction: H 2( g ) + Cl2( g ) → 2HCl( g ) If 40 mL of hydrogen completely reacts with
chlorine then find out the required volume of Chlorine & volume of produced HCl( g ) ?

Solution: From the above balanced equation it is clear that the ratio in which H2 and Cl2 react is 1:1, if the
volume of H2 is 40ml (1volume) so the volume of chlorine required to react completely will also be 40mL
(1volume) and 80mL (2 volumes) of HCl will be produced.

Practice for lecture 1&2

MCQ / Objective: LEVEL I (Section I)

1. The elements present in baking soda are– (Hint: NaHCO3 or Na2CO3)
(A)Sodium, carbon, and oxygen (B)Sodium, carbon, and hydrogen
(C)Sodium, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (D) Potassium, carbon and oxygen.
2. All samples of carbon dioxide contain carbon and oxygen in the mass ratio 3:8. This is in agreement
with the law of
(A)Conservation of mass (B)Constant proportions
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these
3. The law of conservation of mass was given by
(A) John Dalton (B) Proust (C) Lavoisier (D) None of these
4. If the mass of reactants is equal to the mass of products, then which of the following statements is true?
(A) Law of conservation of mass holds good.
(B) Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed.
(C) There is no change in mass during a chemical reaction.
(D) All the above
5. The term ‘Paramanu’ for the smallest particles of matter (padarth) was given by -
(A) Dalton (B) Maharishi Kanad (C) Proust (D) Lavoisier
6. When calcium carbonate is heated, it gives -
(A) CaO& CO (B) Ca & CO2 (C) CaO& CO2 (D) None of these
7. The formula to measure density is
(A) Weight/volume (B)Mass/ weight (C)Mass/area (D) Mass/mass
8. Which of the following can undergo sublimation?
(A) MgCl2 (B) bromine (C) Iodine (D) Sodium chloride
9. Which process is accompanied by the cooling of gases?
(A) Evaporation (B) Vaporization (C) Freezing (D) Condensation
10. The properties of living matter are
(A) It occupies space (B) It does not grow (C) It is invisible (D) All the above.
11. Irrespective of the source, pure sample of water always yields 88.89% mass of oxygen and 11.11%
mass of hydrogen. This is explained by the law of:
(A) Conservation of mass (B) Constant composition
(C) Multiple proportion (D) Constant volume

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12. According to Avogadro, equal volumes of two different gases under same conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of
(A) Atoms (B) Molecules (C) Electrons (D) Protons
13. In the formation of SO2 and SO3 the ratio of the weights of oxygen which combines with 10kg of
sulphur is
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 3 : 2 (C) 2 : 3 (D) 3 : 4
14. Ferric sulphate on heating gives sulphur trioxide. The ratio between the weights of oxygen and

sulphur present in SO3 obtained by heating 1 kg of ferric sulphate is ( Fe2 ( SO 4 )3 → Fe 2 O3 +SO3 )

(A) 2 : 3 (B) 1 : 3 (C) 3 : 1 (D) 3 : 2

15. 14 gm of an element ‘X’ combines with 16 gm of oxygen. On the basis of this which of the
following is correct? (At.wt of oxygen = 16)
(A) The element X could have an atomic weight of 7 and its oxide formula is XO.
(B) The element X could have an atomic weight 14 and its oxide formula X2O3.
(C) The element X could have an atomic weight 7 and its oxide formula X2O.
(D) The element X could have an atomic weight 14 and its oxide formula XO2.
16. In Haber’s process, the volume at S.T.P of ammonia relative to the total volume of reactants at STP
is: N 2 + 3H 2  2NH3
(A) One fourth (B) One half (C) Same (D) Three fourth
17. The % composition of four hydrocarbons is as follows:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
%C 75 80 85.7 91.3
%H 25 20 14.3 8.7
This data illustrates the law of
(A) Constant proportion (B) Conservation of mass
(C) Multiple Proportions (D) Reciprocal Proportions.
18. Among the following pairs of compounds. The one that illustrates the law of multiple proportions is:
(A) NH3 and NCl3 (B) H2S and SO2 (C) CuO and Cu2O (D) CS2 and FeSO4
19. One part of an element a. combines with two parts of another element b. 6 parts of element c.
combines with 4 parts of b. If a and c combine the ratio of their weights, will be governed by:
(A) Law of definite proportion (B) Law of multiple proportion
(C) Law of reciprocal proportion (D) Law of conservation of mass
20. Which of the following is the best example of law of conservation of mass
(A) 12 gm of carbon combines with 32 gm of oxygen to form 44 gm of CO2.
(B) When 72 gm of carbon is heated in vaccum and no change in mass takes place.
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(C) The weight of a piece of platinum is the same before and after heating in air.
(D) 2 gm of Hydrogen combines with 32 gm of O
21. 10 L of N2 and 30 L of H2 combine to form ________liters of NH3.
(A) 20 (B) 40 (C) 30 (D) 10
22. The law of conservation of mass holds good for all of the following except.
(A)All chemical reactions
(B) Nuclear reaction
(C) Endothermic reactions (Heat is absorbed in these reactions)
(D) Exothermic reactions (Heat is released in these reactions)
23. The % of copper and oxygen in samples of CuO obtained by different methods were found to be the
same. This proves the law of:
(A) Constant Proportion (B) Reciprocal Proportion
(C) Multiple Proportion (D) Conservation of mass
24. The mass of nitrogen per gram of H in hydrazine (H2N-NH2 or N2H4) is exactly one and half the
mass of nitrogen in the compound ammonia. The fact illustrates the
(A) Law of conservation of mass (B)Law of reciprocal proportion
(C) Law of multiple proportion (D) Law of definite proportion.
25. Irrespective of the source, pure sample of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) always yields 94.11% mass of
oxygen and 5.89% mass of hydrogen. This is explained by the law of
(A) Conservation of mass (B) Constant proportions
(C) Multiple proportions (D) Constant volume.
26. Isotones of an element have -
(A) Same number of electrons (B) Same number of protons
(C) Same number of neutrons (D) Same number of neutrons & protons

76
27. An isotone of 32Ge is -
77 77 77 79
(A) Ge (B) As (C) Se (D) Se
32 33 34 34

28. The triad of nuclei that is isotonic is -

14 15 17 12 14 19 14 14 17 14 14 19
(A) C, N , F (B) C, N, F (C) C, N, F (D) C, N, F
6 7 9 6 7 9 6 7 9 6 7 9

29. Two atoms of the same element are found to have different number of neutrons in their nuclei. These
two atoms are -
(A) Isomers (B) Isotopes
(C) Isobars (D) Allotropes (Diamond and Graphite are allotropes)

31. An atom which as a mass number of 14 & 8 neutrons is an -

(A) Isotope of oxygen (B) Isobar of oxygen
(C) Isotope of carbon (D) Isobar of carbon

32. If 5L of SO2 is burned in excess air to form SO3, what is the volume of SO3 formed?

(A) 2.5 L (B) 10L (C) 5 L (D) 7.5 L

SUBJECTIVE: (Please ask the teacher for help on subjective questions if required)

1. “If 100 grams of pure water taken from different sources is decomposed by passing electricity, 11
grams of hydrogen and 89 grams of oxygen are always obtained.” Which chemical law is illustrated
by this statement?
2. Potassium chlorate (KClO3) decomposes on heating to form potassium chloride (KCl) and oxygen
(O2). When 24.5 g of potassium chlorate is decomposed completely then 14.9 g potassium chloride
is formed. Calculate the mass of oxygen formed. Which law of chemical combination have you used
in solving this problem? [K:39, Cl :35.5 and O:16]
3. In an experiment 1.288 g of copper oxide was obtained from 1.03 g of Cu. In another experiment
3.672 g of copper oxide gave on reduction 2.938 g of copper. Which law of chemical combination
can be illustrated by this example?

ANSWER KEY

Key for Lecture 1&2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
C B C D B C A C D A B B C D C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B C C C A A B A C B C B A B A
31 32
C C

Subjective Questions: Q 2: 9.6 g Q3: 0.258g of Oxygen

By observing the laws of chemical combination discussed above, John Dalton (1808) proposed atomic
theory of matter. The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows:

• Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.

• Atoms of the same substance are identical in all respects i.e., they possess the same size, shape, mass,
chemical properties etc.
• Atoms of different substances are different in all respects i.e., they possess different shapes, size, mass
and chemical properties etc.
• Atom is the smallest particle that takes part in chemical reactions.
• Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole number ratio to
form compound atoms.
• Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed i.e. atoms are indestructible.

Limitations: The main failures of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

• The atom was no longer indivisible. It is made up of various sub−atomic particles like electrons, proton
and neutron etc.
• It failed to explain how atoms of different elements differ from each other.
• It failed to explain how and why atoms of elements combine with each other to form compound atoms
or molecules.
• It failed to explain the nature of forces that bind together different atoms in molecules.
• It failed to explain Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes.
• It did not make any distinction between the ultimate particle of an element that takes part in reaction
(atoms) and the ultimate particle that has independent existence (molecules).
Modern Atomic theory or Modified Atomic Theory

• Atom is no longer supposed to be indivisible. Atom has a complex structure and is composed of
sub−atomic particles such as electrons protons and neutrons.
• Atoms of the same element may not be similar in all respects e.g.,, isotopes.
• Atoms of different elements may be similar in one or more respects e.g.,, isobars.
• Atom is the smallest unit which takes part in chemical reactions.
• The ratio in which atoms unite may be fixed and integral but may not be simple. e.g.,, In sugar
molecules C12 H 22 O11 , the ratio of C, H and O atoms is 12:22:11 which is not simple.
• Atoms of one element can be changed into atoms of other element for e.g.,, transmutation.
• Mass of atom can be changed in energy.
• E = MC2 according to Einstein mass energy relationship, mass and energy are inter−convertible. Thus
atoms are no longer indestructible.

Atom: Atom is the ultimate, electrically neutral, made up of fundamental particles (Electron, neutron,
Proton) which shows the characteristic properties of the element and exist freely in a chemical reaction.

Molecules: A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound which can exist freely under ordinary
conditions and shows all the properties of that substance (element or compound).

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Types of Molecules:
Molecules are of two types. These are:
(A) Molecules of elements (B) Molecules of compounds
Let us briefly study these two types of molecules.
(A) Molecules of Elements :
Molecules of element are formed by the combination of two or more atoms of the
same element. The number of the atoms present in the molecules represent its atomicity.
(i) Monoatomic element: Molecule with atomicity is one.
Example: Nobel Gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) and metals Au, Ag
etc.
(ii) Diatomic element: Molecule with atomicity is two.
Example: H2, O2, N2 , F2 etc.
(iii) Polyatomic element: Molecule with atomicity is more than two.
Example: O3= 3, P4 = 4, S8 = 8

(B) Molecules of Compounds:

In the molecules of compounds, the atoms of different elements (minimum two) are
combined or bonded together by chemical bonds. These are present in defnite proportion by
mass according to law of constant proportions. The molecules of compounds may be also
diatomic, triatomic, tetra-atomic, and polyatomic in natue depending upon the number of the
atoms linked or combined by chemical bonds. For example,
Compound Combining Elements Nature Ratio by mass
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Hydrogen, Chlorine Diatomic 1 : 35.5
Water (H 2 O) Hydrogen, Oxygen Triatomic 1: 8
Ammonia (NH3 ) Hydrogen, Nitrogen Tetra - atomic 14 : 3
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Carbon, Oxygen Triatomic 3:8
Methane (CH 4 ) Carbon, Hydrogen Penta - atomic 3 :1

O
H Cl H H

Molecule of HCl Molecule of H2O

Homo and Heteroatomic molecules

(a) Homoatomic molecules: These are molecules of the element. They are made of atoms of
same element. They may be further classified as monoatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic
molecules depending upon whether they contain one, two or more than two atoms
respectively. He, O2, O3, S8, P4 are some common examples.
(b) Heteroatomic molecules: These are the molecules of compound. They are made of atoms of
different elements. They may be further classified into diatomic and polyatomic molecules.
Some examples are: CO, BeF2, NH3, H2SO4, C12H22O11 etc.

ION
An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or group of atoms.
Every atom contains equal number of electrons (negatively charged) and protons (positively
charged). Both charges balance each other, hence atom is electrically neutral.
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(a) Cation: If an atom has less electrons than a neutral atom, then it gets positively charged and
a positively charged ion is known as cation.
e.g., Sodium ion (Na+), Magnesium ion (Mg2+) etc.

⎯→ Na + + 1e −
Na ⎯
( 2,8,1) ( 2 ,8 )

⎯→ Mg 2+ + 2e −
Mg ⎯
( 2,8, 2) ( 2,8)
A cation bears that many units of positive charge as there are the number of electrons
lost by the neutral atom to form that cation.
e.g., A Magnesium atom loses 2 electrons to form Magnesium ion, so magnesium ion
bears 2 units of positive charge and it is represented as Mg2+.
LIST OF COMMON POSITIVE IONS (Cation)

Monovalent Bivalent Electropositive Trivalent Tetravalent

Electropositive Electropositive Electropositive

1. Hydrogen 1. Magnesium 1. Aluminium 1. Stannic [Tin (IV)]

H+ Mg2+ Al3+ Sn4+
2. Ammonium 2. Calcium 2. Ferric [Iron (III)] 2. Plumbic [Lead
NH4+ Ca2+ Fe3+ (IV)] Pb4+
2+
3. Sodium 3. Zinc Zn 3. Chromium
Na+ 4. Plumbous [Lead (II)] Cr3+
2+
4. Potassium Pb
K+ 5. Cupric [(Cupper) (II)]
5. Cuprous [(Copper (I)] Cu2+
Cu+ 6. Argentic [(Silver (II)]
6. Argentous [Silver (I)] Ag2+
Ag+ 7. Stannous [Tin (II)]
7. Mercurous [Mercury Sn2+
(I)] Hg+ 8. Ferrous [Iron (II)]
Fe2+
9. Mercuric [Mercury (II)]
Hg2+
10. Barium Ba2+

(b) Anion: If an atom has a greater number of electrons than that of neutral atom, then it gets
negatively charged and a negatively charged ion is known as anion.
e.g., Chloride ion (Cl¯), oxide ion (O2-) etc.

O + 2e − ⎯
⎯→ O 2−
( 2, 6 ) ( 2 ,8 )

Cl + 1e − ⎯
⎯→ Cl −
( 2 ,8, 7 ) ( 2 ,8,8 )

LIST OF COMMON NEGATIVE IONS (Anion)

Monovalent Bivalent Trivalent Tetravalent

1. Fluoride F- 1. Sulphate SO42- 1. Nitride N3- 1. Carbide C4-

2. Sulphite SO32- 2. Phosphide P3-
2. Chloride Cl- 3. Sulphide S2- 3. Phosphite PO32-
3. Bromide Br- 4.Thiosulphate S2O32- 4. Phosphate PO43-
4. Iodide I- 5. Zincate ZnO22-
5. Hydride H- 6. Oxide O2-
6. Hydroxide OH- 7. Peroxide O22-
7. Nitrite NO2- 8.DichromateCr2O72-
8. Nitrate 9. Carbonate CO32-
NO3- 10. Silicate SiO32-
9. Bicarbonate or Hydrogen
carbonate HCO3-
10. Bisulphite or Hydrogen
sulphite HSO3-
11. Bisulphide or Hydrogen
sulphide HS-
12. Bisulphate or Hydrogen
sulphate HSO4-
13. Acetate CH3COO-

(c) Monoatomic ions and polyatomic ions:

(i) Monoatomic ions: Those ions which are formed from single atoms are called monoatomic ions or
simple ions.
e.g., Na+, Mg2+ etc.
(ii) Polyatomic ions: Those ions which are formed from group of atoms joined together are called
polyatomic ions or compound ions.
e.g., Ammonium ion (NH4+) , hydroxide ion (OH–) etc.
which are formed by the joining of two types of atoms, nitrogen and hydrogen in the first case and oxygen
and hydrogen in the second.

Example: Classify the following into diatomic, triatomic, tetraatomic, polyatomic molecules
(i) caustic soda (ii) marble (iii) lime water
(iv) hydrochloric acid (v) NH3 (vi) PCl3
(vii) H2O2 (viii) Cl2 (ix) NH4Cl
Solution:
(i) Casutic soda NaOH → Triatomic
(ii) marble CaCO3 --> Polyatomic
(iii) Lime water Ca(OH)2 --> Polyatomic
(iv) Hydrochloric acid HCl Diatomic acid
(v) NH3 Tetraatomic
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(vi) PCl3 Tetraatomic
(vii) H2O2 Tetraatomic
(viii) Cl2 Diatomic
(ix) NH4Cl Polyatomic

VALENCY: Valency may be defined as combining capacity of an element.

The Valency of an element is usually determined by the number of electrons in the outermost shell
of its atoms. This is because the outer electrons are largely responsible for the chemical behaviour as
these electrons usually participate in chemical bonding.
(i) Variation of valency in a period. On moving from left to right in each short period,
the valency of the elements first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases and becomes 0
(zero). The trend for the elements of third period is shown below in table.
Variation of Valency of Element of third Period in periodic table…

(ii) Variation of Valency in a Group in periodic table. On moving down a group, the number of valence
electrons remains the same and due to this all the elements in a particular group have the same valency.
For example,
All elements of group 1 show a valency of 1
All elements of group 2 show a valency of 2
All elements of group 13 show a valency of 3
All elements of group 14 show a valency of 4
All elements of group 15 show a valency of 3
All elements of group 16 show a valency of 2
All elements of group 17 show a valency of 1
All elements of group 18 show a valency of 0

(iii) Valency of ions :

The valency of an ion is same as the charge present on the ion. If an ion has 1 unit of positive charge, its
valency is 1 and its is known as a monovalent cation. If an ion has 2 units of negative charge, its valency is
2 and it is known as a divalent anion.

WRITING FORMULAE OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS:

Chemical Formula: Each chemical compound is known by a specific name. Writing the full name
of compound repeatedly is time-consuming and inconvenient. Therefore, in chemistry each substance is
denoted by its chemical formula.
There are two types of chemical formulae. These are:
(i) Molecular formula: A shorthand notation of a molecule in terms of symbols of the various
elements present in it is called molecular formula.
(ii) Empirical formula (or stoichiometric formula) : Empirical formula of a substance is the simplest
formula which gives the simplest whole - number ratio between the number of atoms of different elements
present in that substance.
Ex.: molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 but empirical formula is CH2O.
The rules that you have to follow while writing a chemical formula are as follows:
• the valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
• when a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the name or symbol of the
metal is written first.
For example: Calcium Oxide (CaO), Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Isulphide (FeS), Copper Oxide (CuO) etc.,
where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non-metals and are written on the right, whereas calcium, sodium, iron
and copper are metals, and are written on the left.
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• in compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing
the number to indicate the ratio. In case the number of polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not
required. For example, NH4OH

ATOMIC MASS AND MOLECULAR MASS

Atomic Mass: As atoms are very tiny particles, their absolute masses are difficult to measure. However it is
possible to determine the relative masses of different atoms if small unit of mass is taken as standard
(previously, this standard was mass of one atom of hydrogen and taken as unity. Later on it was 1/16th part
of oxygen atom and now it is 1/12 part of C−12 atom).
th

The atomic mass of an element can be defined as the number which indicates how many times the mass of
one atom of the element is heavier in comparison to the mass of one atom of hydrogen.

Mass of one atom of the element

Atomic mass of an element =
1
Mass of th part of mass of C -12 atom
12
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂−16 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
16

Mass of one atom of the element

=
Mass of one atom of Hydrogen

1
Atomic Mass Unit: The quantity mass of an atom of carbon−12 is known as the atomic mass unit and is
12
abbreviated as amu. The actual mass of one atom of carbon−12 is
1.9924  10 g
-23

1.9924  10−23
Thus 1 amu = = 1.66  10−24 g
12

Mass of one atom of the element

Atomic mass of an element =
1 amu

Actual massof an element =Atomic mass ( amu )×1.66×10-24g

Mean atomic mass

For elements which have atoms with different relative masses (isotopes) the atomic mass is taken as
weighted mean of the atomic masses.

Average atomic weight

=
 (%of Isotope  Atomic Wt.of isotope)
100
For example, chlorine contains two isotopes of atomic masses 35 amu and 37 amu. The relative abundance
of these two is in the ratio of 3:1. Thus the atomic mass of chlorine is the average of different relative
masses.
35  3 + 37 1
= = 35.5amu
There fore average atomic mass of chlorine is equal to 4
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GRAM ATOMIC MASS OR GRAM ATOM
Atomic weight of an element in grams is called as Gram atomic mass of an element. Gram atomic mass is
the weight of 1 mole atom (6.023×1023 atoms) of the element. It is also called as 1gram atom. e.g., AW of C =
12,GAW of C = 12g = 6.023 1023 atom of carbon = 1 mole atom of C = 1gram atom of carbon.

Molecular Mass
1
Number of times a molecule of a compound is heavier than one atom of hydrogen or th part of C−12 is
12
molecular mass of the compound. It is the sum of the atomic mass of atoms present in a molecule.
For example Molecular mass of CO2 = 44
i.e 1 molecule of CO2 is 44 times heavier than one atom of hydrogen or 1/12th part of C−12.
Gram Molecular Mass
The molecular mass expressed in grams is called as gram molecular mass. It is the weight of one mole
molecule of a compound. It is also called as one-gram molecule.
For example GMW of CO2 = 44g = 1 mole molecule of CO2 = 6.023 1023 molecule

= 1gram molecule of CO2

CHEMICAL EQUATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Chemical equation tells about what substances react and what substances are produced along with the form
of aggregation of the substance formed and reacted by the use of following symbols.
Liquid- ( )

Gas - (g)

Solution - (Sol)

Aqueous solution – (aq.)

Precipitate - 

Light (gases) - 

Heating - 

According to general assumptions reactants on left hand side and products (although they are informed as
per experimental facts) on right hand side incorporating on arrow → in the middle to indicate the progress
of reaction [is forward] and = in the middle if equation is balanced, are written.

If any physical parameters to procure the desired reaction is necessary, they are indicated in the middle
along the arrow or equal sign like temperature, pressure, catalyst medium etc.

As atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction according to law of mass conservation,
balanced chemical equation must contain equal no of atoms for each element across the sign of equality
maintaining right chemical formula for each component of reaction system.

A balanced equation is a statement of the both qualitative and quantitative relation between reactant and
products involved in any chemical change.

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We balance the equation by making the number of atoms of each element participating in the reaction the
same as that appearing in the products. This can be accomplished by placing the required number stoichio-
coefficient before each formula by taking consideration that subscripts in the formulas must not be altered.

MOLE CONCEPT
Atoms and molecules are too small to count. To solve this problem their numbers are expressed in terms of
Avogadro’s number (NA = 6.023  1023). Mole is the number equal to Avogadro’s number just like a dozen
is equal to 12, a century means 100, a score means = 20.
A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons or any other elementary entities as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12 gm of 12 C . The number of
atoms in 12 gm of 12 C is called Avogadro’s number (NA ) .

NA = 6.023  1023

One atomic mass unit (amu) = 1 = 1

gm = 1.66  10−24 gm = 1.66  10−27 kg
NA 6.023  1023

The number of moles of a substance can be calculated by various means depending on data available, as
follows.

• Number of moles of molecules = Wt. in gm

Gram molecular mass
Wt. in gm
• Number of moles of atoms =
Atomic mass
• Number of moles of gases = Volume at STP (Standard molar volume for any gas at STP =
Standard molar volume
22.4 lit)
• Number of moles of particles e.g., atoms, molecules ions etc = Number of particles
Avogardro number
molarity× volume in ml
• Number of moles of solute = molarity  volume of solution in litres =
1000
• For a compound A xBy , y moles of A and x moles of B

Example. The largest number of molecules are in:

(A) 28 g of CO (B) 46 g of C2H5OH

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(C) 36 g of H2O (D) 54 g of N2O5
Solution: Step I must be converting the given weights to moles by dividing the given weights by molar
mass
(A) (28g CO / 28 g/mol CO) = 1 mole CO = 1 NA molecules
(B) (46g C2H5OH / 46g/mol C2H5OH) = 1 mole C2H5OH = 1 NA molecules
(C) (36g H2O / 18 g/mol H2O) = 2 mole H2O = 2 NA molecules
(D) (54g N2O5 / 108g/mol N2O5) = 0.5mole N2O5 = ½ NA molecules.
Now think like this, if the Q was number of atoms instead of molecules what would have been your answer?
Solved Questions

Q.1 Calculate average atomic wt. of silicon if relative abundance is 92.23% Si28, 4.77% Si29, 3% Si30

Solution:

92.23  28 + 4.77  29 + 3  30
Avg atomic wt. =
100

= 28.1amu

Q.2 Calculate % abundance of Ag109 if it is known that silver exist in only two isotopes Ag107& Ag109.
Given average atomic weight of Ag = 108.5

Solution:

Let the % abundance of Ag109 be x

x 109 + (100 − x ) 107

108.5 =
100

 Solving we get x =75%

Q.3 For complete combustion of 1.12 liter of butane ( C4 H10 ) , the produced volume of H2O( g ) &
CO 2 at STP will be.

Solution:2C4H10(g)+13O2(g)→8CO2(g)+10H2O(g) Balanced equation

2 volumes of butane C4H10 on complete combustion will give 8 volumes CO2 and 10 volumes H2O

So, 1.12 liter will give 4*1.12 liter CO2 and 5*1.12 liter H2O.

Q.4 At 25°C for complete combustion of 5 mol propane ( C3H8 ) . The required volume of O 2 at STP will
be.

Solution: C3 H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H 2O (balanced equation)

From the balanced equation it is clear that 1 mole propane requires 5 mole O2

Refer page number 198 for more solved questions and concept application ……..

Practice for lecture 3&4

1. Which of the following is a penta-atomic molecule? (Hint: Diatomic means molecule having 2
atoms)
(A) Phosphorus (P4) (B) Sulphur (S8) (C) Ethane (C2H6) (D) Methane (CH4)
2. When 5 g of Calcium is burnt in 2 g of Oxygen then 7 g of calcium oxide is produced. What mass of
calcium oxide will be produced when 5 g of calcium reacts with 20 g of oxygen?
[2Ca + O2 → 2CaO] (Ca :40 amu and O :16 amu)
(A) 7 g (B) 2 g (C) 25 g (D) 4 g

3. Hydrogen & Oxygen combine in the ratio of 1: 8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas
would be required to react completely with 3 g of hydrogen gas?
(A) 24 g (B) 27 g (C) 21 g (D) 3 g

4. 10 grams of each O2, N2 and Cl2 are kept in three bottles. The correct order of arrangement of
bottles containing decreasing number of molecules.

(A) O2 , N 2 , Cl2 (B) Cl2 , N 2 , O2 (C) Cl2 , O2 , N 2 (D) N 2 , O2 , Cl2

5. Which of the following has the smallest mass?

(A) 4 g of He (B) 6.023 × 1023 atoms of He
© 1 atom of He (D) 1 mole atoms of He

6. The number of carbon atoms in 1 g of CaCO3 is –

(A) 6.023 × 1023 (B) 6.023 × 1021 (C) 3.0125 × 1022 (D) 1.204 × 1023

7. 6.023 × 1020 atoms of silver (Atomic mass = 108 u) weight –

(A) 108 × 103 g (B) 108 g (C) 0.108 g (D) 10.8 g
8. Which of the following has largest number of molecules?
(A) 8 g of CH4 (B) 4.4 g of CO2
© 34.2 g of C12H22O11 (D) 2 g of H2

9. Which of the following contains one mole molecule of the substance?

(A) 16 g Oxygen gas (B) 7 g Nitrogen gas (C) 2 g Hydrogen gas (D) 36 g H2O.

10. The number of molecules in 16.0 g of oxygen is –

(A) 6.02 × 1023 (B) 6.02 × 10-23 (C) 3.01 × 10-23 (D) 3.01 × 1023

11. The volume of one mole of a gas at normal temperature and pressure is –
(A) 11.2 litres (B) 22.4 litres (C) 100 litres (D) None of these

12. The number of gram-atoms in 8 g of He are –

13. The percentage of hydrogen in H2O is –

(A) 8.88 (B) 11.12 (C) 20.60 (D) 80.0

14. The charge in coulombs of 1 mole of N3- is (the charge on an electron is 1.602 × 10-19 C) –
(A) 2.894 × 105 C (B) 3.894 × 105 C (C) 2.894 × 106 C (D) None of these
15. The mass of oxygen contained in 1 kg of potassium nitrate (KNO3) will be (Atwt: of K: 39, N: 14,
O: 16)
(A) 478.5 g (B) 485.5 g (C) 475.2 g (D) 488.2 g
79
16. If bromine atom is available in the form of, say two isotopes Br (49.7%) and 81 Br (50.3%),
35 35
calculate the average atomic mass of bromine atom.
(A) 80 (B) 81 (C) 75 (D) 79
1
17. H 2( g ) + O → H 2O( g ) ; In the above reaction what is the volume of water vapour at STP.
2 2( g )

Given 4 g of H2 and 32 g of O2
(A) 11200 mL (B) 5600mL (C) 22400mL (D) 44800mL

18. What volume of oxygen gas at STP is necessary for complete combustion of 20 Liter if propane
(C3H8).
C3 H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H 2O (balanced equation)
(A) 10L (B) 100L (C) 100Ml (D) 50L

19. Pick out the isoelectronic (having same number of electrons) from the following –
(I) CH3+ (II) H3O+ (III) NH3 (IV) CH3-
(A) I and II (B) III and IV (C) I and III (D) II, III, IV

20. What is the gram atomic mass of Cl?

(A) 35.5amu (B) 35.5 mg (C) 35.5g (D) both A & C

More than one option can be correct

1. 1 g-atom (gram atom) of nitrogen represents:
23
(A) 6.02×10 N 2 molecules (B) 22.4 litre of N2 at STP

© 11.2 litre of N2 at STP (D) 14 g of nitrogen

2. 1 g molecule of V2O5 contains:
(A)) 5 mole of oxygen atom (B) 2 mole of V atom
© 1 mole of oxygen atom (D) 2.5 mole of oxygen atom
3. 11.2L of a gas at STP weighs 14.0g. The gas could be?
(A) N 2 O (B) NO 2 (C) N 2 (D) CO
4. The pair of species having different percentage (mass) of carbon is:
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(A) CH3COOH & C6H12O6 (B) CH3COOH & C2H5OH
(C) HCOOCH3& HCOOH (D) C2H5OH & CH3OCH3
5. 1 mole of a compound contains 1 mole of carbon and 2 moles of oxygen. The molecular weight of
the compound is not –
(A) 3 (B) 12 (C) 32 (D) 44
❖ Match the Column
Column – I & Column – II contains four entries each. Entries of Column – I are to be matched with
some entries of Column – II. One or more than one entries of Column – I may have the matching
with the same entries of Column – II.
1. Column – I Column – II
(A) 0.5 mole of SO2(g) (P) Occupy 11.2 L at STP
(B) 1 g of H2(g) (Q) Weighs 24 g
© 0.5 mole of O3(g) © Total no. of atoms = 1.5  NA
(D) 1g molecule of O2(g) (S) Weighs 32 g

SUBJECTIVE (Please ask the teacher for help on subjective questions if required)

1. Define the term mole.

2. What is the mass of 0.2 mole of oxygen atoms?
3. Calculate the mass of 10.044 × 1025 molecules of oxygen.
4. If 1 g of oxygen element contains X atoms, what will be the number of atoms in 1 g of aluminum?
(Atomic mass: O = 16 u, Al = 27 u)
5. Calculate the number of aluminum ions present in 0.051 g of aluminum oxide (Al2O3). [Atomic
mass: Al = 27 u; O = 16 u]
6. What weight of oxygen gas will contain the same number of molecules as 56 g of nitrogen gas?
a. Atomic mass: O: = 16 u; N = 14u)
7. Calculate the number of atoms and volume of 1g He gas at STP.

8. What is the mass of 4.0 × 10-3 mol of glucose, (C6H12O6)? How many carbon atoms are there in
4.0  10−3 mole of glucose?
9. How many molecules of water are present in one ml of water vapors at STP?
10. If one takes one second to count five wheat grains, calculate the time taken is counting one mole of
wheat grains.
Key for Lecture 3&4

Single Options Correct

More than one Options:

1 2 3 4 5
C,D A,B C,D B,C ABC

❖ Match the Column

1. A → P,R,S ; B → P ; C→ P,Q,R ; D→S

Subjective Questions :
16 X
2.3.2 g 3. 5.33 kg 4. atoms 5. 6.023 × 1020
27

6. 64 g 7. 1.5055 × 1023, 5.6 L 8. 0.72 g, 1.445 × 1022

9. 0.0268 × 1021 molecules 10. 1.2046 × 1023 sec

PbS + 4H 2O2 → PbSO4 + 4H 2O

This equation will provide us various quantitative informations:
(A) The molar ratio of reactants, i.e., PbS and H2O2 in which they react together is 1:4.
(ii) The molar ratio of the two products i.e., PbSO4 and H2O being formed in the reaction is also 1:4.
(iii) One mole of PbSO4 and 4 moles of H2O will be formed for each mole of PbS being consumed.
The stoichiometric coefficients of a balanced chemical equation are the molar ratio and not the weight
ratio.
One can use the balanced chemical equation for quantitative (gravimetric or volumetric) estimation of
reactants and products. But if one does not have the balanced equation, it is very difficult to calculate the
amounts of reactants consumed or products being formed.
PERCENTAGE YIELD: Reactants, often yield quantities of products that are less than those calculated
from the balanced chemical equation.
Reason behind such discrepancy may be:
(A) Some of the reactants fail to undergo reaction due to lower amount at the end.
(ii) Some of the reactants follow other routes of reaction resulting unexpected, undesired side product.
(iii)Some of the expected product recombines to form other undesired product or reverting toward reactant
also known as backward reaction.
(iv)The total recovery, isolation of products is not possible due to some unavoidable reason.
So percentage yield is the ratio of actual yield (recovered) to theoretical yield multiplied by 100.
actual yield
% yield = ×100
theoretical yield

Problem: What is the percent yield of the following reaction if 60 grams of CaCO3 is heated to give 15
grams of CaO?
CaCO3 (S) →CaO(S) + CO2 (g)

Solution: Ideally, how many grams of CaO should be produced?

First verify the equation is balanced (atoms on both sides should be same); it is. Now convert to moles,
based on the amount ofCaCO3 present.

60 grams CaCO3×1 mole CaCO3 1mole CaO

× = 0.6 mole CaO
100 grams CaCO3 1 mole CaCO3

How many grams is this?

0.6 mole CaO  56 grams CaO
=33.6 mole CaO
1 mole CaO

CONCEPT OF LIMITING REAGENT

LIMITING REAGENT
The reactions in which more than one reactant are reacting and if they are not present in the same
molar ratio as the balanced equation requires, then one has to find out the limiting reagent i.e., the reagent
which is completely consumed in the reaction. All quantitative calculations are carried out with the help of
limiting reagent only. Now, how to decide the limiting reagent of a reaction?

Consider the following example.

Suppose you are given 5 moles of PbS and 18 moles of H2O2 and you must calculate the maximum
amount of PbSO4 being produced.
The balanced equation is:
PbS+ 4H2O2 → PbSO4 + 4H2O
Initial moles 5 mol 18 mol
Now since 1 mol of PbS reacts completely with 4 moles of H2O2 to produce 1 mol of PbSO4.
Therefore, 5 mole of PbS will react with 20 moles of H2O2. But since moles of H2O2 is only 18. So, H2O2
will be the reagent, which will be consumed first, and hence H2O2 is the limiting reagent. If PbS had been
the limiting reagent 5 mole of it would have given 5 moles of PbSO4 but it is not so. As one can see from
the balanced chemical equation that 1 mol of PbSO4 is produced from 4 moles of H2O2. So18 moles of H2O2
will produce 4.5 moles of PbSO4.
So, one can define limiting reagent in another way,
“The reagent producing the least number of moles of products is the limiting reagent”.

Example: 8g of methane is burnt with 4.48L of O 2 at STP. Find out the volume of CO 2 gas produced at
STP and the weight of CO 2 gas.
(A) 22.4 L, 44 g (B) 2.24 L, 4.4 g (C) 1.12 L, 22 g (D) 44.8 L, 88 g
Solution: (B)
The balanced chemical equation is
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
16 gm 2 × 22.4 L 22.4 L
44 gm

8
No. of moles of CH 4 = = 0.5mol
16
4.48L
No. of moles of O2 = = 0.2mol
22.4 L
Now since 1 mole of CH 4 requires 2 mol (i.e. 44.8 L) of O 2 for complete combustion. But the given
moles of O 2 is only 0.2 mol. So, O 2 is the limiting reagent.
Again, since 2 moles of O 2 reacts with 1 mol of CH 4 to give 22.4 L of CO 2 at STP

Example 2 for limiting reagent:

A mixture of 1.0mole of Al and 3.0 mole of Cl2are allowed to react as 2Al(s) + 3 Cl2 (g)→ 2 AlCl3(s)

(a) What is the limiting reagent

(b) How many moles of AlCl3 is formed

© Moles of excess reagent left unreacted

Method of Expressing Concentration of Solution

Solution: 2Al ( s ) + 3 Cl2(g) → 2 AlCl3 (s )

At time =0 1.0 3.0 0

At Completion 0 1.5 1.0
Mole ratio for reactants and products are 2:3:2
(a) Al is the limiting reagent
(b) 1.0 mole of AlCl3 is formed
© Moles of excess reagent Cl2 left unreacted = 1.5.
To react completely 1 mole Al requires 1.5mole Cl2
And 3.0 mole Cl2 will require 2 mole Al to react completely (not possible as we have only 1 mole Al)
So, Al will react completely and is the limiting reagent and will get consumed up completely and will
decide the amount of product formed.
Methods to represent concentration of a solution:
Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances where one acts as a solute and another as a
solvent.
Example: NaCl in water. NaCl is the solute and Water (H2O) is the solvent.

Saturated Solution: A solution that is in equilibrium with pure solid solute. No more solute can be
dissolved in it.

Molarity (M): The no. of moles of solute present in one litre of solution is called the
molarity (M).
No. of moles of solute
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litre
Wt. of solute/Mol ecular wt. of solute
or Molarity =
Volume of solution in litre
So, no. of moles of solute = Volume of solution (in litre)  Molarity of solution

Molality (m): No. of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent is know as molality

The sum of mole fractions in a mixture is always 1, X A + X B = 1 & X A = (1 - X B )

KEY POINTS
1. Relative Atomic Mass: It is the ratio of the mass of 1 atom of a substance and 1/12 of mass of 1 atom
of C-12 isotope.
2. Atomic Mass Unit (or amu): The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one twelfth of the mass of one
atom of Carbon-12 isotope.
3. Atomic Mass: It is the mass of 1 atom of a substance it is expressed in amu
Atomic mass = RAM × 1 amu
4. Gram Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called gram atomic mass
of the element.
5. Molecules: It is the smallest particle of matter which as free existence. Molecules can be further
divided into its constituent atoms by physical and chemical process.
6. Molecular Mass: It is the mass of one molecule
7. Gram Molecular Mass: The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called the gram-
molecular mass of the substance.
8. MOLES: Gram-molecules and gram-atom are termed as a mole of molecules and a mole of atoms
respectively, e.g.,, 1 gram-molecule of chlorine and 1gram atom of chlorine are expressed as 1 mole
of Cl2 and 1 mole of Cl respectively.
The number of moles can be calculated by a number of formulae depending upon the data given:

Wt. of substance in g
No. of moles of molecules =
Mol. wt. of substance

No. of moles of atoms = Wt. of element in g

At. wt. of the element
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚e of the gas at STP
No. of moles of gas =𝑆𝑡𝑎ndard molar volume (i.e. 22.4L)

9. Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical change total mass remains conserved.

i.e. mass before reaction is always equal to mass after reaction

10. Law of Constant or Definite Proportion: All chemical compounds are found to have constant
composition irrespective of their method of preparation or sources.

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11. Law of Multiple Proportion: When one element combines with the other elements to form two or
more different compounds, the mass of one element, which combines with a constant mass of the
other, bear a simple ratio to one another.
12. Gay-Lussac’s Law: Gas react or formed in the simple ratio of their volume. Provided all
measurement are in the same condition of temperature and pressure.
13. AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS: Equal volumes of all gases have equal number of molecules (not
atoms) at same temperature and pressure conditions.

mass of that element in the compound

14. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION: = ×100 percentage mass
molarmass of that compound
of an element
15. LIMITING REAGENT: The reactant which is consumed completely is known as limiting reagent.

16, Molarity (M): The no. of moles of solute present in one litre of solution is called the molarity (M).

17. Molality (m): No. of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent is know as molality

18. Normality (N) (to be taught in later chapter): No of equivalents of solute present in one litre of
the solution is known as Normality (N).

19. Mass-Mass Relationship: It relates the mass of a species (reactant or product) with the mass of
another species (reactants or product)

20. Mass-Volume Relationship: It relates the mass of a species (reactant or product) and the volume of
a gaseous species (reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction.

21. Volume-Volume Relationship: It relates the volume of gaseous species (reactants or products) with
the volume of another gaseous species (reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction.

Solved Problems and Concept Application

QUESTION 1
Write down the formula of
(i) aluminium hydroxide, (ii) hydrogen sulphide,
(iii) ammonium sulphate, (iv) sodium carbonate
(v) Calcium phosphate, (vi) Potassium chromate
SOLUTION

3+ 1– 1+ 2–

(i) Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 (ii) Hydrogen sulphide H2S (iii)

NH4 SO4

1+ –2

Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

Na CO3 Ca PO4

1+ 2– 2+ 3–

(iv) Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 (v) Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 (vi)

K Cr2O4

1+ 2–

Potassium chromate K2Cr2O4

QUESTION.2
Calculate the number of molecules in 0.72 g of water. [At. Mass of H = 1u, O = 16 u]
SOLUTION
Number of molecules of H2O
Mass of H2O 0.72g
Molar mass of H2O 18g / mol
= × 6.022 × 1023 = × 6.022 × 1023 = 2.40 × 1022 molecules

QUESTION.3
Calculate the number of atoms in 0.10 g of hydrogen gas [H = 1u].
SOLUTION
Mass of hydrogen gas
Molar mass of hydrogen atom
Number of hydrogen atoms = × 6.022 × 1023
= [0.1 g / 2 g per mole] × 6.022 × 1023 = 6.022 × 1022 atoms

QUESTION.4
What mass of sulphur dioxide (SO2) contains the same number of molecules as are in 2.00 g of
ammonia (NH3) ?
SOLUTION
Here number of molecules of SO2 = number of molecules of NH3
i.e. N(NH3) = N(SO2)
N (Number of molecules) for NH3 can be calculated as w × 6.022 × 1023. Similarly N for SO2
can be calculated. M

QUESTION.5
Calculate the number of atoms of each type of element in 6.3 g of HNO3 (nitric acid).
(Atomic mass of H = 1u, N = 14 u, O = 16u)
SOLUTION:
1 molecule of HNO3 contains =
1 atom of H, 1 atom of N and 3 atoms of O
Firstly we calculate the number of molecules in 6.3 g of HNO3
Mass of substance
Molar mass
Number of molecules = × 6.022 × 1023
w
N = M × 6.022 × 1023
6.3 g
N = (1 + 14 + 3  16) × 6.022 × 1023
6.3 g
63 g / mol
= × 6.022 × 1023
= 6.022 × 1022 molecules
6.022 × 1022 molecules of HNO3 contains:
(i) 6.022 × 1022 atoms of H
(ii) 6.022 × 1022 atoms of N
(iii) 3 × 6.022 × 1022 atoms of O = 18.06 × 1022 O atoms.

QUESTION.6
Which amongst the following will have more number of atoms (i) 23 g of sodium (ii) 10 g of
calcium.
SOLUTION
We know equal number of moles of elements = equal number of atoms.
Thus,
For sodium For Calcium
No. of moles of sodium No. of moles of Ca
Given mass Given mass
Molar mass Molar mass
= =
23g 10g
23g 40g
= = 1 mol = = 0.25 mol
Therefore, sodium has more number of atoms than calcium.

QUESTION.7
Calculate the following:
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(A) mass of 0.2 mol of O atoms.
(ii) the number of aluminium ions in 0.056 g of Al2O3
(iii) mass of 0.5 mol of H2O molecules
(iv) number of molecules of sulphur (S8) in 16 g of solid sulphur
SOLUTION
Mass of O atom = Number of moles × Molar mass = 0.2 mol × 16 g/mol = 3.3 g
w (Given mass )
(Molar mass )
(ii) Mole of Al2O3 = M =
0.056g
= (2  27 + 3  16)
= 5.49 × 10–4 mol
1 molecule of Al2O3 contains 2 atoms of Al3+
1 mol of Al2O3 contains 2 moles of Al3+
Hence, 5.49 × 10–4 Al2O3 contains
= 2 × 5.49 × 10–4 mol
= 1.098 × 10–3 mol
Thus, moles of Al3+ ions (n)
= 1.098 × 10–3 mol
Number of Al+3 ion (N) = n × No
= n × 6.022 × 1023
= 1.098 × 10–3 × 6.022 × 1023 = 6.61 × 1020
(iii) Mass of H2O molecules
= Number of moles × Molar mass
= 0.5 mol × 18 g/mol = 9.0 g
(iv) Number of molecules of S8 in 16 g of solid sulphur
w 16 1
n = M = 8  32 = 16 mol. = 0.0625 mol

QUESTION.8
Bring out clearly the difference between 4 Cl, Cl2 and 2Cl2.
SOLUTION
4Cl means 4 atoms of chlorine
Cl2 means 1 molecules of chlorine
2Cl2 means 2 molecules of chlorine

QUESTION.9
Classify the following into diatomic, triatomic, tetratomic, polyatomic molecules
(i) Caustic soda (ii) marble (iii) lime water (iv) NH3
(v) PCl3 (vi) H2O2 (vii) CH4 (viii) Cl2
(ix) NH4Cl (x) Hydrochloric acid
SOLUTION
(i) Caustic soda ⎯→ NaOH ⎯→ Triatomic
(ii) marble ⎯→ CaCO3 ⎯→ Polyatomic
(iii) Lime water ⎯→ Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ Polyatomic
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(iv) Ammonia ⎯→ NH3 ⎯→ Tetraatomic
(v) Phosphorus trichloride ⎯→ PCl3 ⎯→ Tetraatomic
(vi) Hydrogen peroxide ⎯→H2O2 ⎯→ Tetraatomic
(vii) Methane ⎯→ CH4 ⎯→ Polyatomic
(viii) Chlorine ⎯→ Cl2 ⎯→ Diatomic
(ix) Ammonium chloride ⎯→ NH4Cl ⎯→ Polyatomic
(x) Hydrochloric acid ⎯→ HCl ⎯→ Diatomic acid

QUESTION.10
Define the term atomicity by giving proper examples.
SOLUTION
Atomicity is defined as total number of atoms present in 1 molecule of a
substance.
For example in H2SO4 total number of atom is 2 + 1 + 4 = 7. Hence the atomocity of H2SO4 is 7.

QUESTION.11
Calculate the number of sulphur (S) atoms in one mole of S8.
SOLUTION
1 mol of S8 = 6.022 × 1023 S8 molecules
Number of atoms in one S8 molecules = 8
Number of atoms in 6.022 × 1022 S8 molecules = 8 × 6.022 × 1023 = 4.818 × 1024 atoms

QUESTION.12
Calculate the mass of (i) an atom of copper (ii) a molecule of carbon dioxide.
(Atomic Mass of Cu = 63.5)
SOLUTION
(A) 1 mole of Cu atoms = Gram atomic mass of Cu = 63.5 g
Also 1 mole of Cu atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Cu
Thus, 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Cu weight = 63.5 g
63.5
\ 1 atom of Cu will weight = 6.022  10 g
23

= 10.54 × 10–23 g
(ii) 1 mole of CO2 = Gram molecular mass = 12 + 2 × 16 = 44 g
Also, 1 mole of CO2 = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
Thus, 6.022 × 1023 molecules of CO2 have mass = 44 g
44
\ 1 molecule of CO2 will have mass = 6.022  10 g = 7.307 × 10–23 g
23

QUESTION.13
Calculate the number of the constituent atoms in 53 g of Na2CO3 .
(Atomic masses : Na = 23 u, C = 12 u, O = 16 u)
SOLUTION
1 mole of Na2CO3 = 2 × 23 + 12 + 3 × 16 = 106 g
i.e. 106 g Na2CO3 = 1 mole of Na2CO3

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1
\ 53 g Na2CO3 = 106 × 53 mole = 0.5 mole of Na2CO3
From the formula Na2CO3,
1 mole of Na2CO3 contains 2 moles of Na+ ions, 1 mole of C-atoms and 3 moles of O-atoms.
\ 0.5 mole of Na2CO3 will contain 1 mole of Na+ ions, 0.5 mole of C-atoms and 1.5 moles of O-
atoms.
As 1 mole of atoms or ions = 6.022 × 1023 atoms or ions.
\ 1 mole of Na+ ions = 6.022 × 1023 Na+ ions
0.5 mole of C-atoms = 6.022 × 1023 × 0.5 C-atoms = 3.011 × 1023 C-atoms
1.5 mole of O-atoms = 6.022 × 1023 × 1.5 O-atoms = 9.033 × 1023 O-atoms.

QUESTION.14
Arrange the following in order of increasing masses:
(A) 0.1 g atom of silver (ii) 0.1 mole of H2SO4 (iii) 1023 molecules of CO2 gas
(iv) 1 gram of carbon (v) 1023 atoms of calcium.
(Atomic masses: Ag = 108 u, S = 32 u, N =14 u , Ca = 40 u)

SOLUTION
(A) 1 g atom of Ag = Gram atomic mass of Ag = 108 g
\ 0.1 g atom of Ag = 0.1 × 108 g = 10.8 g
(ii) 1 mole of H2SO4 = Gram molecular mass = 2 × 1 + 32 + 4 × 16 = 98 g
\ 0.1 mole of H2SO4 = 0.1 × 98 g = 9.8 g
(iii) 1 mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.02 × 1023 molecules
i.e. 6.02 × 1023 molecules of CO2 = 44 g of CO2
44
\ 1023 molecules of CO2 = 6.02  10
23
× 1023 = 7.31 g
(iv) 1 g of carbon = 1 g.
(v) 1 mole of calcium (Ca) = 40 g = 6.02 × 1023 atoms of Ca
i.e. , 6.02 × 1023 atoms of Ca have mass = 40 g
40
\ 1023 atoms of Ca have mass = 6.02  10 × 1023 = 6.64 g
23

Thus, masses in the increasing order are :

1 g carbon < 1023 atoms of Ca < 1023 molecules of CO2 < 0.1 mole H2SO4 < 0.1 g atom of Ag.

QUESTION.15
What mass of sodium chloride would be decomposed by 9.8 g of sulphuric acid, if 12 g of sodium
bisulphate and 2.75 g of hydrogen chloride were produced in a reaction assuming that the law of
conservation of mass is true ?
SOLUTION
NaCl + H2SO4 = NaHSO4 + HCl According to law of conservation of mass,
Total masses of reactants = Total masses of products.
Let the mass of NaCl decomposed be x g, so x + 9.8 = 12.0 + 2.75 = 14.75 x = 4.95 g.

QUESTION.16
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In an experiment, 2.4 g of iron oxide on reduction with hydrogen yield 1.68 g of iron. In another
experiment 2.9g of iron oxide give 2.03 g of iron on reduction with hydrogen. Show that the above
data illustrate the law of constant proportions.
SOLUTION
In the first experiment:
The mass of iron oxide = 2.4 g
The mass of iron after reduction = 1.68 g
The mass of oxygen = Mass of iron oxide – Mass of iron
= (2.4 – 1.68) = 0.72 g
Ratio of oxygen and iron = 0.72 : 1.687 = 1 : 2.33
In the second experiment:
The mass of iron oxide = 2.9 g
The mass of iron after reduction = 2.03 g
The mass of oxygen = (2.9 – 2.03) = 0.87 g
Ratio of oxygen and iron = 0.87 : 2.03 = 1 : 2.33
Thus, the data illustrate the law of constant proportions, as in both the experiments the ratio of
oxygen and iron is the same.

QUESTION.17
An atom of an element weights 6.644 x 10–23 g. Calculate the gram atomic mass of the element.
Find out the number of gram atomic in 40 kg of the element.
SOLUTION
Weight of one atom = 6.644 x 10–23 g
Weight of Avogadro number of atoms = 6.023 x 1023 x 6.644 x 10–23 = 40
Gram atomic mass = 40
Number of gram atoms in 40 kg = = 1000

QUESTION.18
Calculate the mass of
(a) single atom of sulphur (b) single molecule of chlorine
© single molecule of CO2 (d) number of electrons in 1 mole of CO2
SOLUTION
(A) Weight of 6.023 x 1023 atoms of sulphur = 32 g
32
= 6.023  10
23
Weight of 1 atom of sulphur = 5.31 x 10–23 g

(b) Weight of 6.023 x 1023 molecules of chlorine = 71 g

71
= 6.023  10
23
Weight of single molecule = 11.79 x 10–23 g

© Weight of 6.023 x 1023 molecules of CO2 = 44 g

44
Weight of 1 molecule of CO2 = 6.023  10
23
= 7.3 x 10–23 g
(d) Number of electrons in one molecule of CO2 = 22
Number of electrons in mole molecules of CO2 = 22 x 6.023 x 1023 = 132.5 x 1023

⎯⎯ Makes
⎯⎯ ⎯→ x moles
25 g of CaCO3
x = = 0.25 moles
(C) H2SO4 GMW = 98 g

⎯⎯ Makes
⎯⎯ ⎯→ 1 mole
98 g of H2SO4

⎯⎯ Makes
⎯⎯ ⎯→ x mole
196 g of H2SO4
196
x = 98 = 2

Method–2 (using the direct formula)

weight (m)
Gram molecular weight (GMW )
We know, numbers of moles (n) = --------(1)

Applying (1) to each of the given cases,

m 49
=
(a) No. of moles of glucose (n) = GMW 180 = 0.27
m 25
=
(b) No. of moles of CaCO3 = GMW 100 = 0.25
m 196
=
© No. of mole of H2SO4 = GMW 98 = 2

QUESTION.20
Calculate the mass of 0.5 moles of calcium carbonate.
SOLUTION
Number of moles = n = 0.5
Gram molecular weight of CaCO3 = GMW = 100 g
Mass = m = ?

QUESTION.21
Ratio of weight of O2 and O3 is 1:1. What is the ratio of their of moles ?
SOLUTION
Ratio of weights of O2 and O3 = MO2 ; MO3 = 1 : 1 (given)
Ratio of number of moles of O2 and O3 = n1O2 : n2O3 = ?
Terms in the problems are weight (m) and number of moles (n) and the formula connecting these
terms is,
m
n= GMW ........... (1)
Let us note the gram molecular weights of the given molecules.
GMW O2 = 32 g and GMW O3 = 48 g
1
From equation (1), we get n GMW (mass of oxygen = mass of ozone = constant)
n1 GMW 2
n2
= GMW1 ........... (2)
Applying equation (2) to the given problem, we get,
n O2 GMW O 3 48 3
n O3 GMW O 2
= = 32 = 2 no2 : no3 = 3 : 2
Therefore, the ratio of number of moles of equal weights of oxygen to ozone is 3 : 2.

QUESTION.22
What are the percentage compositions of hydrogen and oxygen in water (H2O) ?
(Atomic masses : H = 1 u, O = 16 u)
SOLUTION
Molecular mass of water, H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 amu.
H2O has two atoms of hydrogen.
So, total mass of hydrogen in H2O = 2 amu.
2  100
H= = 11.11%
Percentage of 18
16  100
= 88.88
Similarly, percentage of oxygen = 18 %

QUESTION.23 Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 0.5 g of NaOH dissolved in

500 mL. ( Na :23 amu, O :16 amu and H: 1 amu )

Solution: Weight of NaOH dissolved = 0.5 g

Volume of the solution = 500 mL

Calculation of molarity:

( Mol. massof NaOH = 40 ) ( 23 +16 + 1 = 40 amu)

= 0.0125mole

Thus 500 cm3 of solution contain NaOH = 0.0125 mole

 1000 cm3 of the solution contain NaOH

0.0125
= ×1000  0.025 mole
500
Hence molarity of the solution = 0.025 M

QUESTION.24 Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 9.8 gm of H2SO4 in 250 cm3 of the solution.

( 1cm3 = 1 mL a unit of volume)

Solution: Mass of H2SO4 dissolved = 9.8 g
Volume of the solution = 250 cm3
Calculation of molarity
Mol. Mass of H2SO4 = 98
 No. of moles of H2SO4 = Mass in g
Mol. mass
9.8
= = 0.1
98
250 cm3 of the solution contain H2SO4
= 0.1 mole
 1000 cm3 of the solution contain H2SO4
0.1
= ×1000 = 0.4mole
250
Hence molarity of solution = 0.4 M

QUESTION.25: Calculate the mass of 90% pure MnO2 to produce 35.5g of Cl2 according to the
following reaction.
MnO2 + 4HCl ⎯→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Solution: MnO2 + 4HCl ⎯→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

87g 71g
71g Cl2 is produced by 87g of MnO2
35.5g Cl2 is produced = 87  35.5 = 43.5g
712
90g pure MnO2 is present in 100g sample
 43.5g pure MnO2 = 100  43.5 = 48.3g
90

QUESTION.26: 8 gm of methane is burnt with 4.48L of O2 at STP. Find out the volume of CO2 gas produced
at STP and also the weight of CO2 gas.

Solution: The balanced chemical equation is

CH4 + 2O2⎯→ CO2 + 2H2O
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
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16 gm 2  22.4 L 22.4 L
44 gm
No. of moles of CH4 = 8 = 0.5 mol
16
4.48 L
No. of moles of O2 = = 0.2mol
22 .4L
Now since 1 mole of CH4 requires 2 mol (i.e. 44.8 L) of O2 for complete combustion. But the
given moles of O2 is only 0.2 mol. So, O2 is the limiting reagent.
Again, since 2 moles of O2 reacts with 1 mol of CH4 to give 22.4 L of CO2
at STP.
So 0.2 mole of O2 will react with 0.1 mol of CH4 to give 2.24 L of CO2.
Wt. of CO2 produced = 0.1 mol  44= 4.4 g of CO2

QUESTION.27: By heating 10g of CaCO3, 5.6g CaO is formed. What is the weight of CO2 obtained in
this reaction?

Solution: CaCO3⎯→CaO + CO2

Molecular weight 100 56 44
100g CaCO3 gives 56g CaO and 44g CO2
 10g CaCO3 gives 5.6g CaO and 4.4g CO2

QUESTION.28: The chloride of a metal contains 71% chlorine by weight and the GMM of it is 100.
The atomic weight of the metal will be
(A) 29 (B)58 (C)35.5 (D)71

Solution: Molecular weight of the salt = 100

Let metal chloride be MCln then
Then weight of M + weight of Cl = 100
Now M + 35.5n = 100 ( M is the weight of metal)
And 35.5 * n = 71 as the salt contains 71% of Cl ( means 71g in 100g )
n=2
Therefore M + 71 = 100
So M = 29
(A)

QUESTION.29: A mixture of magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate is known to contain 0.6
moles of chloride ions and 0.2 moles of sulphate ions. The number of moles of magnesium
ions present is
(A)0.4 (B)0.5 (C)0.8 (D)1.0
Solution: In MgCl2, the ratio of moles of Mg+2 to Cl– is 1:2. Therefore, 0.6 mole of chloride combine
with 0.3 moles of magnesium. In MgSO4, 0.2 mole of sulphate combine with 0.2 moles of
magnesium. Therefore, the number of moles of magnesium ion present is 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.5.
(B)
QUESTION.30. H3PO4 is a tribasic acid and one of its salts is NaH2PO4. What volume of 1 M NaOH
solution should be added to 12 g of NaH2PO4 to convert it into Na3PO4? ( Na :23 amu and P
=31 amu)
(A) 100 ml (B) 200 ml (C) 80 ml (D) 300 ml
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Solution. NaH2PO4 + 2NaOH → Na3PO4 + 2H2O

12g of NaH2PO4 = 12g / 120 g/mole = 0.1 mole of NaH2PO4

From the equation it is clear that one mole NaH2PO4 reacts with 2 mole NaOH

So 0.1 mole of NaH2PO4 reacts with 0.2 mole NaOH,

Using molarity and mole we can calculate the volume

M = mole of solute / L of solution

Volume = mole of solute / Molarity = 0.2 mole Solute / 1 Molarity

= 0.2 liter = 200mL

Volume = 200mL

QUESTION.31.. Calculate the amount in grams of NaOH required to neutralize 36.5g of the following
HCl ( Cl :35.5 amu)

NaOH ( aq ) + HCl ( aq ) → NaCl ( aq ) + H 2O ( l )

Solution: 1mole. Of HCl react with 1 mole NaOH and therefore 40g. of NaOH are required every time
( inferred from the balanced equation given in the question).

 W = 40 g

QUESTION.32. Calculate the mass of anhydrous Ca3(PO4)2 present in 250 ml of 0.25 M

solution.(Ca:40amu, P:31 amu, O:16amu and H =1 amu)

Solution: Moles. Of Ca3(PO4)2 = Molarity * Volume in liter

250mL = 0.25Liter

So moles of Ca3(PO4)2 = 0.25M * 0.25 Liter

= 0.0625 mole of salt

Then the weight of salt = 0.0625 moles * 310 g/mole

 W = 19.3725 g

QUESTION.33: Element X reacts with oxygen to produce a pure sample of X2O3. In an experiment it
is found that 1.00g of X produces 1.16g of X2O3. Calculate the atomic weight of X.
Given: atomic weight of oxygen, 16.0 g mol–1.
(A) 67 (B) 100.2 (C) 125 (D) 150

Solution: The mass of O atoms = 1.16 – 1.00 = 0.160g , using law of conservation of mass

Number of moles of O atom = 0.160 = 0.01

In X2O3 the mole ratio of X : O is 2: 3

No. of moles of X = 2  0.01 = 0.02 = 0.00666

3 3

mass in g 1.0
Atomic weight of X = = = 150
no. of moles 0.00666

(D)

QUESTION.34.: P and Q are two elements which forms P2Q3 and PQ2. If 0.15 mole of P2Q3 weighs
15.9g and 0.15 mole of PQ2 weighs 9.3g, what are atomic weights of P and Q?

Solution: Let atomic weight of P and Q are a and b respectively

 Molecular weight of P2Q3 = 2a + 3b

and Molecular weight of PQ2 = a + 2b

Now given that 0.15 mole of P2Q3 weigh 15.9g

15 .9  wt. 
(2a + 3b) =  = mole 
0.15  mol . wt. 

Similarly, (a + 2b) = 9.3

0.15

Solving these two equations

b = 18

a = 26

QUESTION.35: Potassium selenate K2SeO4 is isomorphous (means they have same structure) with
potassium sulphate K2SO4 and contains 45.52% selenium by weight. Calculate the atomic
weight of selenium.

Solution: Potassium selenate is isomorphous to K2SO4 and thus its molecular formula is K2SeO4.

Now molecular weight of K2SeO4 = (39  2 + x + 4  16)

= (142 + x)

where a is atomic weight of Se

(142 + x) g K2SeO4 has Se = x grams

𝑥×100
 100g K2SeO4 has Se = 142+𝑥

 % of Se = 45.52
𝑥×100
 = 45.52  x= 118.2
142+𝑥

Solution: mole =wt in gm/ Ionic wt (Ionic weight = formula weight)

=4.2/14= 0.3
total no of ions = 0.3 × NA ions , charge on one electron is 1.6 × 10–19coulombs.
Total charge = 0.3 NA × 3 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 0.3 × 6.023 × 1023 × 3 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 8.67 × 104 Coulombs

QUESTION.37: Find the total number of iron atom present in 224 amu iron.
Solution: Since 56 amu = 1 atom
therefore 224 amu =
(1/56) × 224 = 4 atom
QUESTION.38 For the gaseous reaction H 2( g ) + Cl2( g ) → 2HCl( g ) If initially 20 mL of H 2( g ) and
30 mL of Cl2( g ) are present then find out the volume of HCl( g ) and unreacted part of Cl2( g )

Solution: From the balanced equation it is clear that 1 volume of H2 reacts with 1 volume of Cl2 to give 2
volumes of HCl, so 20 ml of H2 will react with 20ml of Cl2 to give 40ml of HCl. As we have started with
30ml of Cl2 10ml of it will remain unused as excess reagent.

QUESTION.39 : The reaction between aluminium metal and dilute hydrochloric acid produces H2(g)
3+
and Al ions. The molar ratio of aluminium used to hydrogen produced is
(A)1:2 (B)2:1 (C)2:3 (D)3:2

Solution: Al(s) + 3H (+aq ) ⎯→ 3 H 2 ( g ) + Al 3+ ( aq.)

( from HCl) 2

The molar ratio of Al(s) used to H2 produced is 1: 3 or 2:3. ©.

Practice for lecture 5 & 6

Single option correct

1. In a solution if n is number of moles of solute and N the number of moles of solvent, then solutes
mole-fraction will be given by
(A) (n+N)/n (B) n/(n+N) (C) n2 / (n+N) (D) N / (n+N)
2. The number of moles of solute present per liter of the solutions is known as
(A) Molarity (B) Molality (C) Normality (D) Mass Percentage

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3. What is the percentage composition of Mg in Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2?
(At.Wt Mg: 24,N :14, O:16 g/mol)
(A) 64.7 (B) 18.9 (C) 16.4 (D) 21.5
4. All the substances listed below are fertilizers that contribute nitrogen to the soil. Which of these is
the richest source of nitrogen on a mass percentage basis?
(A) Urea, (NH2)2CO (B) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
© Nitric oxide, NO (D) Ammonia, NH3

5. What is the molarity of a solution of density 1.15g/ml, which is prepared by dissolving 120g of urea
(mol.wt 60g/mol) in 1000g of water?
(A) 1.18M (B) 2.15M (C) 2.05M (D) 1.65M

6. C6 H5OH ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l )

Magnitude of volume change if 30 ml of C6H5OH (g) is burnt with excess amount of oxygen, is
(A) 30 ml (B) 60 ml (C) 20 ml (D) 10 ml

7. 1.12 L of CO2 at STP is bubbled through an NaOH solution. Reaction occurring. [ Na:23, C:12 and
O:16] 2NaOH+CO 2 ⎯⎯
→ Na 2CO3 + H2O
What is the mass of Na2 CO3 formed?
(A) 10.6 g (B) 5.3 g (C) 1.12 g (D) 2.24 g

8. What weight of HNO3 is needed to convert 62g of P4 to H3PO4 in the given reaction?
(At wt: P:31, N-14, O-16)
P4 + 20HNO3 → 4H3PO4 + 20 NO2 + 4 H2O
(A) 63g (B) 630g (C) 315g (D) 126g

9. The chloride of a metal has the formula MCl3, the formula of its phosphate will be?
(A) M2PO4 (B) MPO4 (C) M3PO4 (D) M(PO4)2

10. For the reaction

2A + 3B + 5C → 3D
Initially if 2 mole of A, 4 mole of B and 6 mole of C istaken, with 25% yield, moles of D which can
beproduced are _____________.
(A)0.25 (B)0.5 (C) 0.75 (D)1.0
More than one option can be correct
1. Select dimensionless quantity (ies):
(A) Vapour density (B) Molality (C) Specific gravity (D) Mass fraction
2. Which of the following concentration terms is affected by a change in temperature?
(A) Molarity (B) molality (C) normality (D) specific gravity
3. 1 mole of Ba(OH)2 will exactly neutralize (react completely with):
(A) 0.5 mole HCl (B) 2 mole of HC1 (C) 2 Mole HBr (D) 1 mole of H2SO4

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4. Which of the following solutions have the same concentrations? [Na:23, K:39, Cl: 35.5]
(A) 20g NaOH in 200ml of solution (B) 0.5 mol KCl in 200ml of solution
(C ) 40g NaOH in 100ml of solution (D) 20g of KOH in 200ml of solution
5. 1 mol N 3- of ions contains
(A) 4N A electrons (B) 7N A protons (C) 7N A neutrons (D) 14N A protons

Key for Lecture 5 & 6

Single options:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A C D C B B B B C
More than one Options:

1 2 3 4 5
A,C,D A,C B,C,D A,B BC

CHAPTER 2:TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Lecture 7 & 8
2.1 a. Addition Reactions:
It is a union of two or more than two substances to form a new substance. It may be brought about by the
application of heat, light electricity or pressure.

For eg. H2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ 2HCl

In the above example H2 and Cl2 two elements combine to form hydrogen chloride.

Addition reactions may be formed in the following conditions -

(i) When two or more elements combine to form a new compound.

Synthesis reaction: It is a type of addition reaction in which a new substance is formed by the union of its
component elements.

For eg. N2 + 3H2 ⎯⎯→ 2NH3 (Haber’s Process)

Ammonia is synthesized from its components, nitrogen and hydrogen, so it is a synthetic reaction.

All synthesis reaction are addition reactions, but all addition reactions are not synthesis reactions.

Other Example of synthesis reactions are -

• 2H2 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2H2O

• 2Mg + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2MgO
• 2Na + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ 2NaCl

(ii) When two or more compounds combine to form a new compound.

For eg.

• NH3 + HCl ⎯⎯→ NH4Cl

• CaO + CO2 ⎯⎯→ CaCO3
• CH2 = CH2 + Br2 ⎯⎯→ CH 2 − Br
|
CH 2 − Br

(iii) When an element and a compound combine to form a new compound.

For eg.
• 2CO + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2CO2

Only single substance is formed as a product in the addition reactions.

2.1 b. Decomposition Reaction: It is breaking up of a substance into simpler compounds and it may be
brought about by the application of heat, light, electricity etc.

• 2H2O 2H2 + O2
• 2NaCl 2Na + Cl2
• 2Al2O3 4 Al + 3O2
(iii) A decomposition reaction brought by light is known as photo decomposition.
For eg.

• 2AgBr Light
⎯⎯⎯
⎯→ 2Ag + Br2
• 2AgCl Light
⎯⎯⎯
⎯→ 2Ag + Cl2

(iv)Decompositionreaction in which a compound decomposes into its elements is known as analysis

reaction. For eg.
• 2HgO ⎯⎯→
2Hg + O2
• 2HI ⎯ 
⎯→ H2  + I2 

All analysis reactions are decomposition reactions, but all decomposition reactions are not analysis reaction
Decomposition reaction is just opposite of the addition reaction.

2.1 c. Displacement Reactions: It involves displacement of one of the constituents of a compound by

another substance and may be regarded as a displacement reaction.
For eg. (i) Zinc displaces hydrogen from sulphuric acid.

Zn(s) + dil H2SO4 (aq) ⎯⎯→ ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 

(ii) Iron displaces copper from a copper sulphate solution.

Fe (s) + CuSO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ FeSO4 (aq) + Cu

In general, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from the soluble solution of its
salt.

DECREASING REACTIVITY
Sodium Na
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Least Reactive

Activity series of some metals

2.1 d. Double Displacement: It is mutual exchange of the radicals of two compounds taking part in the
reaction and results in the formation of two new compounds.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) ⎯⎯→ AgCl  + NaNO3 (aq)
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) ⎯⎯→ BaSO4  + 2NaCl (aq)
2.2 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION:

2.2 a. Oxidation: Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.
Since oxygen is an electronegative element and hydrogen is an electropositive element, so, oxidation is
defined as a reaction in which a substance gains and electronegative radical or loses and electropositive
radical.

(i) A reaction in which a substance gains oxygen is known as oxidation.

• For eg. S + O2 ⎯⎯→ SO2

• 2SO2 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2SO3
• 2Ca + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2CaO
• Pbs + 2O2 ⎯⎯→ PbSO4

(ii) Gain or addition of an electronegative radical

For eg.

• 2FeCl2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ 2FeCl3

• Mg + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ MgCl2
• 2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + [O] ⎯⎯→ Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
• SnCl2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ SnCl4

(iii) Removal of a hydrogen atom.

2.2 (b) Reduction: It is a chemical reaction in which there is a gain of hydrogen or any electropositive
radical or a loss of oxygen or electronegative radical.

(i) Gain of hydrogen.

For eg. Cl2 + H2S ⎯⎯→ 2HCl + S

O2 + 2H2 ⎯⎯→ 2H2O
C2H4 + H2 ⎯⎯→ C2H6
(ii) Gain of any electropositive radical or element.
For eg. SnCl2 + 2HgCl2 ⎯⎯→ Hg2Cl2 + SnCl4
CuCl2 + Cu ⎯⎯→ Cu2Cl2
(iii) Loss of oxygen atom.
For eg. CuO + H2 ⎯⎯→ Cu + H2O
ZnO + C ⎯⎯→ Zn + CO

(iv) Loss of electronegative radical.

For eg.

Fe2(SO4)3 + H2 ⎯⎯→ 2FeSO4 + H2SO4

SnCl4 + Hg2Cl2 ⎯⎯→ 2HgCl2 + SnCl2
2.3 REDOX REACTIONS: Reduction is loss of electronegative element or radical. From all above
example it is clear that oxidation and reduction occur side by side, i.e. there can be no oxidation without and
equivalent reduction. In a reaction whenever one substance is oxidised the other is definitely reduced. The
reverse is also true whenever one substance is reduced the other is oxidized. Such reactions in which
oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously are known as redox reactions.

When hydrogen gas is passed through not cupric oxide, hydrogen is oxidised to water (H2O) while cupric
oxide is reduced to metallic copper by loss of oxygen. Hydrogen gas helps in reduction of cupric oxide to
metallic copper so it is known as reducing agent, where as cupric oxide helps in oxidation of hydrogen so it
is known as oxidizing agent. A substance, which brings about reduction, is called reducing agent. A
substance, which brings about oxidation, is called an oxidizing agent.

2.3 a. Electronic Interpretation of Oxidation: The electronic theory attempts to interpret oxidation on the
basis of electron transfer. According to octet rule, atom will try to complete its octet by losing gaining or
sharing electrons. Sodium chloride is an electrovalent compound and consists of an ion pair (Na+) (CI-)
even in the solid state. In its formation, the neutral sodium loses and electron and becomes positively
charged sodium ion. Sodium is said to be oxidised and loss of electrons is termed oxidation.
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2Na → 2Na+ + 2e-

2Na+ + 2CI- → 2NaCl

2.3 b. Electronic Interpretation of Reduction:

Reduction which is also referred to as electronation is a process involving the gain of electrons and is the
reverse of oxidation.

For example Mg combines with oxygen and is oxidized to MgO. According to electronic theory
magnesium atom loses two electrons from its outermost shell (M) and is oxidised to mG which oxygen atom
gains these two electrons and gets reduced to oxide anion, hence oxidation involves loss of electrons, and it
is also referred as de- electronation. Reduction involves gain of electrons, so it is referred to as
electronation.
2Mg+ O2 → 2MgO
Mg →Mg+2 + 2e-
O + 2e- → O2-
Mg+2 + O2- → MgO
2.4 EFFECT OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE: We are all aware of the fact
that oxygen is most essential for sustaining life. One can live without food or even water for a number of
days but not without oxygen. It is involved in a variety of actions which have wide range of effects on our
daily life. Most of them are quite useful while a few may be harmful in nature. Some of these effects are
briefly discussed. Some examples are-

2.4 a. Combustion Reactions: A chemical reaction in which a substance burns or gets oxidised in the
presence of air or oxygen in called combustion reaction. For example, kerosene, coal, charcoal, wood etc.
burn in air and thus, undergo combustion. Methane (CH4) a major constituent of natural gas undergoes
combustion in excess of oxygen upon heating.

Methane: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O ()

Similarly, butane (C4H10) the main constituent of L.P.G. also undergoes combustion.

Butane: C4H10 (g) + 13/2O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

All combustion reactions are of exothermic nature and are accompanied by release of heat energy. The
human body may be regarded as a furnace or machine in which various food stuffs that we eat undergo
combustion or oxidation. The heat energy evolved keeps our body working. Carbohydrates such as glucose,
fructose, starch etcare the major source of energy to the human body. They undergo combustion with the
help of oxygen that we inhale to form carbon dioxide and water. For example.

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O ( ) + energy

All combustion reactions are not accompanied by flame. Combustion is basically oxidation accompanied by
release of energy.

2.4 b. Respiration: Respiration is the most important biochemical reaction which releases energy in the
cells. When we breathe in air, oxygen enters our lungs and passes into thousands of smalls air sacs (alveoli).
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These air sacs occupy a large area of membranes and oxygen diffuses from the membranes into blood. It
binds itself to hemoglobin present in red blood cells and is carried to millions of cells in the body.
Respiration occurs in these cells and is accompanied by the combustion of glucose producing carbon
dioxide and water. Since the reaction is of exothermic nature, the energy released during respiration carry
out many cell reactions and also keeps our hart and muscles working. It also provides the desired warmth to
the body. Both carbon dioxide and water pass back into the blood and we ultimately breathe them out.
Respiration takes place in the cells of all living beings.

2.4 c. Harmful Effects of Combustion: We have discussed the utility of combustion in releasing energy
which our body needs to keep warm and working; however, combustion has harmful effects also. The
environmental pollution is basically due to combustion. Poisonous gases like carbon monoxide (CO),
sulphur dioxide (SO2) sulphur trioxide (SO3) and oxide of nitrogen (NOX) etc. are being released into the
atmosphere as a result of variety of combustion reaction which are taking place. They pollute the
atmosphere and make our lives miserable. In addition to these, other harmful effects of combustion are
corrosion and rancidity. These are briefly discussed.
(i) Corrosion: Corrosion may be defined as the process of slow eating up of the surfaces of certain metals
when kept in open for a long time.
Quite often, when we open the bonnet of a car after a long time, we find a deposit around the terminals of
the battery. This is an example of corrosion. Black coating on the surface of silver and green layer on the
surface of copper are examples of corrosion. In the case of iron, corrosion is called rusting. Rust is a
chemical substance brown in colour and is formed by the chemical action of moist air (containing O 2 and
H2O) on iron. It is basically an oxidation reaction, and the formula of rust is Fe2O3, xH2O. It is very slow in
nature and once started keeps on.
Both corrosion and rusting are very harmful and case damage to the building, Railway tracks, cars and other
objects/ materials where metals are used. We quite often hear that an old building has collapsed on its own
causing loss of both lives and property. This is on account of the rusting of iron which is used in making the
structure particularly the roof.
(ii) Rancidity: Oxidation has damaging effects on food and eatables. When the fats and oils present in
butter and margarine are oxidized, they become rancid. As a result, their smell and taste change. They
become quite unpleasant. This is known as rancidity. It can be checked in a number of away.
a.Manufacturer sometimes add certain food additives to the food materials. These are known as antioxidant
and check their oxidation.
b.Keeping food in air tight containers prevents its oxidation.
c.Refrigeration of food also slows down rancidity because the temperature inside refrigerator is very low
and direct contact with air or oxygen is avoided.
d.Chips manufacturers generally flush their bags with nitrogen before packing so that they may not be
oxidized.
2.5Redox Reaction

2.5 a.Oxidation: It is a process in which electrons are lost by an atom, ion or molecule.

e.g, Mg ⎯
⎯→ Mg2+ + 2e–
–
Fe2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ Fe + e

2Cl– ⎯
⎯→ Cl2 + 2e
–

+ –
H2O2 ⎯
⎯→ O2 + 2H + 2e

Na+ + e– ⎯⎯→ Na
I2 + 2e– ⎯
⎯→ 2I
–

2H2O + 2e– ⎯
⎯→ H2 + 2 OH
–

Redox Reactions: Those reactions in which electrons are transferred from one substance to another are
called Redox Reactions.

Zn + Fe2+ ⎯ 2+
⎯→ Zn + Fe

MnO2 + 4HCl ⎯
⎯→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Oxidising Agents and Reducing Agents (Oxidants and Reductants)

Those species (atoms, molecules and ions) which have tendency to accept the electrons are known as
oxidizing agents or oxidants, whereas those species (atoms, molecules or ions) which releases the electrons
are called reducing agents or reductants. In other words, oxidizing agents are reduced and reducing agents
are oxidized. For example,

2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2 SO4 ⎯

⎯→ K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O

Oxidant Reductant
One can see the above equation in the ionic form,
Mn O −4 + 8H+ + 5e– ⎯ 2+
⎯→ Mn + 4H2O

(As Mn O −4 is accepting 5e–, so it is being reduced and hence it is an oxidant.)

–
Fe2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ Fe + 1e

As Fe2+ is losing 1e–, so it is being oxidized and hence it is a reducing agent. Similarly,

PbS + 4H2O2 ⎯
⎯→ PbSO4 + 4H2O

Reductant Oxidant

MnO2 + 4HCl ⎯
⎯→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Oxidant Reductant
Cr2 O 72− + 6I– + 14H+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ 2Cr + 3I2 + 7H2O

Oxidant Reductant
Oxidation Number or Oxidation State: Oxidation state of an element in a particular species (atoms,
molecules or ions) is the number of electrons gained or lost by that element during its change from free
state into that species. For example, the oxidation state of Na in NaCl is +1, of calcium in Ca 3(PO4)2 is
+2, of chlorine in Cl2 is zero.
Rules for Calculation of Oxidation Number

2. In combined state oxidation no. of

(a) F is always –1.

(b) O is –2. In peroxides it is –1, in superoxides it is –1/2. However, in F2 O it is +2.
(c) H is +1. In ionic hydrides it is –1 (i.e., IA, IIA and IIIA metals).
(d) halogens as halide is always –1.
(e) sulphur as sulphide is always –2.
(f) metals is always +ve.
(g) alkali metals (i.e., I A group — Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) is always +1.
(h) alkaline earth metals (i.e., II A group—Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) is always +2.

3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation no. of all the atoms in a compound is equal to zero, e.g., KMnO 4

.
Ox. no. of K + Ox. no. of Mn + (Ox. no. of O)  4 = 0
(+1) + (+7) + 4x (–2) = 0

4. The algebraic sum of all the oxidation no. of elements in a radical is equal to the net charge on the
radical, e.g., CO32-
Oxidation no. of C + 3  (Oxidation no. of O) = –2
(+4) + 3x (–2) = –2

5. Oxidation number can be zero, +ve, –ve (integer or fraction)

6. Maximum oxidation no. of an element is = Group no

(Except O and F)
Minimum oxidation no. of an element is = Group no. –8
(Except metals)
Redox reactions involve oxidation and reduction both. Oxidation means loss of electrons and reduction
means gain of electrons. Thus redox reactions involve electron transfer and the number of electrons lost are
same as the number of electrons gained during the reaction. This aspect of redox reaction can serve as the
basis of a pattern for balancing redox reactions.

Ilustration: Find the oxidation number of

(A) S in SO 2-
4 ion (B) S in HSo3− ion

(C)Pt in (PtCl6)2– (D) Mn in (MnO4)– ion

Solution: (a) Let the oxidation number of S be x.
We know that Ox. no. of O = –2
SoOx. no S + 4 (Ox. no. O) = –2
or x + 4(–2) = –2
or x – 8 = –2

(b) Let the oxidation number of S be x in HS O 3− ion.

We know that Ox. no. of H = +1
Oxidation number of O = –2
So Ox. no. H + Ox. no. S + 3 (Ox. no. O) = –1
+1 + x + 3(–2) = –1
or +1 + x – 6 = –1
or x – 5 = –1
or x = + 5 – 1 = +4
The oxidation number of S in HS O 3− ion is +4.

(c) Let oxidation number of Pt be x.

We know that Ox. no. of Cl = –1
So Ox. no. Pt + 6 (Ox. no. Cl) = –2
x + 6(–1) = –2
or x – 6 = –2
The oxidation number of Pt in [Pt(Cl)6]2– ion is +4.
d) Let oxidation number of Mn be x.
We know that Ox. no. of O = –2
So Ox.no. Mn + 4 (Ox. no. O) = –1
x + 4(–2) = –1
or x – 8 = –1
or x = + 8 –1 = +7
The oxidation number of Mn in [MnO4]– ion is +7.

Solved questions or Concept Application:

Q.1 Why should a magnesium ribbon be cleaned before burning in air?

Ans. Magnesium is very reactive metal. When stored it reacts with oxygen to form a layer of magnesium
oxide on its surface. This layer of magnesium oxide is quite stable and prevents further reaction of
magnesium with oxygen. The magnesium ribbon is cleaned by sand paper to remove this layer so
that the underlying metal can be exposed to air.

Q.2 Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions.

(ii) Barium chloride + Aluminium sulphate ⎯

⎯→ Barium sulphate + Aluminium chloride

(iii) Sodium + Water ⎯

⎯→ Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Ans. (i) H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯

⎯→ 2HCl(g)

(ii) 3BaCl2(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) ⎯

⎯→ 3BaSO4(s) + 2AlCl3(aq)

(iii) 2Na(s) + 2H2O() ⎯

⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Q.3 Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following reactions.
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate in water react to give insoluble barium
sulphate and the solution of sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in water) reacts with hydrochloric acid solution (in water) to
produce sodium chloride solution and water.

Ans. (i) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ⎯

⎯→ BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(ii) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ⎯

⎯→ NaCl(aq) + H2O()

Q.4 A solution of a substance ‘X’ is used for white washing.

(i) Name the substance ‘X’ and write its formula.
(ii) Write the reaction of the substance ‘X’ named in (i) above with water.
Ans. (i) The substance ‘X’ is calcium oxide. Its chemical formula is CaO.
(ii) Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).

CaO(s) + H2O()
⎯
⎯→ Ca(OH)2(aq)
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)

Q.5 Why is the amount of gas collected in one of the test tubes on electrolysis of H2O, double of the
amount collected in the other? Name this gas.
Ans. Water (H2O) contains two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. Therefore, the amount of
hydrogen and oxygen produced during electrolysis of water is in a 2 : 1 ratio. During electrolysis,
since hydrogen goes to one test tube and oxygen goes to another, the amount of gas collected in one
of the test tubes is double of the amount collected in the other.
Q.6 Why does the colour of copper sulphate solution change when an iron nail is dipped in it?
Ans. When an iron nail is placed in a copper sulphate solution, iron displaces copper from copper sulphate
solution forming iron sulphate, which is green in colour.

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Iron Copper sulphate Iron sulphate Copper
(Blue colour) (Green colour)
Therefore, the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades and green colour appears.
Q.7 Give an example of a double displacement reaction.
Ans. Sodium carbonate reacts with calcium chloride to form calcium carbonate and sodium chloride.

Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) ⎯
⎯→ CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium
carbonate chloride carbonate chloride
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In this reaction, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride exchange ions to form two new compounds.
Hence, it is a double displacement reaction.
Q.8 Identify the substances that are oxidised and the substances that are reduced in the following
reactions.

(i) 4Na(s) + O2(g) ⎯

⎯→ 2Na2O(s)

(ii) CuO(s) + H2(g) ⎯⎯→ Cu(s) + H2O()

Ans. (i) Sodium (Na) is oxidised as it gains oxygen and oxygen gets reduced.
(ii) Copper oxide (CuO) is reduced to copper (Cu) while hydrogen (H2) gets oxidised to water
(H2O).

Q.9 Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?

2PbO(s) + C(s) ⎯ ⎯→ 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

(a) Lead is getting reduced.
(b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
(c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
(d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(A) (a) and (b) (B) (a) and (c) (C) (a), (b) and (c) (D) all
Ans. (A) (a) and (b)

Q.10 Fe2O3 + 2Al ⎯ ⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Fe

The above reaction is an example of a
(A) combination reaction. (B) double displacement reaction.
(C) decomposition reaction. (D) displacement reaction.
Ans. (D) The given reaction is an example of a displacement reaction.
Q.11 What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron filings? Tick the correct answer.
(A) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
(B) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
(C) No reaction takes place.
(D) Iron salt and water are produced.
Ans. (A) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced. The reaction is as follows:

Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯
⎯→ FeCl2(aq) + H2(g) 

Q.12 What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
Ans. A reaction which has an equal number of atoms of all the elements on both sides of the chemical
equation is called a balanced chemical equation. The law of conservation of mass states that mass
can neither be created nor destroyed. Hence, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants
should be equal to the total mass of the products. It means that the total number of atoms of each
element should be equal on both sides of a chemical equation. Hence, it is for this reason the
chemical equations should be balanced.
Q.13 Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide.
(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride and a precipitate of
barium sulphate.
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Ans. (a) 3H2(g) + N2(g) ⎯

(c) 3BaCl2(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) ⎯

⎯→ 2AlCl3(aq) + 3BaSO4(s)

(d) 2K(s) + 2H2O()

⎯
⎯→ 2KOH(aq) + H (g)
2

Q.14 Balance the following chemical equations.

(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯

⎯→ Ca (N ⎯
⎯→ O3)2 + H2O

(b) NaOH + H2SO4

⎯
⎯→ Na SO + H O
2 4 2

(c) NaCl + AgNO3

⎯
⎯→ AgCl + NaNO
3

(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4

⎯
⎯→ BaSO + HCl
4

Ans. (a) 2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯

⎯→ Ca (NO3)2 + 2H2O

(b) 2NaOH + H2SO4

⎯
⎯→ Na SO + 2H O
2 4 2

(c) NaCl + AgNO3 ⎯

⎯→ AgCl + NaNO3

(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4

⎯
⎯→ BaSO + 2HCl
4

Q.15 Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.

(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide ⎯

⎯→ Calcium carbonate + Water

(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate ⎯

⎯→ Zinc nitrate + Silver

(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride ⎯

⎯→ Aluminium chloride + Copper

(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate ⎯

⎯→ Barium sulphate + Potassium chloride

Ans. (a) Ca(OH)2 + CO2

⎯
⎯→ CaCO + H O
3 2

(b) Zn + 2 AgNO3 ⎯
⎯→ Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag

(c) 2Al + 3CuCl2 ⎯

⎯→ 2AlCl3 + 3Cu

(d) BaCl2 + K2SO4 ⎯

⎯→ BaSO4 + 2KCl

Q.16 Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type of reaction in each
case.

(a) Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide(aq) ⎯

⎯→ Potassium iodide(aq) + Barium bromide(s)

(b) Zinc carbonate(s) ⎯

⎯→ Zinc oxide(s) + Carbon dioxide(g)

(c) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) ⎯

⎯→ Hydrogen chloride(g)

(d) Magnesium(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) ⎯

⎯→ Magnesium chloride(aq) + Hydrogen(g)

Ans. (a) 2KBr(aq) + Bal2(aq) ⎯

(c) H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯

⎯→ 2HCl(g) ; Combination reaction

(d) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯

⎯→ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) ; Displacement reaction
Q.17 What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
Ans. Chemical reactions that release energy in the form of heat, light, or sound are called exothermic
reactions.
Example: Mixture of sodium and chlorine to yield table salt

Na(s) + Cl2(g) ⎯ ⎯→ NaCl(s) + 411 kJ of energy

In other words, combination reactions are exothermic.
Reactions that absorb energy or require energy in order to proceed are called endothermic reactions.
For example: In the process of photosynthesis, plants use the energy from the sun to convert carbon
dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen.
Sunlight
6CO2(g) + 6H2O() ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯
⎯→ C H O (aq) + 6O (g)
6 12 6 2
Glucose
Q.18 Why is respiration considered as an exothermic reaction? Explain.
Ans. Energy is required to support life. Energy in our body is obtained from the food we eat. During
digestion, large molecules of food are broken down into simpler substances such as glucose. Glucose
combines with oxygen in the cells and provides energy. The special name of this combustion
reaction is respiration. Since energy is released in the whole process, it is an exothermic process.

C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) ⎯
⎯→ 6CO2(g) + 6H2O() + Energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Q.19 Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions? Write equations for
these reactions.
Ans. Decomposition reactions are those in which a compound breaks down to form two or more
substances. These reactions require a source of energy to proceed. Thus, they are the exact opposite
of combination reactions in which two or more substances combine to give a new substance with the
release of energy.

Decomposition reaction : AB + Energy ⎯

⎯→ A + B
Electrolysis
2H2O() ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Combination reaction : A+B ⎯

⎯→ AB + Energy

2H2(g) + O2(g)
⎯
⎯→
2H2O() + Energy
Q.20 Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in the form of heat,
light or electricity.
Ans. (a) Thermal decomposition : Energy is supplied in the form of heat

2FeSO4(s)
⎯⎯→ Fe O (s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
2 3
Ferrous sulphate Ferric oxide Sulphur ioxide Sulphur trioxide

(b) Decomposition by light : Energy is supplied in the form of light

(c) Decomposition by electricity : Energy is supplied in the form of electricity

Electricit y
2Al2O3(aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯→ 4 Al(s) + 3O2(g)
Aluminium oxide Aluminium Oxygen
Q.21 What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write equations for
these reactions.
Ans. In a displacement reaction, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from a
compound.

A + BX ⎯ ⎯→ AX + B ; where A is more reactive than B

In a double displacement reaction, two atoms or a group of atoms switch places to form new
compounds.

AB + CD ⎯ ⎯→ AD + CB
For example:
Displacement reaction :

CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⎯ ⎯→ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Double displacement reaction:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⎯
⎯→ NaCl(aq) + H2O()
Q.22 In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involved displacement by
copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.

Ans. 2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) ⎯⎯→ Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Silver nitrate Copper Copper nitrate Silver
Q.23 What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
Ans. A reaction in which an insoluble solid (called precipitate) is formed is called a precipitation reaction.
For example:

Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) ⎯ ⎯→ CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Sodium carbonate Calium chloride Calcium carbonate Sodium
chloride
In this reaction, calcium carbonate is obtained as a precipitate. Hence, it is a precipitation reaction.
Another example of precipitation reaction is :

Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) ⎯ ⎯→ BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium sulphate Sodium
chloride
In this reaction, barium sulphate is obtained as a precipitate.
Q.24 Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each.
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
Ans. (a) Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.
For example :

Removal of oxygen
(i) – reduction

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

(ii) (ii) Loss of oxygen - reduction

In equation (i), CO2 is reduced to CO and in equation (ii), CuO is reduced to Cu.
Q.25 A shiny brown-coloured element ‘X’ on heating in air becomes black in colour. Name the element
‘X’ and the black coloured compound formed.
Ans. ‘X’ is copper (Cu) and the black-coloured compound formed is copper oxide (CuO). The equation of
the reaction involved on heating copper is given below.
Heat
2Cu + O2 ⎯⎯⎯→ 2CuO
(Shiny brown in colour) (Black in colour)
Q.26 Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
Ans. Iron articles are painted because it prevents them from rusting. When painted, the contact of iron
articles from moisture and air is cut off. Hence, rusting is prevented.
Q.27 Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?
Ans. Nitrogen is an inert gas and does not easily react with these substances. On the other hand, oxygen
reacts with food substances and makes them rancid. Thus, bags used in packing food items are
flushed with nitrogen gas to remove oxygen inside the pack. When oxygen is not present inside the
pack, rancidity of oil and fat containing food items is avoided.
Q.28 Explain the following terms with one example each.
(a) Corrosion (b) Rancidity
Ans. (a) Corrosion : Corrosion is defined as a process where materials usually metals deteriorate as a
result of a chemical reaction with air, moisture, chemicals, etc.
For example, iron in the presence of moisture reacts with oxygen to form hydrated Ferric
oxide. ⎯ ⎯→
4Fe + 3O2 + x.H2O 2Fe2O3.x.H2O
Hydrated Ferric oxide
This hydrated iron oxide is rust.
(b) Rancidity : The process of oxidation of fats and oils that can be easily noticed by the change in
taste and smell is known as rancidity.
For example, the taste and smell of butter changes when kept for long. Rancidity can be avoided
by :
1. Storing food in air tight containers 2. Storing food in refrigerators
3. Adding antioxidants 4. Storing food in an environment of nitrogen

Practice Questions for lecture 7 & 8:

OBJECTIVE LEVEL I / SECTION I

1. Find the oxidation states of the underlined elements:

(1) H 2 S

(2) H 2 SO4

(3) H Cl

(4) HI

(5) H ClO

(6) H ClO2

(7) H ClO3

(8) H ClO4

(9) H 3 PO4

(10) H 3 PO3

(11) H 3 PO2

(12) H PO3

(13) H 2 S2O7

(14) H 2 O 2

(15) Na2 O 2

(16) Na2 O

(17) NaO2

(18) K MnO4

(19) K 2 MnO4

(20) K 2 Cr 2O7

(23) OF2

(24) O 2 F2

(25) H NO3

(26) H NO2

(27) NO2

(28) N 2O

(29) N 2O5

(30) N 2O3

(31) SO2

(32) O 3

(33) HAuCl4

(34) Tl2O

(35) CuO

2. Classify the following reactions as combination, decomposition, displacement or disproportionation

reactions

(A) Combination (B) Decomposition

(2) 2NaH ( s ) ⎯⎯
→ 2Na ( s ) +H2 ( g )

(3) 2 KClO3 ⎯⎯
→ 2 KCl + 3O2

(4) CH 4 ( g ) + 2O2 ⎯⎯
→ CO2 ( g ) + 2H 2O ( l )
(5) Ca ( s ) + 2H 2O ( l ) ⎯⎯
→ Ca ( OH )2 ( aq :) + H 2 ( g )

(6) 2H 2O2 ( aq.) ⎯⎯

→ 2H 2O ( l ) + O 2 ( g )

1
(7) 2 Pb ( NO3 )2 ⎯⎯
→ 2 PbO ( s ) + 2 NO2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )
2

(8) 2 NO2 ( g ) + 2OH − ( aq.) ⎯⎯

→ NO2− ( aq.) + NO3− ( aq.) + H 2O (l )

h
(10) 6ClO2− ⎯⎯ → 4ClO3− + 2Cl −

3. Chemical reaction 2Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl is an example of -

(A) Combination reaction (B) Decomposition reaction
(C) Displacement reaction (D) Double displacement reaction

4. Which of the following equations is representing combination of two elements?

(A)CaO + CO2 ⎯⎯→ CaCO3 (B) 4 Na + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2Na2O
(C) SO2 + 1/2 O2 ⎯⎯→ SO3 (D) 2Na + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ 2NaOH + H2

5. Which of the following equations is not an example of single displacement reaction?

(A) 2Al + Fe2O3 ⎯⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Fe (B) Ca + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ CaCl2
(C) 2KI + Cl2 ⎯⎯→ 2KCl + I2 (D) 2Na + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ 2NaOH + H2

6. Which of the following is/are a decomposition reaction(s)?

(A) 2HgO ⎯⎯ ⎯→ 2Hg + O2
Heat
(B) CaCO3 ⎯⎯ ⎯→ CaO + CO2
Heat

7. Match the following -

Column A Column B
Types of chemical reaction Chemical equations

a. Combination reaction (i) CaCO3 ⎯⎯→ CaO + CO2
b. Decomposition reaction (ii) 2H2O ⎯Electricit
⎯⎯ ⎯ y
→ 2H2 + O2
c. Displacement reaction (iii) CaO + CO2 ⎯⎯→ CaCO3
d. Analysis reaction (iv) Fe + CuSO4 (aq.) ⎯⎯→ FeSO4(aq) + Cu
(A) a(ii), b(i), c(iv), d(iii) (B) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
(C) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(ii) (D) a(iii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
8. Which of the following reactions is/are a double displacement reactions(s)?
(i) AgNO3 + NaBr ⎯⎯→ NaNO3 + AgBr
(ii) BaCl2 + H2SO4 ⎯⎯→ BaSO4 + 2HCl
(iii) As3O4 + 3H2S ⎯⎯→ As2S3 + 3H2 O
(iv) NaOH + HCl ⎯⎯→ NaCl + H2O
(A) (i) & (ii) (B) only (iii) (C) only (iv) (D) (i) to (iv) all

9. AgNO3(aq). + NaCl (aq) ⎯⎯→ AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Above reaction is a -
(A) Precipitation reaction (B) Double displacement reaction
(C) Combination reaction (D) Both (A) and (B)
10. H2SO4 + 2NaOH ⎯⎯→ Na2SO4 + 2H2O
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Above equation is a
(i) neutralization reaction (ii) double displacement reaction)
(iii) decomposition reaction (iv) addition reaction
(A) (i) to (iv) all (B) (i) and (ii)
(C) (i) and (iii) (D) (ii) and (iv)
11. Zn + H2SO4 (dil) ⎯⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2 
Above equation is a
(A) Decomposition (B) Single displacement reaction
(C) Combination reaction (D) Synthesis reaction

12. The reaction in which two compounds exchange their ions to form two new compounds is-
(A) a displacement reaction (B) a decomposition reaction
(C) an addition reaction (D) a double displacement reaction

OBJECTIVE LEVEL I / SECTION II

1. In the reaction Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
Chlorine may be regarded as -
(A) an oxidising agent (B) a reducing agent
(C) a catalyst (D) providing an inert medium
2. When the gases sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide react, the reaction is
SO2 + 2H 2S → 2H 2O + 3S
Here hydrogen sulphide is acting as -
(A) an oxidising agent (B) a reducing agent
(C) a dehydrating agent (D) a catalyst

3. Which of the following statements is/are false for oxidation reaction?

(A) Gain or addition of electronegative radical
(B) Removal of hydrogen atom.
(C) Removal or loss of electropositive radical or element
(D) None of these
4. CuO + H2 → H2O + Cu, reaction is an example of -
(A) redox reaction (B) synthesis reaction
(C) neutralisation (D) analysis reaction
5. Which of the following is an example of oxidation reaction?
(A) Sn+2 - 2e- → Sn+4 (B) Fe+3 + e- → Fe+2
(C) Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- (D) None of these

6. In the process of burning of magnesium in air, magnesium undergoes -

(A) reduction (B) sublimation (C) oxidation (D) all of these
7. A substance which oxidizes itself and reduces other is known as-
(A) an oxidising agent (B) a reducing agent
(C) Both of these (D) None of these
8. Oxidation is a process which involves -
(A) addition of oxygen (B) removal of hydrogen
(C) loss of electrons (D) All are correct
9. In the reaction PbO + C → Pb + CO.
(A) PbO is oxidised
(B) C acts as oxidising agent.
(C) C acts as a reducing agent.
(D) This reaction does not represent a redox reaction.
10. A redox reaction is one in which -
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(A) both the substances are reduced.
(B) both the substances are oxidised.
(C) and acid isneutralised by the base.
(D) one substance is oxidised, which the other is reduced.

SUBJECTIVE I
1. Oxidation reaction have some harmful effects. Comment on the sentence.
2. Can oxidation occur without reduction? Explain
3. Explain the terms oxidation and reduction with examples.
4. What is rancidity? Example with example.
5. What do you mean by corrosion?
6. Identify the substances that are oxidized and the substances that are reduced in the following
reactions -
(A) ZnO + C ⎯⎯→ Zn + CO
(B) MnO2+ 4HCl ⎯⎯→ MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
(C) 2FeCl3 + H2S ⎯⎯→ 2FeCl2 + S + 2HCl
(D) 3Mg + N2 ⎯⎯→ Mg3N2
SUBJECTIVE - II
1. Find the oxidation states of the underlined elements in the following ions:

(1) SO32 −

(2) SO42 −

(3) C 2O42−

(4) NO32 −

(5) NO2−

(6) N H 4+

(7) CO32 −

(8) H CO3−

(9) H SO3−

(10) As O43−

2. Classify the following reactions -

(i) N2 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2NO - Heat (ii) 2HgO ⎯⎯→ 2Hg + O2
(iii) Na2SO4 + BaCl2 ⎯⎯→ 2NaCl + BaSO4 (iv) CuSO4(aq.) + Zn ⎯⎯→
ZnSO4(aq.) + Cu
(v) NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
3. Differentiate between combination and synthesis reaction with example.
4. What is an analysis reaction? Give an example.
5. When a white compound ‘X’ is placed under sunlight, it turns grey, Give the name of reaction and
write the balanced chemical equation.
6. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reaction? Write equations for
these reactions.

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7. What happens when copper metal is dipped in silver nitrate solution? Give the balanced chemical
equation for the change.
8. What happens when the iron nail is kept into copper sulphate solution?
ANSWER KEY
Practice for lecture 7 & 8: OBJECTIVE LEVEL I / SECTION I
Q. 1 Oxidation states
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. -2 +6 -1 -1 +1 +3 +5 +7 +5 +3
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. +1 +5 +6 -1 -1 -2 -1/2 +7 +6 +6
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. +6 +3 +2 +1 +5 +3 +4 +1 +5 +3
Que. 31 32 33 34 35
Ans. +4 0 +3 +1 +2
Q.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B B E C B B D C D

MCQ from Q3 to Q12

Que. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. A B B D C D D B B D

OBJECTIVE level I section - II

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B D A A C B D C D

SUBJECTIVE I
6. a. ZnO is reduced and C is oxidised.
b. MnO2 is reduced and HCl is oxidised.
c. FeCl3 is reduced and H2S is oxidised.
d. Mg is oxidised and N2 is reduced.

SUBJECTIVE - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. +4 +6 +3 +4 +3 -3 +4 +4 +4 +5

BALANCING REDOX REACTION BY ION-ELECTRON METHOD:

This method of balancing redox reaction involves following steps.
1. Separate the reactants and products into half-reactions involving the element that changes its
oxidation number. Write the skeleton equations for each half-reaction.
2. Balance each half-reaction separately involving given steps.
i) First balance the atoms of the element undergoing oxidation or reduction.
ii) Then balance atoms of the elements other than hydrogen and oxygen.
iii) For balancing oxygen atoms in acidic or neutral medium, add suitable number of H2O molecules to
the side deficient in O, while in alkaline medium, add equal number of H2O molecules as the excess of O on
the side having excess of O atoms and add double the number of OH– ions on the opposite side of the
equation.
(iv) In order to balance the hydrogen atom in acidic or neutral medium, add required number of H+to
the side deficient in H, while in alkaline medium, add equal number of OH– ions as the excess number of
atom on the side having excess H and add equal number of H2O molecule on the opposite side of the
equation.
3. Multiply each half-reaction by suitable integer to make the number of electrons lost and gained same
and add both the half-equations to get a completely balanced reaction.
Illustration: In the equation: H2C2O4 + KMnO4→ CO2 + K2O + MnO + H2O,
(A) 10, 1, 1 (B) 10, 2, 2 (C) 4, 1, 7 (D) 10, 1, 2
Solution: (D)
Step 1: Select the oxidant, reductant atoms and write their half reactions, one representing oxidation
and other reduction.
i.e., 2C+4 + 2e
5e + Mn+7Mn+2
Step 2: Balance the no. of electrons and add the two equations.
10C+4 + 10e
7+ 2+
10e + 2Mn 2Mn
+ 2Mn7+10C4+ + 2Mn2+
Step 3: Write complete molecule of the reductant and oxidant from which respective redox atoms were
obtained.
5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4 10CO2 + 2MnO
Step 4: Balance other atoms if any (except H and O).
In above example K is unbalanced, therefore,
5H2 𝐶2 𝑂4 + 2KMnO4 → 10CO2 + 2MnO + K 2 𝑂 (Mentioned as product)

Step 5: Balance O atom using H2O on desired side.

5H2 𝐶2 𝑂4 +2KMnO4 → 10CO2 +2MnO+K 2 O+5H2 𝑂

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Illustration: The stoichiometric coefficient of the balanced redox equation, HNO𝟑 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑺 → NO +
𝑺,in acidic medium will be respectively
(A)2, 4, 3, 2 (B) 2, 2, 3, 2 (C) 2, 3, 3, 2 (D) 3, 2, 2, 3
Solution: (C)
(i) Identify the oxidation & reduction half reactions.
Reduction half reaction HNO3 NO
Oxidation half reaction: H2S S
(ii) Atoms of the element undergoing oxidation and reduction are already balanced.
(iii) Balancing O atoms,
Reduction half reaction: HNO3 NO + 2H2O

Oxidation half reaction:𝐻2 𝑆 → 𝑆

(iv) Balancing H atoms,

Reduction half reaction: 3H + + HNO3 → NO + 2H2 𝑂

Oxidation half reaction: 𝐻2 𝑆 → S + 2H +

(v) Balancing charge,

Reduction half reaction:3e– + 3H + + HNO3 → NO + 2H2 𝑂 ….a

Oxidation half reaction: 𝐻2 𝑆 → S + 2H + + 2e– … 𝑏.

(vi) Multiplying equation a. by 2 and equation b. by 3 and then adding them.

[3e– + 3H + + HNO3 → NO + 2H2 𝑂]2 … a.

[𝐻2 𝑆 → S + 2H + +2e– ]2 … b.

2HNO3 + 3H2 S → 3S + 2NO + 4H2 𝑂

Illustration: The stoichiometric coefficient of 𝐹𝑒𝐶2 𝑂4 , 𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 , 𝐹𝑒2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 , 𝑀𝑛𝑆𝑂4 of the balanced
redox equation:

FeC2 𝑂4 + KMnO4 + H2 SO4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + CO2 + MnSO4 + K 2 SO4 will be respectively

(A) 10, 6, 5, 6 (B) 10, 6, 6, 5 (C) 10, 5, 6, 5 (D) 10, 5, 5, 6

Solution: a.
(i)Identify the oxidation & reduction halves.
Oxidation half reaction:KMnO4 → MnSO4

Reduction half reaction:FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + CO2

(ii) In both the half-reactions, all the atoms (other than O and H) are not appearing on both sides of the
reaction. So, in the oxidation half, 𝐻2 SO4 is to be added on the reaction side, while in reduction half,
𝐻2 SO4 and 𝐾2 SO4 are to be added on reactant and product side respectively.
Z (iii) Balancing of the atoms of the element undergoing oxidation & reduction.
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Reduction half reaction: 𝐻2 SO4 + 2KMnO4 → 2MnSO4 + K 2 SO4

Oxidation half reaction:𝐻2 SO4 +2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 4CO2

(iv) Balancing of the atoms of elements other than O and H

Reduction half reaction: 3H2 SO4 + 2KMnO4 → 2MnSO4 + K 2 SO4

Oxidation half reaction: 2H2 SO4 + 2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 4CO2

(v) Balancing O atoms,

Reduction half reaction: 3H2 SO4 + 2KMnO4 → 2MnSO4 + K 2 SO4 + 8H2 𝑂

Oxidation half reaction: 3H2 SO4 + 2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 4CO2

(vi) Balancing H atoms,
Reduction half reaction:

10H + + 3H2 SO4 + 2KMnO4 2MnSO4 + K 2 SO4 +8H2 𝑂 ……….

Oxidation half reaction: 3H2 SO4 +2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 +4CO2 + 6H +

(vii) Balancing charge, Reduction half reaction:

10e– +10H + +3H2 SO4 +2KMnO4 → 2MnSO4 +K 2 SO4 +8H2 O … b

Oxidation half reaction:

3H2 SO4 + 2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 +4CO2 +6H + + 6e– … a.

(viii) Multiply equation a. by 5 and equation b. by 3 and then adding them,

10e– +10H + +3H2 SO4 +2KMnO4 → 2MnSO4 +K 2 SO4 + 8H2 𝑂] 3

3H2 SO4 +2FeC2 𝑂4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 +4CO2 +6H + +6e– ] 5

10FeC2 𝑂4 +6KMnO4 +24H2 SO4 → 5Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 6MnSO4 +3K 2 SO4 + 20CO2 +24H2 𝑂

Practice Questions for lecture 9 and 10

Redox Reaction
Q.1 Oxidation state of N-atom is correctly given for:
(A) NH3 (0) (B) NH2OH (+1)
(C) (N2H5)2SO4 (+2) (D) Mg3N2 (-3)

Q.2 Which of the following are true for redox reactions

(A) both oxidation and reduction donot take place simultaneously
(B) nonmetallic compound is removed
(C) all single displacement reactions are redox
(D) oxygen is liberated as product.

Q.4 Two Cl atoms in bleaching powder (a mixture of CaCl2 + Ca(OCl)2) have oxidation states or charges
of :
(A) +2, -2 (B) -2, +2 (C) -1, +1 (D) +1, 0

Q.5 In the reaction: 3Cl2 + 6NaOH ⟶ NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2 O the element that loses as well as gains
electrons is:
(A) Na (B) O (C) Cl (D) None of these

Q.6 Sulphur has the highest oxidation state in:

(A) SO2 (B) H2SO4 (C)H2SO3 (D)S8

Q.7 In the given reaction, K2Cr2O7 + 1H2SO4 + ySO2⟶ K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 1H2O
Y is :
(A) 3 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 4

Q.8 A metal ion, M3+ loses 3 electrons, its oxidation state or charge will be:
(A) +3 (B) +6 (C) 0 (D) -3

Q.9 In which of the following pairs there is greatest difference in O.N. of the underlined elements?
(A)NO2 and N2O4 (B)P2O5 and P4O10 (C)N2O and NO (D)SO2 and SO3

Q.10 The oxidation state or charge of oxygen in OF2 is:

(A) +2 (B) -2 (C) +1 (D) -1

Lecture 9 & 10: Redox Reactions:

Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 C Q.5 C

Q.6 B Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 D Q.10 A

Lecture 11 & 12

Normality is one of the methods to represent concentration of the solution, along with Molarity, molality
and molefraction.

Normality (N): No of equivalents of solute present in one litre of the solution is known as Normality (N).
No. of equivalents of solute
Normality (N) = Volume of solution in litre
Wt. of solute/equivalent weight of solute
= Volume of solution in litre

No. of equivalent of solute = Volume of solution (in litre)  normality of solution

No. of milli equivalents of solute = Normality of solution  Volume of solution in millilitres

Equivalent Weight: Number of parts by mass of an element which reacts or displaces from a compound
1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen, 8 parts by mass of oxygen and 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine, is known as
the equivalent weight of that element e.g.,
2𝑀𝑔 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂
48g 32g
12g 8g
∴ 32g of O2 reacts with 48g of Mg
48×8
∴ 8g of O2 = = 12g
32

∴Equivalent weight of Mg = 12

Similarly, 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2

65.5g 2 × 1.008
∵ 2 × 1.008𝑔 of hydrogen is displaced by 65.5g
65.5
∴1.008g of H = 2×1.008 = 32.75g
65.5
∴ Equivalent weight of Zn = = 32.75
2
3
𝐴𝑙 + 2 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3
3
32g × 71𝑔 ∵ 111.5g chlorine reacts with 27g of Al
2
27×35.5
∴ 35.5 g chlorine reacts with = 9.0g of Al
111.5
27
∴ Equivalent weight of aluminium = = 9.0
3

As we can see from the above examples that equivalent weight is the ratio of atomic weight and a factor
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 weight
(say n-factor) which is in above three cases is their respective valencies. So, equivalent weight = 𝑛−𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

In a similar way, the equivalent weight of acid/base is the ratio of molecular weight and the basicity/acidity
and for oxidizing agents and reducing agent it is the ratio of molecular weight and the number of moles of
electrons gained or lost. So in case of acid/base the n-factor is basicity/acidity (i.e. number of dissociable
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+ –
H ions/number of dissociable OH ion and in case of oxidizing agent/reducing agent, n-factor is number of
moles of electrons gained/lost per mole of oxidizing agent/reducing agent. Therefore, in general, we can
write.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 or molecualr weight
Equivalent weight (E) = 𝑛−𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑊𝑡 𝑊 𝑊
No. of equivalents of solute = 𝐸𝑞. wt. = = 𝑀/𝑛
𝐸
No. of equivalents of solute = No. of moles of solute  n-factor

And also Normality = n-factor  molarity of solution

Calculation of n-factor: Forcalculating the n-factor of any reactant in any reaction. One must know the
kind of reaction it is, the reactions may be classified into the following three types.

1. Acid-Base Reactions/Neutralization reactions

2. Redox Reactions
3. Precipitation Reactions/Double decomposition reactions

Acid-Base Reaction: According, to the Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that furnishes H+ ion(s) in
solution, a base is a substance that furnishes OH– ion(s) in solution and neutralization is a reaction in which
H+ ion furnished by acid combines with OH– ions furnished by base. The number of H+ ion(s) furnished per
molecule of the acid is its n-factor also called basicity. Similarly the number of OH– ion(s) furnished by the
base per molecule is its n-factor, also called acidity.

Some Examples

𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑙 −
(𝑛=1)

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐻 + + 𝐻𝑆𝑂4−
(𝑛=1)

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 2𝐻 + + 𝑆𝑂42−
(𝑛=2)

𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 → 𝐻 + + 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4−
(𝑛=1)

𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 → 3𝐻 + + 𝑃𝑂43−
(𝑛=3)

𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3 → 𝐻 + + 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂3−
(𝑛=1)

𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3 → 2𝐻 + + 𝐻𝑃𝑂3−
(𝑛=2)

The n-factor of H3PO3 cannot be 3 as it has only two dissociable H+ ions. So,
its n-factor or dissociable protons is 1 or 2 as one of the H-atoms is linked
with P atom directly.

Now, we will consider the n-factor of some bases.

𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑂𝐻 −
(𝑛=1)

𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → [𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)]− + 𝑂𝐻 −
(𝑛=1)

𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝐵𝑎2+ + 2𝑂𝐻 −

(𝑛=2)

𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑂𝐻 −
(𝑛=3)

Similarly, n-factor of Al(OH)3 can also be 1 or 2 or 3, depending upon the number of OH– released.

Misc Info

Physical change Chemical Change

1. The change takes place only in the 1. The change takes place in the state,
state, texture, colour, electrical or texture, colour, electrical or magnetic
magnetic properties of solubility, etc. properties along with the change in its
However, molecular properties molecular properties (i.e. its molecular
(composition) do not change. arrangement changes).
2. The specific properties of the 2. The specific properties of the
substance remain unaltered after the substance change completely after the
physical change. chemical change.

3. Now new substances are produced. 3. Always new substances are

produced.
4. There is no change in weight, if a 4. There is always a change in apparent
substance is undergoing a physical weight, when a substance undergoes a
change. chemical change.

5. There is no net absorption or release 5. There is always a net absorption or

of energy (such as heat or light energy) release of energy during a chemical
during a physical change. change.

6. It is temporary change and is usually 6. It is a permanent change and cannot

reversed by removing the cause of the be reversed by removing the cause of
change. the change.

Important Points:
1. Synthesis reactions combine 2 or more elements to form a compound. (More complex synthesis
reactions combine 2 or more compounds to form a more complex compound)
Eg: 2K(𝑠) + Cl2 (𝑔) → 2 KCl(𝑠)
2. Decomposition Reactions decompose a compound into (1) its component elements (2) into simpler
compounds (3) into an element and a simpler compound.
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Eg.2 KCl(𝑠) → 2K(𝑠)+Cl2 (𝑔)
3. A single displacement is a reaction between an element and a compound, the element displaces one
of the elements in the compound.
Eg. 3AgNO3 (aq)+Al(𝑠) → Al(NO3 )3 (aq)+3 Ag(𝑠).
4. A double displacement is a reaction between two compounds, one of them in the compound
displaces one of the elements in the other compound. Precipitation reactions and acid/base
neutralization reactions are both double displacement reactions.
Eg.AgNO𝟑 (aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaNO𝟑 (aq) + AgCl(𝒔).
5. Combustion Reactions are always between some fuel and oxygen gas.
Eg. C𝟑 𝑯𝟖 (𝒈) +5O𝟐 → 3CO𝟐 (𝒈) + 4H𝟐 O (𝒍).

Points to remember :

1. A chemical reaction involves a chemical change in which substances react to form new substances
with entirely new properties. Substances that react or take part in the reaction are known as
reactants and the substances formed are known as products.
2. During a chemical reaction, there is a breaking of bonds between atoms of the reacting molecules to
give products.
3. A chemical reaction can be observed with the help of any of the following observations:
a. Evolution of a gas b. Change in temperature
c. Formation of a precipitate d. Change in colour e. Change of state
4. Physical change: If a change involves change in colour or state but no new substance is formed,
then it is a physical change.
5. Chemical change: If a change involves formation of new substances, it is a chemical change.
6. Exothermic and endothermic reactions: If heat is evolved during a reaction, then such a reaction
is known as Exothermic reaction. If heat is absorbed from the surroundings, then such a reaction is
known as endothermic reaction.
7. Chemical equation: The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction is called a chemical
equation.
8. Features of a chemical equation:
a. The reactants are written on the left-hand side with a plus sign between them.
b. The products are written on the right-hand side with a plus sign between them.
c. An arrow separates the reactants from the products.
9. Skeletal chemical equation: A chemical equation which simply represents the symbols and
formulae of reactants and products taking part in the reaction is known as skeletal chemical equation
for a reaction.
For example: For the burning of Magnesium in the air, Mg + O2 → MgO is the skeletal equation.

10. Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation is a chemical equation in which number of atoms
of each element is equal on both sides of the equation i.e. number of atoms of an element on reactant
side = number of atoms of that element on the product side.
11. As per the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of element in the products of a chemical
reaction is equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.
12. The process of equating the number of atoms on both the side of a chemical equation is known as
balancing of a chemical equation.
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a. The first step in balancing a chemical equation is to write the number of atoms of each element
present on the left-hand side and right hand side.
b. We should always start balancing with the compound that contains maximum number of atoms.
It can be reactant or a product. Then in that compound select the element which has the
maximum number of atoms.
c. While balancing a chemical equation, the molecular formulae of the reactants and products
should not change. The molec ular formulae are simply multiplied by suitable coefficients.
d. To make a chemical equation more informative, the reaction conditions such as temperature,
pressure or catalyst are written on the arrow separating the reactants and products.
e. The evolution of gas is indicated by an upward arrow.
f. The formation of precipitate is indicated by a downward arrow.
g. Heat evolved during the reaction is written as + Heat on the product side.
h. Heat absorbed during the reaction is written as + Heat on the reactant side.

13. Types of chemical reactions :

a. Combination reaction b. Decomposition reaction
c. Displacement reaction d. Redox reaction
e. Double displacement reaction
14. Combination reaction is a reaction in which 2 or more substances combine to give a single product.
Combination reaction can be between 2 elements, between an element and a compound or between 2
compounds.
15. Decomposition reaction: In a decomposition reaction, a single reactant decomposes to give 2 or
more products. Decomposition reactions require energy in the form of heat, light or electricity.
16. Types of decomposition reactions:
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat are known as thermolytic decomposition reactions.
b. Decomposition reactions which require light are known as photolyticdecomposition reactions.
c. Decomposition reactions which require electricity are known as electrolytic decomposition
reactions.
17. Displacement reaction: A reaction in which a more active element displaces less active element
from its salt solution.
18. The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of decreasing reactivity. The most
reactive metal is placed at the top and the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom.

19. Double displacement reaction: A chemical reaction in which there is an exchange of ions between
the reactants to give new substances is called double displacement reaction.

20. Precipitation reaction: An insoluble solid known as precipitate is formed during a double
displacement reaction. Such reactions are also known as precipitation reactions.

21. Redox reaction: A reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously in a
reaction, is known as a redox reaction.

22. Oxidation is a chemical process in which a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.

23. Reduction is a chemical process in which a substance gains hydrogen or loses oxygen.

24. If a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.

25. If a substance gains hydrogen or loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.

28. An oxidising agent gets reduced whereas a reducing agent gets oxidised.

29. In terms of electronic concept, Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined
as a gain of electrons.

30. Corrosion is the slow eating up of metals by the action of air and moisture on their surfaces.
Corrosion in case of Iron is known as Rusting.

31. Chemically, rust is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O)

32. Advantages of corrosion: Though corrosion is undesirable, it can be advantageous in case of

aluminium which on exposure to air, gets coated with a protective layer of aluminium oxide.
This protects the metal underneath from further corrosion and damage.

33. Rancidity: When oils and fats or foods containing oils and fats are exposed to air, they get oxidised
due to which the food becomes stale and gives a bad taste or smell. This is called Rancidity.

34. Rancidity can be prevented by:

a. Adding antioxidants i.e., the substances which prevent oxidation.
b. Refrigeration.
c. Storing the food in air-tight containers.

Solved examples or concept application :

Example 1: Balance the chemical equationNH4 NO3 (𝑠) → 𝑁2 𝑂(𝑔)+H2 𝑂(𝑔)
Step 1: Count the number of atoms on both sides
On reactant side N-2, H-4 and O-3
On product side N-2, H-2 and O-2
Step 2: In the given equation, O and H are not balanced, by multiplying water (H2O) molecules on the right
hand side / product side by a factor 2, H and O can be balanced.
NH4 NO3 (𝑠) → 𝑁2 O (𝑔) + 2H2 O (𝑔)
While balancing the atoms, formula of a compound or molecule should not be changed, balancing is done
only by multiplying the whole formula with a desired integer.

Example 2: Which of the following will displace H from solution?

Element which is higher to H in the activity series will displace H from the solution so the answer is A, C,
D. As Cu is below H in the activity series will not be able to displace it from the solution.

Example 3:The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride is given below:
AgNO3 (aq)+ NaCl(aq) → AgCl(𝑠) + NaNO3 (aq)Which type of reaction is this?
(A) Single displacement (B) Precipitation
(C) Double displacement (D) Neutralization
When silver nitrate and NaCl mixed, the products formed are silver chloride and sodium nitrate. In this
reaction cations and anions of the reaction are exchanged to form two displaced products.Hence the given
reaction is a double displacement reaction and also precipitation as we are getting AgCl precipitate.

Example 4:In the redox reaction given below identify the species that undergo reduction and oxidation
Cu(𝑠) + 2 Ag + (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (𝑠).
In the given chemical equation, copper on reactant side has no charge but on product side it has a charge +2,
that means copper loses its 2 electrons and therefore copper becomes the species that gets oxidized in the
reaction. Silver ion in the reactant side has +1 charge but on product side it has no charge, therefore silver
ion is the species that gets reduced in the reaction.

Practice for lecture 11 & 12

Questions based on equivalent weight

1. What is the equivalent weight of Ca3(PO4)2 in terms of M, where M is molar mass? (At.Wt:40, P:31,
O:16)
(A) M/2 (B) M/3 (C) M/6 (D) M/12

2. 𝐻3 PO4 + NaOH → NaH2 PO4 + H2 𝑂 Equivalent weight of H3PO4, phosphoric acid in the given
reaction (Atwt P:31, O:16,H:1)
(A) 98 (B) 49 (C) 9.8 (D) 32.66

3. What is the equivalent weight of NaHCO3? (Na :23, C:12)

(A) 84 (B) 42 (C) 21 (D) 8.4

4. What is the equivalent weight ofPotash alum [K2SO4 Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O], which a double salt
where M is its molar mass.
(A) M/8 (B) M/6 (C) M/4 (D) M/2

5. What is the equivalent weight of LiClO4 (Lithium perchlorate) Where M is its molar mass.
(A) M (B) M/2 (C) M/3 (D) M/4

6. What is the equivalent weight of Na2S2O3? Where M is its molar mass

(A) M (B) M/2 (C) M/3 (D) M/4

7. What is the equivalent weight of Al(OH)3? Where M is its molar mass

(A) M (B) M/2 (C) M/3 (D) M/6

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8. Equivalent weight of calcium metal is (At Wt: 40g/mol)
(A)12 (B)24 (C)36 (D)20
9. Equivalent weight of which of the following is equal to the molar mass of
(A)HCl (B) H2O2 (C) H2SO4 (D) H2O
10. The number of parts by mass of the element or compound which combines or displaces directly or
indirectly one part by mass of Hydrogen is called
(A) Atomic mass (B) Molecular mass (C) Equivalent mass (D) Formula weight
11. 10gm of an acid furnishes 0.5moles of hydronium ions (H3O+ or H+), in its aqueous solution. The
value of one gm-equivalent weight of acid will be
(A) 10 (B) 20 (C) 30 (D) 14
12. For which of the following compound equivalent weight is equal to molecular weight
(A) H2SO4 (B) H3PO2 (C) H3PO3 (D) H3PO4
13. The equivalent mass of H3PO3 in the reaction given below is 𝐻3 PO3 + NaOH → Na2 HPO3 + 2H2 𝑂
(A) 49 (B)41 (C) 82 (D) 40
14. For which of the following salt, has eq.wt = M.W/6
(A) NaCl (B) K2SO4 (C) Fe2(SO4)3 (D) AlCl3
15. The equivalent mass of nitrogen in nitrogen pentoxide is N2O5(N2O5 : 2(14)+ 5(16) =108g/mol)
(A) 14 (B) 28 (C) 2.8 (D) 4.66
Questions based on Normality.
1. What is the normality of a solution in which 3.15g of nitric acid (HNO3) is dissolved in 500 ml?
(A) 0.1N (B) 0.2N (C) 1N (D) 0.5N
2. What is the normality of 750ml solution which contains 7.4g of Ca(OH)2 ? (Ca: 40g/mol O:16, H:1)
where n is the ‘n’ factor.
(A) n/15 (B) n/30 (C) 2n/15 (D) 2n/30
3. What is the normality of solution which contains 10.6g of Na2CO3 in 1250 ml solution? (Na:23,
C:12, O:16)
(A) 4/25 (B) 2/25 (C) 8/25 (D) 0.08
4. What is the normality of a solution which contains 28g of KOH in 2L of it? (K :39g/mol or amu)
(A) N/40 (B) N/2 (C) N/8 (D) N/4
5. What is the normality of 2M H2SO4solution?
(A) 0.04N (B) 0.4N (C) 4N (D) N/4
I. Balance the following redox reactions:

(1) 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝑆𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞. ) → 𝐶𝑟 3+ (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞. )-(Acidic medium)

(2) 𝐹𝑒 2+ (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− (𝑎𝑞. ) → 𝐹𝑒 3+ (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝐶𝑟 3+ (𝑎𝑞. )-(Acidic medium)

(3) 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝐵𝑟 − (𝑎𝑞. ) → 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 (𝑠) + 𝐵𝑟𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞. )-(Basic medium)

(4) 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− (𝑎𝑞. ) + 𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞. ) → 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 (𝑠) + 𝐼2 (𝑠)-(Basic medium)

(5) 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− + 𝐻 + → 𝐶𝑟 3+ + 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂

(6) 𝐼2 + 𝑁𝑂3− + 𝐻 + → 𝐼𝑂3− + 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

(7) 𝐼𝑂3− + 𝑁2 𝐻4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁2 + 𝐼𝐶𝑙2− + 𝐻2 𝑂

(8) 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 𝐾𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂

(9) 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 𝑆𝑂32− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂42− + 𝑂𝐻 −

Key for Lecture 11 & 12

Questions based on equivalent weight

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C A A A A B C D A C B B B C C

Questions based on Normality

1 2 3 4 5
A C A D C

I. 1. Cr2O72-+ 8H+ +3SO32- → 2Cr3+ + 4H2O + 3 SO42-

2. 6Fe2++ Cr2O72-+ 14H+ → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6Fe3+

3. 2MnO4- + Br- + H2O → 2MnO2 + BrO3-1 + 2OH-1
4. 2MnO4- + 6I- + 4H2O → 2MnO2 + 3I2 + 8OH- (Basic)
5. 3 C2H5OH + Cr2O72- + 8H+→ 3 CH3COH + 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O.
6. I2 + 10NO3- + 8H+ → 2IO3-1 + 10NO2 + 4H2O
7. IO3- + N2H4 + 2HCl → ICl2-1 + N2 + 3H2O
8. Cl2 + 2KOH → KCl + KOCl + H2O
9. 2MnO4- + 3SO32- + 2H+ → 2MnO2 + 3SO42- + H2O
10. 3OH-1 + 3Sn(OH)3- + 2Bi(OH)3 → 3Sn(OH)62- + 2Bi in basic medium

CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Lecture 13 & 14
Dalton’s concept of the indivisibility of the atom was completely discredited by a series of experimental
evidences obtained by scientists. The discovery of electricity and spectral phenomena opened the door for
radical changes in approaches to experimentation. Consequently, a number of new phenomena were brought
to light and man’s idea about the natural world underwent a revolutionary change. It was concluded that
atoms are made of three particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. These particles are called the
fundamental particles of matter.

3.1 DISCOVERY OF SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

3.1.1DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS: CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT

In 1859 Julius Plucker started the study of conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure
-4
(10 atm) in a discharge tube. When a high voltage of the order of 10,000 volts or more was impressed
across the electrodes, some sort of invisible rays moved from the negative electrode to the positive electrode
these rays are called as cathode rays.

Cathode rays were observed to have the following properties:

i. The cathode rays start from cathode and move towards anode.
ii. Cathode rays themselves are not visible, but they cause fluorescence, ie, a fluorescent material like
ZnS glows when these particles hit a surface coated with ZnS.
iii. In the presence of electric or magnetic field, the cathode rays get deflected from their straight-line
path, indicating the presence of charged particles. The direction of deflection suggested that cathode
rays consist of negatively charged particles.
iv. Cathode rays produce heating effect when these rays are made to strike on a metal foil, the foil gets
heated.
v. Cathode rays produce X-rays when they strike on surface of hard metals like tungsten, copper,
molybdenum, etc.
vi. Cathode rays have high penetration power and can pass through thin foils of metals like aluminium.
vii. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
viii. The ratio of charge(e) to mass(m) i.e. charge/mass is same for all cathode rays irrespective of the gas
used in the tube. e/m = 1.76 × 1011Ckg–1

3.1.2POSITIVE RAYS–DISCOVERY OF PROTON

The existence of positively charged particles in an atom was shown by E. Goldstein in 1886.He
repeated the same discharge tube experiments by using a perforated cathode. It was observed that when a
high potential difference was applied between the electrodes, not only cathode rays were produced but also
a new type of rays were produced simultaneously, moving from anode towards cathode. They passed
through the holes in the cathode. These rays are termed canal rays or anode rays.
i. These cathode rays were found to consist of positively charged particles formed by the ionization of
gas particles by the cathode rays.
ii. The charge is to mass ratio (e/m) of these particles was found to change with the gas taken in the
discharge tube and was found to be the highest when hydrogen was taken.

3.1.3DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON:
Later, a need was felt for the presence of electrically neutral particles as one of the constituent of
atom. These particles were discovered by Chadwick in 1932 by bombarding a thin sheet of Beryllium with
-particles, when electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the protons were
emitted. He named these particles as neutrons.
𝟗 𝟒 12 𝟏
𝟒Be+ 𝟐He → 𝟔C+ 𝟎𝒏
Summarizing, the three fundamental particles have the following characterisitics:

Electron Proton Neutron

Symbol 𝑒or𝑒 −1 p n
Approximate relative mass 1/1836 1 1.02
Approximate relative charge –1 +1 No charge
–31 –27
Mass in kg 9.109 × 10 1.673 × 10 1.675 × 10–27
Actual charge (coulomb) 1.602 × 10–19 1.602 × 10–19 0
Discovered by J.J Thomson E. Goldstein Sir James
Chadwick

3.2ATOMIC MODELS:
3.2.1THOMSON’S MODEL OF THE ATOM:

Sir J. J. Thomson proposed an atomic model based on the observations of the cathode ray
experiment. An atom is electrically neutral. He proposed that “The entire positive charge and mass of an
atom is distributed throughout the volume of the atom and the negatively charged aprticles are embedded in
it, such that the atom is electrically neutral.”
The most important contribution of Thomson’s model was the electrical neutrality of the atom, as it
was proposed even before the discovery of protons. This model is also known as the ‘Watermelon model’ or
the ‘Plum pudding model’.
However, this model was discarded as soon as Rutherford performed his alpha-scattering experiment
as Thomson’s model could not explain his observations.

3.2.2 RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT:

Rutherford bombarded a narrow beam of 𝛼on a very thin gold foil and studied the subsequent path
of the rays with the help of a zinc sulphide coated screen. 𝛼are doubly ionized Helium particles, with mass
of 4 units and a positive charge of 2 units. Thus, they are Helium nuclei that possess very high penentration
power (He++). Zinc sulphide being fluorescent in nature, gives a visible flash of light when stuck by the
charged 𝛼.Following were the observations made by Rutherford:
i. Most of the -particles passed straight through the gold foil without suffering any deflection from
their original path.
ii. A few of them were deflected through small angles, while a very few were deflected to a large
extent.
iii. A very small percentage (1 in 100000) was deflected through angles ranging from 90° to 180°.

3.2.2.1RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR CONCEPT OF THE ATOM

Based on these obesrvations, Rutherford realized that the alpha particles had struck something even
more massive than themselves inside the gold atom when they rebound back. He then proposed another
atomic model:
1. All the positive charge and mass of the atom is concentrated in a very small volume at the centre of
the atom, which he termed as the ‘nucleus’.
2. The volume of the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the volume of the atom. The radius of
the nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m, while that of the atom is around 10-10 m.
3. Most of the space in the atom is empty, as most of the alpha paritlces could pass straight through the
atom.

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4. The electrons are distributed in the empty space of the atom around the nucleus in different
concentric circular paths, called orbits.
5. The number of electrons in all the orbits (total of them) is equal to the number of positive charges
(protons) in the nucleus. Hence, the atom is electrically neutral.
6. The centrifugal force arising due to the revolution of an electron balances the force of attraction of
the nucleus and the electron.

3.2.2.2DRAWBACKS OF RUTHERFORD’S MODEL

• Rutherford’s model did not mention anything about the exact location of the electrons from the
nucleus.
• This was not according to the classical theory of electromagnetism proposed by maxwell. According
to this theory, every accelerated charged particle must emit radiation in the form of electromagnetic
waves and hence loses it total energy. This would ultimately lead to the fall of electron in the
nucleus as the continuous decrease in the energy would also cause the radius to decrease.
• It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom.

3.2.3 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

Niels Bohr suggested an atomic model that was applicable only to hydrogen-like single electron
+ ++ +++
species like H, He , Li , Be etc.

3.2.3.1POSTULATES OF BOHR’S MODEL

i. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbit of definite energy. As long as the
electron occupies a definite energy level, it does not radiate out energy i.e., it does not lose or gain
energy. These orbits are called stationary orbits.
ii. Electron revolves only in those orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is an integral multiple of the
factor h/2 (where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant)

mvr = n (h/2)
where:
m = mass of the electron
v = velocity of the electron
n = number of orbit in which electron revolves i.e. n = 1, 2, 3 ........
r = radius of the orbit.
c. The energy is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one energy level to another

It may jump from higher energy level to a lower level by the emission of energy and jump from
lower to higher energy level by absorption of energy.
This amount of energy emitted or absorbed is given by the difference of the energies of the two
energy levels concerned.

Practice Questions for Lecture 13&14

OBJECTIVE / LEVEL I /SECTION I
1. The mass of cathode ray particle is:
(A) same for different gases (B) different for different gases
(C) minimum for H2 gas (D) different for same gas

2. The radius of an atomic nucleus is of the order of -

(A) 10-10 cm (B) 10-13 cm (C) 10-15 cm (D) 10-8 cm

3. Which is not true with respect to anode rays

(A)A stream of electrons (B)charged particles
(C)carry positive charge (D)can be deflected by the electric field.

4. In Rutherford's alpha-ray scattering experiment, the alpha particles are detected using a screen
coated with
(A) carbon black (B) platinum black (C) zinc sulphide (D) poly tetrafluoro ethylene

5. A neutron is represented as -
0 1 1 1
(A) 𝑛 (B) 𝑛 (C) 𝑛 (D) 𝑛
0 1 0 −1

6. To which of the following is Bohr’s theory applicable

(I) He + (II) Li+2 (III) Tritium (IV) Be +2
The correct combination is
(A) III, IV (B) I, II, III, IV (C) I,II (D) I,II,III

7. Alpha particle that come closer to nuclei

(A) Are deflected more
(B) Are defelcted less
(C) Make more collisions
(D) None of these

8. Bohr’s atomic theory gave the idea of

(A) Quantum numbers
(B) Shape of sublevels
(C) Nucleus
(D) Stationary states

9. Rutherfords experiment on scattering of alpha particles showed for the first time that the atom has
(A) Electrons (B) Protons (C)Nucleus (D) Neutrons

10. Assertion: Atom is electrically neutral

Reason: A neutral particle, neutron is present in the nucleus of an atom
(A) Both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of the assertion.
(B) Both assertion and reason are true and reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
(C) Assertion is true but reason is false.
(D) Both assertion and reason are false.
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SUBJECTIVE
1. How did Bohr’s atomic model explain the stability of an atom?
2. Form what observations do you derive the following inferences?
a. Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
b. The volume of the nucleus is very small.

OBJECTIVE SECTION II

1. The number of valence electrons in Na is -

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

2. The valency of 10Ne = 2, 8 is -

(A) 10 (B) 8 (C) 2 (D) 0

3. Which of the following has the same number of protons, electrons &neutrons?
54 56 54 55
(A) 𝑋 (B) 𝑋 +1 (C) 𝑋 (D) 𝑋 +
27 27 26 28
4. The number of electrons in one molecule of urea (NH2CONH2) is
(A) 20 (B) 22 (C) 28 (D) 32

5. As we move away from the nucles, the energy of the electron

(A) Decreases (B) Remains the same
(C) Increases (D) First decreases then increases

Subjective:

1. Why is the valency of inert gases zero?

2. Find out the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in the following -
(A) oxygen atom (B) oxide ion (O-2) (C) oxygen molecule
3. Which isotope of hydrogen is present in heavy water?
4. Ar (40) & Ca (40) have the same mass number but their properties are entirely difference. Why?
5. Mention three applications of radioactive isotopes.

❖ MATCH THE COLUMN

Column – I and Column – II contains four entries each. Entries of Column – I are to be matched with
some entries of Column – II. One or more than one entries of Column – I may have the matching
with the same entries of Column – II.
1. Column – I Column – II
A) Electron P) Negative charge
B) Proton Q) Positive charge
C) Neutron R) 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
D) Positron (anti electron) S) Charge less

ANSWER KEY

Practice for lecture 13 and 14

(OBJECTIVE LEVEL I SECTION I)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B A C C D A D C B

(OBJECTIVE LEVEL I SECTION II)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. A D A D C

Match The Column

i. A → P,R ; B →Q,R ; C →S ; D → Q,R

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Lecture 15 & 16
3.2 QUANTUM NUMBERS:
The 3-d region in space where the probability of finding electrons is above 95%, is known as an orbital.
Each orbital can accommodate upto two electrons. The various aspects about these 3-d orbitalsare
understood through a set of numbers called ‘quantum numbers’. There are four types of quantum numbers:
3.2.1 PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
This number tells about the size of the orbital. It is denoted by ‘n’ and can take all integral values
from 1 onwards like 1,2,3,4, etc. Larger is the value of n, more is the size of the orbital and hence more is
the distance of the electron from the nucleus.
• This number is similar to the shell discussed in the Bohr’s atomic model and is commonly referred
to as the shell number, though it is not completely accurate.
• This value also determines the energy of an electron to a large exetent.
• The maximum number of orbitals corresponding to each n is given by n2, and hence the maximum
electrons that can be accommodated in an orbital with a particular principal quantum number is
given by 2n2.
3.2.2AZIMUTHAL OR ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER (l)
This quantum number tells about the shape of the orbital. It is denoted by ‘l’ and it can take all
integral values ranging from 0 to ‘n-1’.
For example, for n=3, l can take values 0 to 3-1=2, ie, 0,1,2.

Given value of ‘n’ Permitted value of ‘l’

1 0
2 0,1
3 0,1,2
4 0,1,2,3
5 0,1,2,3,4

Each value of l corresponds to a sub-shell.

For example, if l=0, it corresponds to ‘s’-subshell.
• So, if n=1, it will have only one sub-shell, that is s-subshell and is written as 1s.
• If n=2, it will have two sub-shells- s and p sub-shells written as 2s and 2p

l value Corresponding subshell Shape of Orbital

0 s Spherical
1 p Dumb-bell
2 d Double dumb-bell
3 f Irregular

Differences between an ORBIT and an ORBITAL

S.No Orbit Orbital

1 It is well defined circular path around the It is a region in three dimensional space
nucleus in which the electron revolves around the nucleus where the probability of
finding electron is maximum
2 It is circular in shape s, p and d- orbitals are spherical , dumb-bell
and double dumd-bell in shape respectively
3 It represents that an electron moves It represents that an electron can move
around the nucleus in one plane around nucleus along 3D space (x, y and z
axis)
4 It represents that position as well as It represents that position as well as
momentum of an electron can be known momentum of an electron cannot be known
simultaneously with certainity, it is simultaneously with certainity. It is in
against , Heisenberg uncertainity accordance with Heisenberg uncertainity
principle principle
5 The maximum number of electrons in an The maximum number of electrons in an
orbit is 2n2 where n is the number of the orbital is two.
orbit

3.2.3MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)

An orbital with a particular size (n) and shape (l) can have multiple orientations in space, each of
which is denoted by a value of magnetic quantum number. Permissible values of magnetic quantum number
depend upon the value of azimuthal quantum number and can range from –lto +l.

Total number of possible values of magnetic quantum number will thus be (2l+1).

Name of sub-shell s p d
Magnetic Q.N. 0 -1 0 +1 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
No. of orientations or No. 1 3 5 7
of orbitals

p- subshell value of ‘m’ d-subshells Value of ‘m’

px +1 or – 1 𝑑𝑥𝑦 ±2

py +1 or – 1 𝑑𝑥𝑧 ±1

pz 0 𝑑𝑦𝑧 ±1

𝑑𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 ±2

𝑑𝑧 2 0

3.2.4SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER(ms)

The spin quantum number is used to differentiate between the two electrons present in the same
orbital. Spin quantum number can take only two values, that is, +1/2 and -1/2 denoting the exactly opposite
motion of the two electrons in an orbital. They are also said to have opposite spins- clockwise and anti-
clockwise denoted by arrows ↑ and ↓ respectively.

3.3ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
The electronic configuration of an atom is the distribution of electrons among the available orbitals
in it. It is written as a list of symbols of sub-shells in the order of their energy, with the number of electrons
present in each of them as its superscript. For example, the electronic configuration of lithium (Z=3) which
has two electrons in the 1s sub-shell and one electron in the 2s sub-shell is written as 1s22s2.

3.3.1 RULES FOR WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The atom is built up by filling electrons in various orbitals according to the following rules:
3.3.1.1 AUFBAU PRINCIPLE :
According to this rule, the electrons are added one by one to various orbitals in order of their increasing
energy starting with the orbital of the lowest energy. This increasing order of energy is given by the
following representation:

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d

6s 6p

This above representation gives the order:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.

(n+l) rule: The increasing order of energy of sub-shells can also be obtained on the basis of (n+l)
rule. According to this rule, in a neutral isolated atom, lower is the value of the sum of principal quantum
number and azimuthal quantum number for a particular subshell (n+l), lower is its energy. However, if two
different subshells have the same value of (n+l), the subshell with lower value of n has lower energy.

Try verifying the rule by finding the values of (n+l) for all subshells 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p,
5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.

3.3.1.2 PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:

According to this principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of the four quantum numbers.
In other words, each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers associated with it, ie, there
cannot be two electrons in the same atom for which all four quantum numbers are same.

3.4.1.3 HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

This rule deals with the filling of electrons in orbitals of the same sub-shell with the same energy level. Such
orbitals are called ‘degenerate orbitals’. According to this rule,
‘Electrons pairing in p, d and f orbitals cannot occur until each orbital of a given sub-shell contains one
electron each. All the electrons in a degenerate set of orbitals will have the same spin.’

By doing this, the electrons stay as far away from each other as possible. This is highly reasonable if we
consider the electron-electron repulsion. Hence electrons obey Hund’s rule as it results in lower energy state
and hence more stability.
3.3.2EXTRA STABILITY OF HALF AND FULLY FILLED ORBITALS
A particularly stable system is obtained when a set of equivalent orbitals (degenerate orbitals) is
either fully filled or half filled, i.e., each containing one or a pair of electrons. This effect is more dominant
in d and f sub-shells.
This means three or six electrons in p-sub-shell, five or ten electrons in d-sub-shell, and seven or
fourteen electrons in f-sub-shell forms a stable arrangement. Note this effect when filling of electrons takes
place in d sub-shells (for atomic number Z = 24, 25, and 29, 30).
In the following table you should analyse how to employ the above rules to write electronic configuration of
various elements.

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Symbol Atomic Electronic 1 2 3 4
Number Configuration K L M N
H 1 1s1 1
He 2 1s2 2
Li 3 1s2 2s1 2 1
Be 4 1s2 2s2 2 2
B 5 1s22s22p1 2 3
C 6 1s22s22p2 2 4
N 7 1s22s22p3 2 5
O 8 1s22s22p4 2 6
F 9 1s22s22p5 2 7
Ne 10 1s22s22p6 2 8
Na 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 2 8 1
Mg 12 1s2 2s2 2p63s2 2 8 2
Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 2 8 3
Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 2 8 4
P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 2 8 5
S 16 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 2 8 6
Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 2 8 7
Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 2 8 8
K 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 2 8 8 1
Ca 20 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 2 8 8 2

In some cases, it has been observed that the actual electronic arrangement is slightly different from
arrangement given by Aufbau principle.

𝐶𝑟(24) → 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 3𝑑4 , 4𝑠 2 (expected)

→ 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 3𝑑 5 , 4𝑠1 (actual)

𝐶𝑢(29) → 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 3𝑑 9 , 4𝑠 2 (expected)

→ 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 3𝑑10 , 4𝑠1 (actual)

A simple reason behind this is that half-filled and full-filled sub-shell have got extra stability.
Example: Write down the values of quantum numbers of all the electrons present in the outermost orbit
of argon (At. No. 18)
Solution: The electronic configuration of argon is
1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 3𝑝𝑥2 3𝑝𝑦2 3𝑝𝑧2
Values of quantum numbers are:
n 1 m s
3𝑠 2 3 0 0 +1/2, -1/2

3𝑝𝑥2 3 1 ±1 +1/2, –1/2

3𝑝𝑦2 3 1 ±1 +1/2, –1/2

3𝑝𝑧2 3 1 0 +1/2, –1/2

Example: a) An electron is in 5f-orbital. What possible values of quantum numbers n, l, m and s

can it have?
b) What designation is given to an orbital having (i) n = 2, l =1, and (ii) n = 3, l = 0?
Solution: a) For an electron in 5f-orbital, quantum number are:
1 1
n = 5, l = 3; m = –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3 and s = either + 2 𝑜𝑟 – 2
b) (i) 2p, (ii)3s

24
Example: Electronic configuration of 12𝑀𝑔

The atomic number of elements = 12

∴ Number of protons in the nucleus = 12

Number of neutrons = A – Z = 24 – 12 = 12

Number of electrons = Atomic number of the element = Z = 12

12 electrons are disturbed in K (1), L (2), M (3) orbits.

Number of electrons in II orbit L shell = 8

Number of electrons in III orbit M shell = 2

Electronic configuration of 24
12𝑀𝑔

K L M

2 8 2

KEY POINTS
1. According to Dalton’s atomic theory atom is considered as smallest indivisible particle of matter.
Electron, proton and neutron are the subatomic particles.
2. According to Rutherford model atom consist of nucleus. The positive charge and the mass of the
atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular paths.
3. According to planck’s quantum theory energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the form of
quanta. Quantum of visible light called photons.
4. Energy of one quantum = h
5. According to Bohr’s theory electrons revolve round the nucleus only in those orbits where its
h
angular momentum is an integral multiple of. 2
6. Principal quantum number (n) = 1,2,3,……
7. Azimuthal quantum number (l) = 0, 1, 2 …

8. Magnetic quantum number

( m) = − to +

1 1
=+ and −
9. Spin quantum number (s) 2 2

10. Number of subshell in a shell = n

2
11. Number of maximum orbitals in a shell = n
12. Number of maximum orbitals in a subshell = 2 + 1

SOLVED EXAMPLES-I
1. Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in the following species.
(i) Phosphorus atom (ii) Phosphide ion (P3-) (iii) Magnesium ion (Mg2+)
Mass number: P = 31, Mg = 24
Atomic numbers: P = 15, Mg = 12
Sol. (i) Phosphorus atom
Number of electrons = Atomic number = 15
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Number of protons = Atomic number = 15
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number = 31 - 15 = 16.
(ii) Phosphide ion (P3-).
Phosphide ion (P3-) = Phosphorus atom + 3 electrons
P3-≡ P + 3e -
Thus, phosphide ion has same number of protons and neutrons as phosphorus atom but has three
electrons more.
Number of electrons = 15 + 3 = 18
Number of protons = 15
Number of neutrons = 31 - 15 = 16
(iii) Magnesium ion (Mg2+)
Mg2+ ion is formed by the loss of two electrons by Mg atom. Therefore, it has two electrons less
than the number of electrons is Mg atom.
Number of electrons = 12 - 2 = 10
Number of protons = 12
Number of neutrons = (24 - 12_ = 12

2. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of mass number 97 is 41. What will be the number
of neutrons in its isotope of mass number 99?
Sol. The atomic number of isotopes is same. Therefore, the number of protons in both the atoms is same.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
∴Number of neutrons = Mass number - Number of protons
= 99 - 41 = 58

238
3. Give number of protons and neutrons in 𝑈.
92
Sol. From the given symbol it is clear that the atomic number of uranium is 92 and its mass number is
238.
Now, number of protons = Atomic number = 92
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
= 238 - 92 = 146

4. Calculate the atomic number of an element whose mass number is 31 and number of neutrons is 13.
What is the symbol of the element?
Sol. We know that, mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
But number of protons is equal to the atomic number.
∴ Mass number = Atomic number + number of neutrons
or Atomic number = Mass number - number of neutrons = 31 - 13 = 16
The element with atomic number 16 is sulphur which has symbol P.

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5. An isotope has atomic number 17 and mass number 37. What is the arrangement of electrons in the
shells of this isotope? State nuclear composition of this isotope.
Sol. Number of electrons = Atomic number = 17
Number of protons = Atomic number = 17
Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number = 37 - 17 = 20
Electronic configuration of the isotope is K L M
2 8 7
Nucleus of the isotope contains 17 protons and 20 neutrons.
6. An element has 2 electrons is the M-shell. What is the electronic configuration of the element and
what is its atomic number?
Sol. The 2 electrons in M-shell indicates that the K and L - shell must be full. K - shell can accommodate
a maximum of 2 electrons while L-shell can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons. Thus, the
electronic configuration of the element may be written as:
K L M
2 8 2
The total number of electrons is an atom of the element is 2 + 8 + 2 = 12
Therefore, atomic number of element is 12.

7. How will you find the valency of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium?
Sol. (i) The atomic number of Cl is 17. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 7
Cl has 7 electrons in the valence shell. It needs one more electron to complete its octet. Hence, its
valency is 1.
(ii) The atomic number of S is 16. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 6
S has 6 electrons is the valence shell. It requires two more electrons to complete its octet. Hence, its
valency is 2.
(iii) The atomic number of Mg is 12. Its electronic configuration is
K L M
2 8 2
Mg has only 2 electrons in the valence shell. By losing these 2 electrons it can attain octet of
electrons in its outer most shell. Hence, its valency is 2.

Descriptive Questions or concept application:

Q.1 What are canal rays?

Ans. Canal rays are positively charged radiations. These rays consist of positively charged particles. They
were discovered by Goldstein in 1886.

Q.2 If an atom contains one electron and one proton, will it carry any charge or not?

Q.3 On the basis of Thomson's model of an atom, explain how the atom is neutral as a whole.
Ans. According to Thomson's model of the atom, an atom consists of both negatively and positively
charged particles. The negatively charged particles are embedded in the positively charged sphere.
These negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. Thus, by counter balancing each other's
effect, they make an atom neutral.

Q.4 On the basis of Rutherford's model of an atom, which subatomic particle is present in the
nucleus of an atom?
Ans. On the basis of Rutherford's model of an atom, protons (positively charged particles) are present in
the nucleus of an atom.

Q.5 Draw a sketch of Bohr's model of an atom with three shells.

Ans. Bohr's model of an atom with three shells.

Q.6 What do you think would be the observation if the -particles scattering experiment is carried
out using a foil of a metal other than gold?
Ans. If the -scattering experiment is carried out using a foil of a metal rather than gold, there would be
no change in the observation. In the -scattering experiment, a gold foil was taken because gold is
malleable and a thin foil of gold can be easily made. It is difficult to make such foils from other
metals.

Q.7 Name the three sub atomic particles of an atom.

Ans. The three sub atomic particles of an atom are:
(i) Protons (ii) Electrons, and (iii) Neutrons

Q.8 Helium atom has an atomic mass of 4u and two protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons
does it have?
Ans. Helium atom has two neutrons. The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons present in its nucleus. Since helium atom has two protons, mass contributed by the two
protons is
(2 × 1)u = 2u.Then, the remaining mass (4 – 2)u = 2u is contributed by neutrons.

Q.9 Write the distribution of electrons in carbon and sodium atoms?

Ans. The total number of electrons in a carbon atom is 6. The distribution of electrons in carbon atom is
given by:
First orbit or K-shell = 2 electrons
Second orbit or L-shell = 4 electrons
or, we can write the distribution of electrons in a carbon atom as 2, 4.

Q.10 If K and L shells of an atom are full, then what would be the total number of electrons in the
atom?
Ans. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy K and L-shells of an atom are 2 and 8
respectively. Therefore, if K and L-shells of an atom are full, then the total number of electrons in
the atom would be (2 + 8) = 10 electrons.

Q.11 How will you find the valency of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium?
Ans. If the number of electrons in the outer most shell of the atom of an element is less than or equal to 4,
then the valency of the element is equal to the number of electrons in the outer most shell. On the
other hand, if the number of electrons in the outer most shell of the atom of an element is greater
than 4, then the valency of that element is determined by subtracting the number of electrons in the
outer most shell from 8.
The distribution of electrons in chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium atoms are 2, 8, 7; 2, 8, 6 and 2, 8,
2 respectively. Therefore, the number of electrons in the outermost shell of chlorine, sulphur, and
magnesium atoms are 7, 6 and 2 respectively.
Thus, The valency of chlorine = 8 – 7 = 1
The valency of sulphur = 8 – 6 = 2
The valency of magnesium = 2

Q.12 If number of electrons in an atom is 8 and number of protons is also 8, then (i) what is the
atomic number of the atom and (ii)what is the charge on the atom?
Ans. (i) The atomic number is equal to the number of protons. Therefore, the atomic number of the
atom is 8.
(ii) Since the number of both electrons and protons is equal, therefore, the charge on the atom is
0.

Q.13 With the help of Table find out the mass number of oxygen and sulphur atom.

Name of Symbol Atomic Number of Number of Number of

element Number protons neutrons electrons
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16

Ans. Mass number of oxygen = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 8 + 8 =16

Mass number of sulphur = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32.

Q.14 For the symbol H, D and T tabulate three sub-atomic particles found in each of them.

Ans.
Q.15 Write the electronic configuration of any one pair of isotopes and isobars.

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Ans. Two isotopes of carbon are C612, C613 . [Isotopes have the same electronic configuration]
and The electronic configuration of C612 is 2, 4.
The electronic configuration of C613 is 2, 4.
and Ca2040, Ar1940 are a pair of isobars
The electronic configuration of Ca2040 is 2, 8, 8, 2.
The electronic configuration of Ar1840 is 2, 8, 8.

Q.16 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.

Ans. Electron
(i) Electrons are present outside the nucleus of an atom.
(ii) Electrons are negatively charged.
(iii) The mass of an electron is considered to negligible.

Proton
(i) Protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
(ii) Protons are positively charged.
(iii) The mass of a proton is approximately 2000 times as the mass of an electron.

Neutron
(i) Neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
(ii) Neutrons are neutral
(iii) The mass of neutron is nearly equal to the mass of a proton.

Q.17 What are the limitations of J. J. Thomson's model of the atom?

Ans. (i) According to J. J. Thomson's model of an atom, an atom consists of a positively
charged sphere with electrons embedded in it. However, it was later found that the positively
charged particles reside at the centre of the atom called the nucleus, and the electrons revolve
around the nucleus.
(ii) J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom was just based on imagination, it did not have any
experimental evidence in it’s support.

Q.18 What are the limitations of Rutherford's model of the atom?

Ans. According to Rutherford's model of an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits.
But, an electron revolving in circular orbits will not be stable because during revolution, it will
experience acceleration. Due to acceleration, the electrons will lose energy in the form of radiation
and fall into the nucleus. In such a case, the atom would be highly unstable and collapse.
Q.19 Describe Bohr's model of the atom.
Ans. Bohr's model of the atom
Niels Bohr proposed the following postulates regarding the model of the atom.
(i) Only certain orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.
(ii) While revolving in these discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy.
These discrete orbits or shells are shown in the following diagram.

The first orbit (i.e., for n =1) is represented by letter K. Similarly, for n = 2, it is L-shell, for n = 3, it
is
M-shell and for n = 4, it is N-shell. These orbits or shells are also called energy levels.
Q.20 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.

Ans:

Q.21 Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this chapter.
Ans: Thomson's Model :
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. As a result the atom is
electrically neutral.
Rutherford's Model :
1. An atom consists of a positively charged center in the atom called the nucleus. The
mass of the atom is contributed mainly by the nucleus.
2. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
Bohr's Model :
1. Bohr agreed with almost all points as said by Rutherford except regarding the
revolution of electrons for which he added that there are only certain orbits known as discrete
orbits inside the atom in which electrons revolve around the nucleus.
2. While revolving in its discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.

Q.22 Summarise the rules for writing of distribution of electrons in various shells for the first
eighteen elements.
Ans. The following rules are followed to fill electrons in different energy levels.
1. If n gives the number of orbit or energy level, then 2n2 gives the maximum number of
electrons possible in a given orbit or energy level. Thus,
Ist orbit or K-shell will have 2 electrons,
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IInd orbit or L-shell will have 8 electrons,
IIIrd orbit or M-shell will have 18 electrons.
2. If it is the outermost orbit, then it should have not more than 8 electrons.
3. There should be step-wise filling of electrons in different orbits, i.e., electrons are not
accompanied in a given orbit if the earlier orbits or shells are incompletely filled.

Q.23 Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen.

Ans. The valency of an element is the combining capacity of that element. The valency of an element is
determined by the number of valence electrons present in the atom of that element.
If the number of valence electrons of the atom of an element is less than or equal to four, then the
valency of that element is equal to the number of valence electrons.
For example, the atom of silicon has four valence electrons and so, it has valency equal to four.
On the other hand, if the number of valence electrons of the atom of an element is greater than 4,
then the valency of that element is obtained by subtracting the number of valence electrons from 8.
For example, the atom of oxygen has 6 valence electrons and so, the valency of oxygen is (8 – 6) =2.

Q.24 Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number, (iii) Isotopes and (iv) Isobars.
Give any two uses of isotopes.
Ans: Atomic Number is defined as the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. For example,
there are 6 protons in carbon, so the atomic number of carbon is 6. All atoms are characterized by
their atomic numbers.
Mass Number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom. For example, there are 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus of carbon, so its
mass number is 12.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element thus having same atomic number but different mass number.
For example, chlorine has two isotopes with atomic number 17 but mass numbers 35 and 37
represented by
Two Uses of Isotopes :
(a) Isotope of cobalt (60Co) is used in the treatment of cancer.
(b) Isotope of uranium (235U) is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
Isobars are such atoms which have same mass number but different atomic numbers. Thus, isobars
are different elements. For example, Ne has atomic number 10 and sodium has atomic number 11
but both of them have mass numbers as 22 represented by, Ne1022, Na1122.
Q.25 Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain.
Ans. The atomic number of sodium is 11. So, neutral sodium atom has 11 electrons and its electronic
configuration is 2, 8, 1. But Na+ has 10 electrons. Out of 10, K-shell contains 2 and
L-shell 8 electrons respectively. Thus, Na+ has completely filled K and L shells.

⎯→ Na + + 1e−
Na ⎯
Q.26 Complete the following table.

Ans:

Quantum Numbers Recap:

1. The quantum numbers of four electrons (e1 to e4) are given below:
n l m s n l m s
e1 3 0 0 + 1/2 e2 4 0 0 1/2
e3 3 2 2 – 1/2 e4 3 1 –1 1/2
The correct order of decreasing energy of these electrons is:
(A) e4 > e3 > e2 > e1 (B) e2 > e3 > e4 > e1
(C) e3 > e2 > e4 > e1 (D) e1 > e4 > e2 > e3

2. How do the energy gaps between successive electron energy levels in an atom vary from low to high
n values?
(A) All energy gaps are the same
(B) The energy gap decreases as n increases
(C) The energy gap increases as n increases
(D) The energy gap changes unpredictably as n increases

3. The number of unpaired valence electrons in an atom of phosphorus is:

(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

4. Which quantum number defines the orientation of orbital in the space around the nucleus?
(A) principal quantum number (n) (B) angular momentum quantum number
(C) magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝑙 ) (D) spin quantum number (𝑚𝑠 )

5. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have the quantum numbers n = 3 &l =
2?
(A) 2 (B) 5 (C) 6 (D) 10

6. Which of the following statements about an electron with 𝑚𝑙 = +2 is incorrect?

(A) the electron could be in the third shell (B) the electron is in a non-spherical orbital
1
(C) the electron may have 𝑚𝑠 = 2 (D) the electron is not in a d-orbital

7. Which of the following set of quantum numbers is impossible for an electron?

1 1
(A) 𝑛 = 1, 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑠 = + 2 (B) 𝑛 = 9, 𝑙 = 7, 𝑚𝑙 = −6, 𝑚𝑠 = − 2
1 1
(C) 𝑛 = 2, 𝑙 = 1, 𝑚𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑠 = + (D) 𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 2, 𝑚𝑙 = −3, 𝑚𝑠 = +
2 2

8. In a 3d subshell, all the five orbitals are degenerate. What does it mean?
(A) All the orbitals have the same orientation
(B) All the orbitals have the same shape
(C) All the orbitals have the same energy
(D) All the orbitals are unoccupied
9. Which of the following statements is correct for an electron having azimuthal quantum number 𝑙 =
2?
(A) the electron may be in the lowest energy shell
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(B) the electron is in a spherical orbital
1
(C) the electron must have spin 𝑚𝑠 = + 2
(D) the electron may have a magnetic quantum number = – 1
10. How many electrons are present in the M-shell of the atom of an element with atomic number 24?
(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 12 (D) 13
11. Give the correct order of initials T (True) or F (False) for following statements.
(I) If electron has zero magnetic quantum number, then it must be present in s-orbital.
(II) In orbital diagram, Pauli’s exclusion principle is violated.
(III) Bohr’s model is valid for hydrogen like species or atom.
(IV) A d-orbital can accommodate maximum 10 electrons only.
(A) TTFF (B) FFTF (C) TFTT (D) FFTT
12. If the electronic configuration of oxygen atom in ground state is written as 1s2 2s2 2p4

2p
.
me It would violate:
(A)of
Hund’s rule (B) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(C) Both Pauli’s and Hund’s principle (D) None of these

13. Which series of subshells is arranged in the order of increasing energy for multi-electron atoms?
(A) 6s,4f,5d,6p (B) 4f,6s, 5d, 6p (C) 5d, 4f,6s, 6p (D) 4f, 5d, 6s, 6p

14. Which one of the following ions has same number of unpaired or single electrons as that of
Vanadium?
(A) Cr3+ (B) Mn2+ (C) Ni2+ (D) Fe3+
15. In iron atom, how many electrons atom have n = 3 & l = 2?
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 8

16. The pairs of ions with same electronic configuration is

(A) Cr3+, Fe3+ (B) Fe3+, Mn2+ (C) Fe3+, Co3+ (D) Sc3+, Cr3+.

17. The orbital diagram in which aufbau principle is violated, is:

(A) (B) (C) (D)

18. Which of the following set of quantum numbers belong to highest energy?
1 1
(A) 𝑛 = 4, 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑙 = 0, 𝑠 = + 2 (B) 𝑛 = 2, 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑙 = 0, 𝑠 = + 2
1 1
(C) 𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 1, 𝑚𝑙 = 1, 𝑠 = + 2 (D) 𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 2, 𝑚𝑙 = 1, 𝑠 = + 2
19. A subshell n = 5 𝑙 = 3 can accommodate:
(A) 10 electrons (B) 14 electrons (C) 18 electrons (D) None of these

20. In H-atom energy of electron is determined by:

23. The maximum number of electrons in N shell is -

(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 18 (D) 32

24. The maximum number of electrons in f - subshell is -

(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 14 (D) 10

25. Using the s, p, d notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers
(1)𝑛 = 1,1 = 0 (2) n=3, l=1 (3) n=4, l=2 (4) n=4, l=3
(A) 1s, 3d, 4f, 4d (B) 1s, 3p, 4d, 4f (C) 1s, 3p, 4f, 4d (D) 1s, 3d, 4d, 4f

26. The maximum number of orbitals in g - subshell are -

(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 9
27. In an atom there are four orbits, the maximum number of electrons in this atom will be -
(A) 30 (B) 36 (C) 32 (D) 60
28. The number of electrons in the L - shell of phosphorus is not equal to that in the -
(A) L - shell of neon (B) M - shell of potassium
(C) M - shell of chromium (D) M - shell of argon
29. The orbital diagram in which both Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule are violated is

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

30. Which of the following electronic configurations is incorrect?

(A) 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s2 3px1

(B) 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
(D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px1 3py1 3pz1

Answer Key

1. C 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. D 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. D
11. B 12. A 13. A 14. A 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. A
21. B 22. C 23. D 24. C 25. B 26. D 27. D 28. C 29. A 30. B

CHAPTER 4: PERIODIC TABLE

Lecture 17 & 18
Till date, 118 elements are known to us. Most of them are found in nature while some of them are man-
made. With such a large number of elements it is extremely difficult to study the chemistry of all the
elements and their compounds individually. Therefore, many scientists have made attempts to classify
the elements having similar properties together.

Today’s classification of elements has been arrived at, after multiple attempts.

4.1 LAVOISER’S CLASSIFICATION

Lavoiser classified the elements as metals and non-metals on the basis of their tendency to lose and
gain electrons.
• The elements that have tendency to lose electrons were termed as metals. For example,
𝑁𝑎 → 𝑁𝑎 + + 𝑒 − or 𝐾 → 𝐾 + + 𝑒 −
• The elements that have the tendency to gain electrons are termed as non-metals. For example,
𝐹 + 𝑒 − → 𝐹 − or 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑙 −

4.1.1 LIMITATIONS OF LAVOISER’S CLASSIFICATION

• The classification of elements as metals or non-metals became insuffucient as the number of
elements increased. There were certain elements that possessed the properties of both metals and
non-metals and their discovery gave rise to another classification that could include them.

4.2PROUST’S HYPOTHESIS
Proust’s Hypothesis was based on the assumption that all elements are made up of hydrogen. He
proposed ‘atomic weights of all elements are simple multiple of atomic weight of hydrogen’. He gave
this hypothesis on the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory and the atomic weights of some elements known
at that time. But this hypothesis could not last longer, because there were some atomic weights like that
of Chlorine (35.5) and Strontium (87.6), which were fractional and not in whole numbers.

4.3DOBEREINER’S TRIADS
In 1829, Dobreiner, a German chemist, identified several groups of three elements that showed
similarities in physical and chemical properties. He also observed that in these sets of three elements
(called as triads), the atomic weight of middle element is equal to the mean atomic weight of remaining
two elements. Such a group of elements is called Dobereiner’s triad.

Triad of elements Mean of first and last element

Li Na K 7 + 39
= 23
7 23 39 2
Be Mg Ca 8 + 40
= 24
8 24 40 2

However, this method of classification was limited to very few elements.

It was therefore discarded with the discovery of new elements.

4.3NEWLAND’S RULE OF OCTAVE

The next attempt at classification was made Alexander Newlands, an English chemist. On
arranging the then known elements in increasing order of their atomic masses, Newlands observed
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that the properties ofevery eighth element were similar to that of the first one. He compared this
relationship to the first octave in musical notes. This is the ‘Newland’s law of octaves’.

do re mi fa so la ti

Li Be B C N O F
7 9 11 12 14 16 19

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5

4.3.1LIMITATIONS OF NEWLAND’S CLASSIFICATION

• This classification was limited only up tofirst 20 elements and was inapplicable for the
heavierelements.
• After the discovery and inclusion of noble gases in the periodic table, they became the eighth
element from the alkali metals, and hence this classification had to be discarded too.

4.4 LUTHER MEYER’S VOLUME CURVES

Luther Meyer plotted graphs of atomic volumes against atomic masses, where the atomic volume
was defined as:
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑚𝑙)

The curve obtained by him is termed as Luther Meyer’s curve and the following points were concluded
from it:

• Elements with similar properties occupied similar positions on the curve.

• Alkali metals have highest atomic volumes and hence occupy the peak positions on the curve.
• Alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg Ca, Sr, Ba, etc.) which are relatively less electropositive, occupy
positions at approximately the mid point on the descending part of the curve.
• Halogens and the noble gases (except helium) occupy positions on the ascending part of the curve.
• Transition elements have very small volumes and therefore these are present at the bottoms of the
curve

This method of classification was discarded as it was practically very difficult to interpret properties
based on a graph. Also, this classification could not become very popular as Mendeleeev proposed a
much moresimplified and elaborate classification of elements at about the same time.

4.5 MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW

Mendeleev gave a periodic law, ‘The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic
functions of their increasing atomic masses’.
He arranged the then known elements in order of their increasing atomic masses such that the elements
with similar properties fall in the same vertical columns.

4.5.1MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

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The periodic table published by Mendeleev consisted of 63 elements and was divided into 7
horizontal rows called periods and 8 vertical columns called groups which were numbered as I, II, III,
IV, V, VI, VII and VIII. The earlier version of periodic table had only seven groups, and the eighth
group was added later after the discovery of noble gases as the zeroth group.

All the groups (except VIII and Zeroth groups) weredivided into subgroups A and B.

4.5.2 MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

• Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements was the first successful attempt to systematic and simplified
classification of elements.
• Mendeleev predicted the discovery of some more elements and left out blank spaces where
necessary for them.
• He even predicted the properties of those missing elements based on the properties of other elements
in the same group. He gave them names as
Eka-boron- This was later called scandium (Sc)
Eka-aluminium - This was later called gallium (Ga)
Eka-silicon - This was later called germanium (Ge)
The properties of these elements predicted by Mendeleev and those found experimentally were
almost identical.

4.5.3 DEFECTS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODICTABLE

• It did not explain the cause of periodicity.
• Position of hydrogen was uncertain. It showed resemblance with both alkali metals and halogens and
hence was placed in two different groups.
• Although Mendeleev’s periodic table was based upon atomic masses, he did not assign any separate
place to isotopes in it.
• Order of increasing atomic masses was not strictly followed in the arrangement of elements. For
example, Argon (39.94) was placed before K(39.08) and Te(127.6) was placed before I(126.9).
• Anomalous position of Lanthanides and Actinides in the table.
• There were certain instances where elements with similar properties were placed in different groups
and elements with different properties were placed in the same group. For example, coinage metals
(Cu, Ag and Au) with alkali metals; Zn, Cd and Hg with alkaline earth metals and metal like Mn
with halogens. Similarly, Pt and Au having similar properties have been placed in different groups.

4.6 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Henry Moseley performed an experiment wherein he bombarded high speed electrons on different
metal surfaces. He observed that the square root of frequency (√𝑣) of the rays, which are obtained from the
metal,is proportional to the nuclear charge of the atom.
Based on these observations, he concluded that rather than atomic mass, atomic number is a more
fundamental property of the atom. He then modified Mendeleev’s Periodic Law to obtain the Modern
Periodic Law, which states that- “The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.”

There are total 7 periods and 18 groups in the modern periodic table. Let us observe the following from the
modern periodic table given at the end of this chapter:

4.6.1 MERITS OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE OVER MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
• Positions of Isotopes and Isobars - Isotopes have same atomic number and the periodic table is
based on atomic numbers. Therefore, various isotopes of the same elements have to be provided the
same position in the periodic table.
Isobars gave same atomic weights but different atomic numbers and therefore they have to be placed at
different positions.
• The general electronic configurations of elements ina group remains same.

4.6.3 DRAWBACKS OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

• The position of hydrogen is still disputable as it was in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
• Helium is an inert gas, but its configuration is different from that of the other inert gas elements.
• Lanthanide and actinide series could not be adjusted in the main periodic table and therefore they
had to be provided with a place separately below the table.

4.6.4 CLASSIFICATIONOF ELEMENTS BASED UPON MODERN PERIODIC LAW

4.6.4.1 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS
When the last electron enters the s-orbital of the outermost (nth) shell, the elements are called as s-block
elements. Some general characteristics of s-block elements are:
• Groups 1 (alkali metals) and 2 (alkaline earth metals) constitute the s-block.
• The general electronic configuration for elements in this block is: [inert gas]ns1 and [inert gas] ns2,
for groups 1 and 2 respectively, where n represents the valence shell and can take values from 1 to 7.
It can be combined and written as [inert gas]ns1-2.
• s-block elements lie on the extreme left of the periodic table
• All s-block elements are metals.
4.6.4.2 p - BLOCK ELEMENTS
When the last (also called the differentiating) electron enters the p-orbital of the outermost (nth) shell,
the elements are called as p-block elements. Some general characteristics of p-block elements are:
• Elements of group 13 to 18 constitute the p-block.
• The general electronic configuration of these elements is [inert gas] ns2np1-6.
• p-block elements lie on the exteme right of the periodic table.
• This block consists of some metals, all non-metals and metalloids.

4.6.4.3d-BLOCK ELEMENTS

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When the differentiating electron eneters the d-orbitals of the pen-ultimate shell, ie, (n-1)thshell, the
elements are known as d-block elements. Some general characteristics of d-block elements are:
• Elements of groups 3-12 constitue the d-block.
• The general electronic configuration is [inert gas] (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2.
• All of them are metals and are also known as transition elements.
4.6.4.4 f-BLOCK ELEMENTS
When the differentiating electron eneters the f-orbitals of the antepen-ultimate shell, ie, (n-2)th shell, the
elements are known as f-block elements. Some general characteristics of f-block elements are:
• All f-block elements belong to the third group.
• The general electronic configuration is [inert gas] (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2.
• All of them are metals and are also known as inner-transition elements.
• Within each series, the properties of elements are quite similar.
• The elements of the f-block have been furher classified into two series- the Lanthanides and
Actinides. They have been placed at the bottom of the periodic table to avoid undue expansion of
the periodic table.
Ex.1 Which alphabet is not used in nomenclature of elements.
(A) K (B) W (C) V (D) J & Q
Ans. (D)
Sol. K is potassium (Kalium), W is Tungsten (Wolfram) and V is vanadium. There is no element
associated with the letters J and Q.
Ex.2 Which of the following is the period number of the element whose atomic number is 98
(A) 4 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 6
Ans. (B)
Sol. The electronic configuration of the element with atomic number 98 is as follow
1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 4s 2 , 3d10 , 4p6 , 5s 2 , 4d10 , 5p6 , 6s2 , 4f 14 , 5d10 , 6p6 , 7s2 , 5f 10
The last electron enters in f orbital, so it belongs to f block in the period.
Ex.3 The nuclei of elements X, Y and Z have same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
According to Mendeleev periodic table, the elements X,Y and Z
(A) Belong to same group and same period
(B) Belong to different groups and different periods
(C) Belong to same group and different periods
(D) Are isotopes, which do not have different positions
Ans. (D)
Sol. Isotopes have same number of protons (i.e. same atomic number). So they occupy same position in
the periodic table. However, due to different numbers of neutrons their atomic weights are different.
Ex.4 Which of the following is the artificial element in the periodic table
(A) Tc (B) Te (C) Ru (D) Os
Ans. (A)
Sol. Tc43 is the first artificial element.
Ex.5 Which of the following is not a transition element
(A) Co (B) Ni (C) Mn (D) Zn
Ans. (D)
Sol. There is only one incomplete orbit in Zn+2 and its stable oxidation state is (+2) does not have
incomplete d orbital. Therefore it is not a transition element.

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Lecture 19 & 20
4.5 PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES
The purpose of arranging the elements in a tabulated form was to enable the systematic study of
elements. It has been observed that elements exhibit certain patterns in properties, when arranged in
increasing order of their atomic numbers. These patterns are called as trends and this repetition of
properties after regular intervals is called periodicity.
In the periodic table, elements with similar properties occur at intervals of 2,8,8,18 and 32. These numbers
are called as magic numbers.
Following is the description of some properties and their trends in the periodic table.

4.5.1 ATOMIC RADIUS

The atomic radius should ideally be the distance of the outermost electron from the centre of the
nucleusof an atom. However, it is not possible to know the exact location of an electron and hence
measurement of the radius of an atom according to the above definition is not possible. Thus we define
different types of measurable atomic radii:
4.5.1.1 Single Bond Covalent Radius, SBCR –The covalent radius of an element is the contribution of that
element to the length of a single covalent bond. The bond could be made between two atoms of the same
kind, called as a homonuclear molecule, or it could be between two atoms of different kind, and is known
as heteronuclear molecule in that case.
a) For homonuclear molecules,
𝑑A–A = r𝐴 + r𝐴 or 2r𝐴 ,
𝑑
𝑟𝐴 = A-A ,
2

where rArepresents the radius of the atom and dA-Arepresents the internuclear distance between the
two same atoms when they are covalently bonded.

b) For heteronuclear diatomic molecules in which electron negativity remains approximately same.
𝑑A–B = r𝐴 + r𝐵
Where rA and rB are the radii of the two atoms A and B forming the bond.
c) For heteronuclear diatomic molecule [Not in our foundation basic syllabus], A–B, where the
difference between the electronegativity values ofatom A and atom B is relatively larger, the bond
between them becomes smaller than the sum of their covalent radii. This is due to the additional
attractive forces originating from the opposite partial charges that develop on the atoms because of
electronegativity difference.
𝑑A–B = r𝐴 + r𝐵 – 0.09 (𝑋𝐴 – X𝐵 ),
whereXA and XBare electronegativity values of element A (more electronegative) and element B
(less electronegative), respectively. This formula is given by Stevenson &Schomaker.

Note: Covalent radius is slightly smaller than actual radius.

Ex. 6 Calculate the bond length of C–X bond, if C–C bond length is 1.54 Å, X–X bond length is 1.00 Å
and electronegativity values of C and X are 2.0 and 3.0 respectively

Sol. (1) C–C bond length = 1.54 Å

1.54
𝑟𝐶 = 2 = 0.77Å
1.00
𝑟𝑋 = = 0.50Å
2

(2) C–X bond length

4.5.1.2 Van derWaals Radius- It ishalf of the distance between the nuclei of two non
bondedatomsbelonging to two different molecules closest to one another.

Note: Vander Waals radius is slightly larger than the actual radius.The values of atomic radii in noble
gases are always determined as van der Waals radii. Therefore, the value of van der waals radius of a
noble gas is always greater than that of the halogen coming before it in the same period.

4.5.1.3 Metallic Radius- For metals, metallic radius is defined as half of the internuclear distance
separating two adjacent metal atoms in a metallic lattice.

Van der Waals radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius

4.11.3 PERIODICITY IN ATOMIC RADIUS

To understand the periodicity of atomic radius, let us first consider the factors affecting atomic
radius:
a) Effective Nuclear Charge –The number of protons in the nucleus determines the amount of
attractive force they exert on the electrons. Increase in the number of protons and/or decrease in the
number of electrons, increases the effective nuclear charge and results in decrease in the value of
atomic radius because protons attract the electronic orbits with greater force.
b) Number of shells - Increase in the number of orbits in an atom increases the atomic size.
c) Shielding effect/screening effect - The electrons of the inner shell(s) repel the electrons of valence
shell and act as a shield or screen between the valence shell and the attractive nuclear force. This is

Consequently, the trend of atomic radius in the periodic table follows:

• In a period - On going from left to right in a period,the number of orbits remains same, but the
atomic number increases by a unit. Thus the attractive forces experienced by the electrontowards the
nucleus increases. Hence atomic radiusdecreases from left to right in a period. In a period, the
size of an alkali metal (Group I) is second largest because it has minimum number of proton, while
the size of the halogen is smallest.

• In a group–The number of shells in an atom is equal to the period number to which the element
belongs. As we move down in a group, the number of shells goes on increasing and so does the
number of shells. The atomic radii thus increase on going downwards in a group.

Ex.7 The increasing order of atomic size of Li, Be, B and Ne is

Sol. B < Be < Li < Ne
Inert gas is biggest in a period

Ex.8 The increasing order of atomic size As, Bi, Sn, Pb and Sb is
Sol. As < Sb < Sn < Bi < Pb

Ex.9 Which of the following should be the longest bond?

(A) S–H (B) O–H (C) N–H (D) P–H
Ans. (D)
Sol. The atomic radius of P is largest out of O,S,N, and P therefore, P–H bond will be the longest one.

4.5.2 IONIC RADIUS

Loss of one or more electrons by a neutral atom results in the formation of positively charged
species called cations and gain of electrons results in the formation of negatively charged species called
anions. Ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and resultant electron cloud scattered around the
nucleus in an ion.
It has been observed that, the size of a cation is smaller in comparison to the size of its
corresponding atom.This is so because usually a cation has one shell less than the neutral atom.
Additionally, cations are are formed by the loss of electrons, forming cations that have lesser number of
electrons/s andthe same number of proton/s as that of the parent atom. This results in increase in the
effective nuclear charge, which causes the size of the ion to decrease.

For example - (1) Mn > Mn+2> Mn+3> Mn+4> Mn+6> Mn+7

(2) Pb+2> Pb+4
On the other hand, the size of an anion is greater than the size of its corresponding atom. When
the number of electrons exceeds that of the protons, as is in the case of anions, the effective nuclear charge
decreases, causing an increase in the size.

For example - O0< O-1< O-2

4.5.3 SIZE OF ISOELECTRONIC SERIES

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The species, which have same number of electrons but different nuclear charges, constitute an
isoelectronic series. The distribution of electrons in isoelectronic species is same and hence they have same
number of shells. However, due to difference in atomic numbers, the effective nuclear charge differs. In the
isoelectronic species, with increase in the effective nuclear charge, the size of ion decreases.
For example, 𝑀𝑔2+ < 𝑁𝑎+ < 𝐹 − < 𝑂2− , where the number of electrons in all the ions is 10 and their atomic
numbers are 12, 11, 9 and 8 respectively.
–1
Ex. 10 What should be the order of size of H , H+1 and H?
H-1 H+1 H
1p 1p 1p
2e 0e 1e
+1 –1
Sol. 𝐻 < H < H

Ex.11 Which of the following has the largest size

(1) 𝑁 –3 (2)𝑂−2 (3) K+1 (4) Ca+2
Ans. (1)
Sol. 𝑁 –3 𝑂–2 𝐾 +1 𝐶𝑎 +2
7p 8p 19p 20p
10e 10e 18e 18e

4.12. IONISATION POTENTIAL

• The energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from the outermost orbit of one mole
of isolated gaseous atoms of an element, is called ionisation potential (IP). This ionisation is an
endoergic or energy-absorbing process.
• An electron cannot be removed directly from an atom in solid state. For this purpose, the solid state
is converted to gaseous state and the energy required for this is called sublimation energy.
𝐴(𝑔) A+1 (𝑔) A+2 (𝑔) A+3 (𝑔)
• The energy required to remove one electron from a neutral gaseous atom to convert it to
monopositive cation, is called first ionisation potential (Ist IP). The energy required to convert a
monopositive cation to a dipositive cation is called second ionisation potential (IInd IP)
• Ist IP < IIndIP < IIIrd IP because as the electrons go out of the atom, the effective nuclear charge
increases & the ionic size goes on decreasing. Thus the forces of attraction on valence shell electrons
increases and hence the order

4.12.1 FACTORS AFFECTING IONISATION POTENTIAL

(i) Number of shells: With the increase in number of shells the atomic radius increases i.e. the distance
of outer most shell electron from the nucleus increases and hence the ionisation potential decreases.

(ii) Effective Nuclear Charge: Atomic size decreases with increase in effective nuclear charge because,
higher the effective nuclear charge stronger will be the attraction of the nucleus towards the electron
of the outermost orbit and higher will be the ionisation potential

(iii) Shielding Effect: The electrons of internal orbits repel the electron of the outermost orbit due to
which the attraction of the nucleus towards the electron of the outermost orbit decreases and thus
atomic size increases and the value of ionisation potential decreases.

(iv) Stability of half filled and fully filled orbitals: The atoms whose orbitals are half-filled (p3, d5, f7)
or fully-filled (s2, p6, d10, f14) have greater stability than the others. Therefore, they require greater

(v) Penetration power: In any atom the s orbital is nearer to the nucleus in comparison to p, d and f
orbitals. Therefore, greater energy is required to remove an electron from s orbital than from p, d and
f orbitals. Thus the decreasing order of ionisation potential of s, p, d and f orbitals is as follows
s>p>d>f

4.12.2 PERIODIC TRENDS IN IONISATION POTENTIAL

a. In a Period:- The value of Ionisation potential normally increase on going from left to right in a
period, because effective nuclear charge increases and atomic size decreases.

4.12.2.1 Exceptions
• In second period ionisation potential of Be is greater than that of B, and in the third period ionisation
potential of Mg is greater than that of Al due to high stability of fully filled orbitals.

• In second period ionization potential of N is greater than O and in the third period ionisation
potential of P is greater than that of S, due to stability of half filled orbitals.

• The increasing order of the values of ionisation potential of the second period elements is
Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne
The increasing order of the values of ionisation potential of the third period elements is
Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl <Ar

4.13.2.4 In a Group

• The value of ionisationpotential normally decreases on going from top to bottom in a group because
both atomic size and shielding effect increase.
Exception:

• The value of ionisation potential remains almost constant from Al to Ga in the III A group. (B>Al,
Ga > In)
• In IVB group i.e. Ti,Zr and Hf the I.P. of Hf is higher than that of Zr due to Lanthanide contraction.
Thus the I.P. of IVBgroup varies as Ti>Zr< Hf.

• In the periodic table the element having highest value of ionisation potential is He.
• The values of ionisation potential of noble gases are extremely high, because the orbitals of
outermost orbit are fully-filled (ns2, np6) and provide great stability.

• In a period, the element having least value of ionisation potential is an alkali metal (group I A ) and
that having highest value is inert gas (Group 0)

4.12.3 APPLICATIONS OF IONISATION POTENTIAL

• The elements having high values of ionisation potential have low reactivity, e.g., inert gases.
• The value of ionisation potential decreases more on going from top to bottom in a group in
comparison to a period. Therefore, reactivity increases and the atom forms a cation by loss of
electron.
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• The elements having low value of ionisation potential readily lose electron and thus behave as strong
reducing agents.
• The elements having low value of ionization potential readily lose electron and thus exhibit greater
metallic property.
• The elements having low value of ionisation potential readily lose electron and thus oxide and
hydroxides of these elements have basic property.

Ex.12 Which of the following should be the order of increasing values of second ionisation potential of C 6,
N7, O8 and F9
(A) C > N > F > O (B) C < F < N < O (C) C < F < N < O (D) C < N < F< O
Ans. (D)
Sol. The second ionisation potential means removal of electron from a cation
C+1 (5e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
N+1 (6e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
O+1 (7e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
F+1 (8e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
Therefore C< N < F < O

Ex.13 Which of the following should be the correct order of the second ionisation potential of Li, Be B and
C
(A) Li < Be > B < C (B) Be < B < C < Li (C) Be < C < B < Li (D) Li < C < B < Be
Ans. (C)
Sol. Li+1 (2e) = 1s2
Be+1 (3e) = 1s2, 2s1
B+1 (4e) = 1s2. 2s2
C+1 (5e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
Therefore Be < C < B < Li
Here, Li+1 has inert configuration and B+1 has fully filled s orbital. Hence these will have high value
of second ionisation potential.
Ex.14 Which of the following should have least value of ionisation potential
(A) Be+3 (B) H (C) Li+2 (D) He+1
Ans. (B)
Sol. All the above four species have one electron each, H has least number of proton. Therefore, H will
have least value of ionisation potential.
Ex.15 Which of the following should have less than 11.0 eV difference between the values of first and
second ionisation potentials
(A) Mg (B) Na (C) K (D) All of the above
Ans. (D)
Sol. Mg exhibits higher oxidation state (Mg+2) than Na (Na+1) and K (K+1)

M+2 + Z2 M+3 + e–
(A) Z1 = Z2 (B) Z1 = Z2 (C) Z1 = Z2 (D) Z1< Z2
Ans. (D)
Sol. Z1 = second ionisation potential and Z2 = Third ionisation potential.
Second ionisation potential is always less than the third ionisation potential.

4.13. ELECTRON AFFINITY

• The energy released on adding up one mole of electron to one mole of neutral atom a. in its gaseous
state to form an anion (A–) is called electron affinity of that atom. Since the electron adds up in the
outermost orbit, energy is given out. Therefore, electron affinity is associated with an exothermic
process.
A(g) + e–→ A– (g), H = –En

• When one electron adds up to a neutral atom, it gets converted to a uninegative ion and energy is
released. On adding one more electron to the mononegative anion, there is a repulsion between the
negatively charged electron and anion. In order to counteract the repulsive forces, energy has to be
provided to the system. Therefore, the value of the second electron affinity is positive.
A– (g) + e–→ A–2 (g),H = + En

4.13.1 FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRON AFFINITY

• Atomic Size or Atomic Radius

When the size or radius of an atom increases, the electron entering the outermost orbit is more
weakly attracted by the nucleus and the value of electron affinity is lower.

• Effective Nuclear charge

When effective nuclear charge is more then, the atomic size less. Then the atom can easily gain an
electron and higher electron affinity.

• Stability of Fully-Filled and Half-Filled Orbitals

The stability of the configuration having fully-filled orbitals (p6, d10, f14) and half-filled orbital (p3,
7
d5, f ) is relatively higher than that of other configurations. Hence such type of atoms have less
tendency to gain an electron, therefore their electron affinity values will be very low or zero.

4.13.2 TRENDS IN ELECTRON AFFINITY

4.13.2.1 In a period, atomic size decreases with increase in effective nuclear charge and hence
increase in electron affinity.
Exception:
• On going from C6 to𝑁 7 in the second period, the values of electron affinity decreasesin stead of
increasing. This is because there are half-filled (2p3) orbitals in the outermost orbit of N, which are
more stable. On the other hand, the outermost orbit in C has 2p2 configuration.

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• In the third period, the value of electron affinity of Si is greater than that of P. This is because
electronic configuration of the outermost orbit in P atom is 3p3, which being half-filled, is relatively
more stable
• The values of electron affinity of inert gases are zero, because their outermost orbit has fully-filled p
orbitals.

• In a period, the value of electron affinity goes on decreasing on going from group IA to group IIA.
The value of electron affinity of the elements of group IIA is zero because ns orbitals are fully-filled
and such orbitals have no tendency to accept electrons.
4.13.2.2 In a Group
• The values of electron affinity normally decrease on going from top to bottom in a group because the
atomic size increases which decreases the actual force of attraction by the nucleus.

Exceptions
• The value of electron affinity of F is lower than that of Cl, because the size of F is very small and
compact and the charge density is high on the surface. Therefore, the incoming electron experiences
more repulsion in comparison to Cl. That is why the value of electron affinity of Cl is highest in the
periodic table.

• The values of electron affinity of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals can be regarded as zero,
because they do not have tendency to form anions by accepting electron.

Ex.17 O(g) + 2e– → O–2 (g) –E = + 744.7

The reason for the positive value of E is
(A) endothermic reaction (B) exothermic reaction
(C) both (A) and (B) (D) All of the above are wrong
Ans. (A)
Sol. When electron is brought near O–1 there will be repulsion between them, and therefore the energy
will be positive i.e there will be absorption of energy during the process.

Ex.18 The increasing order of electron affinity of N, P and As is

(A) N < P < As (B) As < P < N (C) As < N < P (D) As < N > P
Ans. (C)
Sol. Phosphorus have vacant ‘d’ orbitals due to which it has higher electron affinity than Nitrogen.

Ex.19 The increasing order of electron affinity values of O,S and Se is

(A) O < S < Se (B) S < O < Se (C) Se < O < S (D) Se < O > S
Ans. (C)
Sol. Atomic size of Se is very large.

4.14.ELECTRONEGATIVITY
The measure of the tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons of the covalent bond
towards itself is called electronegativity of that element. It is a relative quantity and does not have any unit.
Pauling was the first scientist to put forward the concept of electronegativity and he also defined a scale to
measure electronegativity, assigning numerical values to each element relative to fluorine. On pauling’s
scale the electronegativity is expressed in paulings.
The numerical value of electronegativity of an atom depends on its ionisation potential and electron
affinity values.

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4.14.1 Factors Affecting Electronegativity
a) Atomic size – Electronegativity of a bonded atom decreases with increase in size, as the forces of
attractions on valence shell electrons decrease and hence electronnegativity also decreases.
b) Effective Nuclear Charge – When effective nuclear charge is high the nucleus attracts the shared
pair of electrons with greater strength and the electronegativity is high.
c) Oxidation number – The electronegativity value increases with increase in oxidation number
because radius decreases with increase in oxidation number.
The increasing order of electronegativity is as follows: Fe < Fe+2< Fe+3

Note: Electronegativity does not depend on stability of fully-filled or half-filled orbitals because it is
simply the capacity of nucleus to attract bonded pair of electrons and does not involve any transfer
of electrons.

4.14.2 Trends in Electronegativity

Atomic size decreases on going from left to right in a period thus electronegativity increases. Atomic
size increases on going from top to bottom in a group thus electronegativity decreases.
• Inert Gases – The electronegativity value of inert gases is zero, because they do not form covalent
bonds

• In a period, the electronegativity value of halogen is maximum, while the electronegativity value of
alkali metal is minimum.

• F has maximum electronegativity value in the periodic table, while Cs has minimum
electronegativity.

• According to Pauling scale, the electronegativity value of F is 4.0, O is 3.5 N is 3.0 and Cl is 3.1.

Exceptions -
• The elements of group II B i.e. Zn, Cd and Hg show increase in electronegativity value on going
from top to bottom in the group.

• The elements of group III A, i.e. Al to Ga show increase in electronegativity value on going from top
to bottom in the group.

• The elements of group IVA, show no change in electronegativity value on going from top to bottom
in the group from Si on words.

4.15 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONEGATIVITY

(i) Nomenclature
Compounds formed from two nonmetals are called binary compounds. Name of more electronegative
element is written at the end and ‘ide’ is suffixed to it. The name of less electronegative element is written
before the name of more electronegative element of the formula.

Ex.20 Write the correct formula and name of the following

(a) ICI or CII (b) FCl or ClF (c) BrCl or ClBr (d) BrI or IBr
(e) OF2 or F2O (f) Cl2O or OCl2

Sol. Correct formula Name

(a) I+ Cl– Iodine chloride
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(b) Cl+ F– Chlorine fluoride
(c) Br+ Cl– Bromine chloride
(d)IBr Iodine bromide
(e) OF2 Oxygen difluoride
(f) Cl2O Dichlorine oxide
(ii) Nature of Bond
If difference of electronegativities of the two elements is 1.7 or more, then ionic bond is formed
between them whereas if it is less than 1.7, then covalent bond is formed. (HF is exception in which
bond is covalent although difference of electronegativity is 1.9)

(iii) Metallic and Nonmetallic Nature

Generally values of electronegativity of metallic elements are low, whereas electronegativity values
of nonmetals are high.

4.15.1 Partial Ionic Character in Covalent bonds

Partial ionic characters are generated in covalent compounds by the difference of electronegativities. Hanny
and smith calculated percentage of ionic character from the difference of electronegativity.
Percentage of ionic character = 16(XA – XB) + 3.5(XA – XB)2
= 16 + 3.5
= (0.16 + 0.0352) × 100
(Here XAXB)
XA is electronegativity of element A
XB is electronegativity of element B
 = XA – XB

4.15.2 Bond Length:When difference of electronegativities of atoms present in a molecule is increased,

then bond length decreases. Shoemaker and stephensen determined.
Bond length dA-B = rA + rB – 0.09 (XA – XB)
or dA-B = (DA-A + DB-B) – 0.09 (XA – XB)
Here XA> XB

4.15.3 Bond Strength & Stability Bond strength and stability of A–B increases on increase in difference
of electronegativities of atoms A and B bonded A–B. Therefore H–F > H–Cl > H–Br > H–I

Ex.21 Increasing order of electronegativities of F, Cl, Br and I is

(A) F < Cl < Br < I (B) I < Br < Cl < F (C) Br < I > Cl > F (D) I < Br > Cl < F
Ans. (B)
Sol. Electronegativity decreases in a group on going from top to bottom. Therefore increasing
electronegativity order is I < Br < Cl < F.

Ex.22 Electronegativity of which of the following is high?

(A) –CH3 (sp3) (B) H2C = CH2 (sp2) (C) CH CH (sp) (D) Equal in all
Ans. (C)
Sol. Electro negativity increases with increase in % of ‘s’ character as in HC CH 50% ‘s’ character is
present hence to electro negativity is higher.
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Ex.23 Which of the following is the most polar bond
(A) N–H (B) Cl–H (C) O–H (D) Br–H
Ans. (C)
Sol. Difference of electronegativities of O and H is very high.
Ex.24 Which of the following formula is incorrectly written
(A) OF2 (B) Cl2O (C) BrCl (D) None of these
Ans. (D)
Sol. In all the formulae less electronegative element (cation) could be indicated followed by the more
electronegative element (anion)

Ex.25 OF2 is called oxygen difluoride, whereas Cl2O is called dichlorine monoxide. Why?
Sol. Electronegativity of O in OF2 is less than F. Therefore, there will be positive charge on oxygen and
negative charge on fluorine. Whereas in Cl and O, electronegativity of Cl is less than that of O
therefore there will be positive charge on Cl and negative charge on O. Positive charge is written
first followed by negative charge.

Exception:
Negative N is written first in NH3 because it became very common from the very beginning. There is
no scientific basis for that. Otherwise according to rule it should have been written as H3N in the form of
trihydrogen nitride.

4.16 DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP

Some elements of second period Li, Be, B shows dissimilarities with other elements of this group
but shows similarities with elements of third group like Mg, Al, Si situated diagonally to them. It is called
diagonal relationship.

SOME INTERESTING FACTS

1. Mendeleev is called the Godfather of periodic table

2. Elements after atomic number 92 are transuranic elements
3. Liquid non-metal – Br2
4. Liquid metal – Hg, Ga, Cs, Fr
5. Solid volatile non-metal – Iodine
6. Lightest metal – Li
7. Heaviest metal – Ir
8. Hardest metal – W
9. Noble metals – , Pt, Au, Ag

10. Highest electron affinity : Chlorine (Cl)

11. Least electropositive element : Fluorine (F)

12. Largest atomic size : Cs

KEY POINTS
1. The basis of Mendeleev’s periodic table was his periodic law. According to it the physical and
chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.
2. According to Moseley, that a plot of (where is frequency of X-Rays emitted) against atomic number
(Z) gave a straight line and not the plot of versus atomic mass. Therefore, he concluded that atomic
number (Z) instead of atomic mass was a better fundamental property of an element and atomic
number instead of atomic mass should be basis of the classification of the elements.
3. Long form of periodic table contains seven periods (horizontal rows) and eighteen groups (vertical
columns).
4. In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of principle quantum number.
5. The number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic orbitals available in the energy
level that is being filled.
6. Group consists of a series of elements having similar valence shell electronic configuration.
7. In modern periodic table each block (s,- p, - d- and f-) contains a number of columns equal to the
numbers of electrons that can occupy that sub-shell.
8. The 4f - (i.e., actinides) and 5f- (i.e., lanthanides) inner transition series of element are placed
separately in the periodic table to maintain its structure and to preserve the principle of classification.
9. Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side of the periodic
table. Silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, selenium and tellurium all are semi - metals or
metalloids.
10. The combined effect of attractive force due to nucleus and repulsive force due to
interveningelectrons, acting on the valence electrons is that the valence - electron experiences less
attraction from the nucleus. This is called shielding or screening effect.
11. Covalent radius < metallic or crystal radius <VanderWaal’s radius.
12. Species having same number of electrons but different in the magnitude of their nuclear charges are
called as isoelectronic species and their size is inversely proportional to their effective nuclear
charge.
13. The smaller the ionizationenergy, the easier it is for the neutral atom to change in to a positive ions
in gaseous state.IE1< IE2< IE3..........
14. The greatest increase in ionization enthalpy is experienced on removal of electrons from core noble
gas configuration. End of valence electrons is marked by a big jump in ionization enthalpy.
15. Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an electron to form
anion.
16. The negative value of electron gain enthalpy of Cl > F (similarly S > O) because there is weak
electron-electron repulsion in the bigger p-subshell of Cl as compared to compact 2p-subshell of F.

17. Noble gases have larger positive electron gain enthalpies because the electron has to enter the next
higher energy level.
18. Addition of 2nd electron to an anion is opposed due to electrostatic repulsion and thus requires the
absorption of energy e.g in case of the formation of S 2 - ,O 2 - etc.

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19. The relative reactivity of metals increases with the decrease in their ionisation energies. Similarly the
relative reactivity of non-metals increases with increases in the negative value of electron gain
enthalpy.
20. According to Pauling, the electronegativity difference between two atoms is equal to
0.208where is the extra bond energies in K cal mol-1. The acidic character of oxides increases when
electronegativity difference decreases between element and oxygen (E - O).
CONCEPT APPLICATION OR IILUSTRATIONS

Q.1 Did Dobereiner's triads also exist in the columns of Newlands' Octaves? Compare and find
out.
Ans. Only one triad of Dobereiner's triads exists in the columns of Newlands' octaves. The triad formed
by the elements Li, Na, and K of Dobereiner's triads also occurred in the columns of Newlands'
octaves.
Dobereiner's triads
Li Ca Cl
Na Sr Br
K Ba I
Newlands' octaves

H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr − −
Q.2 What were the limitations of Dobereiner's classification?
Ans. Limitation of Dobereiner's classification:
All known elements could not be classified into group of triads on the basis of their properties.

Q.3 What were the limitations of Newlands' Law of Octaves?

Ans. Limitations of Newlands' law of octaves:
(i) It was not applicable throughout the arrangements. It was applicable up to calcium
only. The properties of the elements listed after calcium showed no resemblance to the
properties of the elements above them.
(ii) Those elements that were discovered after Newlands' octaves did not follow the law
of octaves.
(iii) The position of cobalt and nickel in the group of the elements (F, Cl) of different
properties could not be explained.
(iv) Placing of iron far away from cobalt and nickel, which have similar properties as iron,
could also not be explained.

Q.4 Use Mendeleev's Periodic Table to predict the formulae for the oxides of the following
elements:
K, C, Al, Si, Ba.
Ans. K is in group 1. Therefore, the oxide will be K2O.
C is in group 4. Therefore, the oxide will be CO2.
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Al is in group 3. Therefore, the oxide will be Al2O3.
Si is in group 4. Therefore, the oxide will be SiO2.
Ba is in group 2. Therefore, the oxide will be BaO.

Q.5 Besides gallium, which other elements have since been discovered that were left by Mendeleev
in his Periodic Table? (any two)
Ans. Scandium and germanium

Q.6 What were the criteria used by Mendeleev in creating his Periodic Table?
Ans. Mendeleev's periodic table was based on the observation that the properties of elements are a
periodic function of their atomic masses. This means that if elements are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic masses, then their properties get repeated after regular intervals.

Q.7 Why do you think the noble gases are placed in a separate group?
Ans. Noble gases are inert elements. Their properties are different from the all other elements. Therefore,
the noble gases are placed in a separate group.

Q.8 How could the Modern Periodic Table remove various anomalies of Mendeleev's Periodic
Table?
Ans. Mendeleev was unable to give fixed position to hydrogen and isotopes in the periodic table. In
Mendeleev's periodic table, the increasing manner of atomic mass of the elements is not always
regular from one to its next. It was believed that a more fundamental property than atomic mass
could explain periodic properties in a better manner.
It was Henry Moseley who demonstrated that atomic number of an element could explain periodic
properties in a better way than atomic mass of an element and arranged the elements in increasing
order of their atomic numbers. Then it was found that the various anomalies of Mendeleev's periodic
table were removed by the modern periodic table.

Q.9 Name two elements you would expect to show chemical reactions similar to magnesium. What
is the basis for your choice?
Ans. Calcium (Ca) and strontium (Sr) are expected to show chemical reactions similar to magnesium
(Mg). This is because the number of valence electrons (2) is same in all these three elements. And
since chemical properties are due to valence electrons, they show same chemical reactions.

Q.10 Name
(a) three elements that have a single electron in their outermost shells.
(b) two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shells.
(c) three elements with filled outermost shells.
Ans. (a) Lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K) have a single electron in their
outermost shells.
(b) Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) have two electrons in their outermost shells.
(c) Neon (Ne), argon (Ar), and xenon (Xe) have filled outermost shells.

Q.11 (a) Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metals that react with water to liberate
hydrogen gas. Is there any similarity in the atoms of these elements?
(b) Helium is an unreactive gas and neon is a gas of extremely low reactivity. What
do their atoms have in common?
Ans. (a) Yes. The atoms of all the three elements lithium, sodium, and potassium have one
electron in their outermost shells.
(b) Both helium (He) and neon (Ne) have filled outermost shells. Helium has a duplet in
its K shell, while neon has an octet in its L shell.

Q.13 By considering their position in the Periodic Table, which one of the following elements would
you expect to have maximum metallic characteristic?
Ga, Ge, As, Se, Be
Ans. Since Be lies to the extreme left hand side of the periodic table, Be is the most metallic among the
given elements.

Q.14 Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when going from
left to right across the periods of periodic Table.
(a) The elements become less metallic in nature.
(b) The number of valence electrons increases.
(c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
(d) The oxides become more acidic.
Ans. (c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
(On moving from left to right across the periods of the periodic table, ionisation potential increases.
Hence, the tendency to lose electrons decreases.)

Q.15 Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with a high melting point.
X would most likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) Al (d) Si
Ans. (b) X would most likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as magnesium (Mg).

Q.16 Which element has

(a) two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
(b) the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2?
(c) a total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell?
(d) a total of two shells, with three electrons in its valence shell?
(e) twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell?
Ans. (a) Neon has two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons (2 electrons in
K shell and 8 electrons in L shell).
(b) Magnesium has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2.
(c) Silicon has a total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell (2 electrons
in K shell,
8 electrons in L shell and 4 electrons in M shell).
(d) Boron has a total of two shells, with three electrons in its valence shell (2 electrons in
K shell and 3 electrons in L shell).
(e) Carbon has twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell (2 electrons
in K shell and 4 electrons in L shell).

Q.17 (a) What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as
boron have in common?
(b) What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as
fluorine have in common?
Ans. (a) All the elements in the same column as boron have the same number of valence
electrons (3). Hence, they all have valency equal to 3.
(b) All the elements in the same column as fluorine have the same number of valence
electrons (7). Hence, they all have valency equal to 1.

Q.18 An atom has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.

Q.19 The position of three elements A, B and C in the Periodic Table are shown below ?

(a) State whether A is a metal or non-metal.

(b) State whether C is more reactive or less reactive than A.
(c) Will C be larger or smaller in size than B?
(d) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element A?
Ans. (a) A is a non-metal.
(b) C is less reactive than A, as reactivity decreases down the group in halogens.
(c) C will be smaller in size than B as moving across a period, the nuclear charge
increases and therefore, electrons come closer to the nucleus.
(d) A will form an anion as it accepts an electron to complete its octet.

Q.20 Nitrogen (atomic number 7) and phosphorus (atomic number 15) belong to group 15 of the
Periodic Table. Write the electronic configuration of these two elements. Which of these will be
more electronegative? Why?
Element K L M
Nitrogen 2 5
Phosphorus 2 8 5
Ans.
Nitrogen is more electronegative than phosphorus. On moving down a group, the number of shell
increases. Therefore, the valence electrons move away from the nucleus and the effective nuclear
charge decreases. This causes the decrease in the tendency to attract electron and hence
electronegativity decreases.

Q.21 How does the electronic configuration of an atom relate to its position in the Modern Periodic
Table?
Ans. In the modern periodic table, atoms with similar electronic configurations are placed in the same
column. In a group, the number of valence electrons remain the same. Elements across a period show an
increase in the number of valence electrons.

Q.22 In the Modern Periodic Table, calcium (atomic number 20) is surrounded by elements with
atomic numbers 12, 19, 21 and 38. Which of these have physical and chemical properties
resembling calcium?
Ans. The element with atomic number 12 has same chemical properties as that of calcium. This is because
both of them have same number of valence electrons (2).

Q.23 Compare and contrast the arrangement of elements in Mendeleev's periodic Table and the
Modern Periodic Table.

Ans.

Practice for lecture 17 &18

1. If an atom has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2, it will be placed in -
(A) second group (B) third group (C) fifth group (D) sixth group

2. The tenth element in the periodic table belongs to :

(A) first period (B) second period (C) fourth period (D) ninth period

3. The elements having the electronic configuration, 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d2
belongs to -
(A) s-block (B) p-block (C) d-block (D) f-block

4. Atomic numbers decide chemical property of an element. It also decides which group the element
belongs to. Identify which of the following elements are from the same group in the periodic table.
(A) 1, 3, 11, 19, 37 (B) 8, 24, 42, 74 (C) 4, 12, 20, 58 (D) 5, 13, 27, 47

5. To which block is related an element having electronic configuration

1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s1 in the periodic table-
(A) s-block (B) p-block (C) d-block (D) f-block

6. The early attempt to classify elements as metals and nonmetals was made by -
(A) Mendeleev (B) Lother Meyer (C) Lavoisier (D) Henry Moseley

7. CI, Br, I, if this is Dobereiner's triad and the atomic masses of Cl and I are 35.5 and 127 respectively
the atomic mass of Br is -
(A) 162.5 (B) 91.5 (C) 81.25 (D) 45.625

8. Newlands could classify elements only upto -

(A) Copper (B) Chlorine (C) Calcium (D) Chromium

9. Mendeleev classified elements in -

10. The long form of periodic table consists of -

(A) Seven periods and eight groups (B) Seven periods and eighteen groups
(C) Eight periods and eighteen groups (D) Eighteen periods and eight groups

11. Metals are included in the long form of periodic table in the -
(A) s-block only (B) p-block only (C) s, d, f blocks (D) s, p , d & f blocks
12. Which of the following is not a representative element -
(A) Fe (B) K (C) Ba (D) N

13. In the modern periodic table one of the following does not have appropriate position -
(A) Transition elements (B) Inert gases
(C) Inner transition elements (D) Halogens
14. The difference between ions and atoms is of -
(A) Relative size (B) Configuration (C) Presence of charge (D) All of these
15. An element M has an atomic number 9 and atomic mass 19. Its ion will be represented by
(A) M (B) M+2 (C) M– (D) M–2

17. If the two members of a Dobereiner triad are chlorine and iodine, the third member of this triad is -
(A) fluorine (B) bromine (C) sodium (D) calcium

18. The elements with atomic numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 are all -
(A) halogens (B) noble gases (C) noble metals (D) light metals

19. The elements with atomic numbers 3, 11, 19, 37 and 55 belong to -
(A) alkali metals (B) alkaline earth metals (C) halogens (D) noble gases

20. The elements with atomic numbers 9, 17, 35, 53 and 85 belong to -
(A) alkali metals (B) alkaline earth metals (C) halogens (D) noble gases

21. The number of elements in each of the inner transition series is -

(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 10 (D) 14

22. The number of elements in the third period of the periodic table is -
(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 18 (D) 32

23. The total number of elements is the group IB is -

(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 9

24. Which of the following elements are analogous to the lanthanides -

(A) Actinides (B) Borides (C) Carbides (D) Hydrides

25. Dobereiner traids is -

(A) Na, K, Rb (B) Mg, S, As (C) Cl, Br, I (D) P, S, As

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
C B C A C C C C C B D A C D C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
A B B A C D B A A C

Practice for lecture 19 & 20

1. Which of the following is the correct order of relative size

(A) I– < I+ > I (B) I– > I > I+ (C) I < I+ > I– (D) I+ < I– > I

2. Which of the following properties generally decrease along a period -

(A) atomic size (B) non-metallic character
(C) metallic character (D) both (A) and (C)

3. The element with smallest size in the 4th period is -

(A) chlorine (B) iodine (C) fluorine (D) bromine

4. The most metallic element in the fifth period is -

(A) silver (B) rubidium (C) gold (D) rhodium

5. Which of the following is most electronegative ?

(A) Carbon (B) Silicon (C) Lead (D) Tin

6. In the periodic table, the metallic character of elements -

(A) increases, (i) from left to right across a period and (ii) on descending a group
(B) decreases, (i) from left to right across a period and (ii) on descending a group
(C) increases from left to right across a period and decreases on descending a group
(D) decreases from left to right across a period and increases on descending a group
7. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with a high melting point. X
would most likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as -
(A) Na (B) Mg (C) Al (D) Si

8. Alkali metals are stored under oil because

(A) They are lighter than air (B) They conduct electricity in gaseous state
(C) They are magnetic (D) They are very reactive

9. As you go down the group, the alkali metals become -

(A) Brighter (B) Hotter (C) More reactive (D) Less reactive

10. Arrange the following in increasing order of their atomic radius : Na, K, Mg, Rb -
(A) Mg < K < Na < Rb (B) Mg < Na < K < Rb
(C) Mg < Na < Rb < K (D) Na < K < Rb < Mg

11. Which is metalloid -

(A) Pb (B) Sb (C) Bi (D) Zn

12. Which of the following are isoelectronic?

14. Which among the following is not isoelectronic with O2–?

(A) N3– (B) Na+ (C) F– (D) S2–

15. The one with maximum size is :

(A) Cl (B) Cl– (C) Cl+ (D) Cl3+

16. Write the period number, group number and block of the element having atomic number 42
(A) 5, 5, d (B) 5, 6, d (C) 5, 2, d (D) 5, 15, p

17. Select the correct statement for Ne

(A) It is not isoelectronic with H2O (B) Its last electron enters in s-orbital
(C) The value of m must be 0 for last e– (D) The value of l must be 1 for the last electron

18. The atomic number of two elements A and B are 17 and 20 respectively. The formula of an ionic
compound made by A and B is (write the cation first)
(A) AB (B) A2B (C) AB2 (D) BA2
19. Elements of which group form anions most readily -
(A) Oxygen family (B) Nitrogen group (C) Halogens (D) Alkali metals
Hint : Halogens have a common charge of -1 as they are most non metallic

Answer Key for Lecture 19&20 :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
B D D B A D B D C B B B D D B
16 17 18 19 20
B D D C C

Extra Practice for lecture 17 to 20 set 1

OBJECTIVE:
Q.1 The law of octave was given by –
(A) Newlands (B) Dobereiner (C) Moseley (D) Mendeleev

Q.2 Hydrogen exists in –

(A) +1 oxidation state only (B) –1 oxidation state only
(C) +1 and –1 oxidation states (D) +1, –1 and zero oxidation states

Q.4 In periodic table which block has fixed oxidation states or charges for its members in a group?
(A) s-block (B) p-block (C) d-block (D) f-block

Q.5 Four quantum numbers of the outermost electron are: 5, 0, 0 + 1/2. The element belongs to –
(A) p-block (B) f-block (C) s-block (D) d-block

Q.6 X is placed in group number 17 and 5th period. Its outermost configuration is –
(A) 5s2, 5p5 (B) 3d5, 4s2 (C) 4d5, 5s2 (D) 4d5, 4s1

Q.7 Which of the following sets does not represent isoelectronic species?
(A) Ne, F–, O2– (B) Cl–, Ar, K+ (C) S2–, Br–, Kr (D) Mg+2, Na+, Ne

Q.8 Isoelectronic species do not differ in –

(A) molar mass (B) ionic mass (C) charge (D) numbers of electrons

Q.9 The first transition series begins with –

(A)Titanium (B) Scandium (C) Calcium (D) Yttrium

Q.10 Modern periodic table is based on the –

(A) atomic mass (B) mass number (C) atomic number (D) atomic volume

Q.11 The diagonal relationship between Li and Mg is due to –

(A)Similarity of ionisation potential (B) Similarly of electronegativity
(C) Similarity of ionic radii (D)Dissimilar atomic radii

Q.12 Last group of d-block is known as –

(A) II B (B) VII B (C) VIII (D) X

Q.13 Correct electronic configuration of Cr is –

(A) 1s22s22p63s23p23d44s1 (B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s 2 3d6 4s 0
(C) 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1 (D) 1s22p22p63p03d5

Q.14 ns2np4 (n-outermost orbit) represents the valency electrons. The corresponding group would be –
(A) F, Cl, Br .......... (B) N, P, As ......... (C) O, S, Se .........(D) C, Si, Ge................

Q.15 Electronic configuration of X is 1s2; 2s2, 2p6; 3s2, 3p1. It belongs to –

(A) Third group and third period (B)Thirteenth group and third period
(C) First group and third period (D) Third group and first period

Q.16 Outer configuration of X is 3d5, 4s1. It belongs to group number –

(A) 16 (B) 15 (C) 5 (D) 6

Q.17 The heaviest atom is –

(A) Ra (B) U (C) Pb (D) Hg

Q.18 What is the atomic number of the third alkali metal?

(A) 3 (B) 9 (C) 11 (D) 19

Q.20 The element whose valency is 7 would be –

(A) V (B) Mn (C) Cr (D) C

Q.21 Match list I with list II and then select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists
List I List II
A. Metalloid a. Selenium
B. Radioactive b. Silver
C. Transition c. Arsenic
D. Chalcogen (ore forming) d. Uranium
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(A) a b c d (B) c d b a
(C) d b c a (D) b c d a

Q.22 Match list I with list II and then select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists
List I List II
A. Isoelectronic a. A+ + energy → A++
B. Half-filled orbital b. Ar, K+, Ca++
C. Second ionization energy c. Cerium
D. Lanthanide d. Arsenic

Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(A) c b d a (B) b c a d
(C) d c a b (D) b d a c

Q.23 Who is called the father of chemistry–

(A) Faraday (B) Priestley (C) Rutherford (D) Lavosier

Q.24 Element in which maximum ionization energy of following electronic configuration would be
(A)[Ne] 3s2 3p1 (B) [Ne] 3s2 3p2 (C) [Ne] 3s2 3p3 (D) [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3

Q.25 Element M of IIIA group forms a compound with element Y of VI group has the formula –
(A) MY (B) M2Y3 (C) M3Y2 (D) M6Y3

Q.26 Fluorine is the most reactive among all the halogens, because of it's
(A) small size (B) low dissociation energy of F – F bond
(C) large size (D) high dissociation energy of F – F bond
Q.27 Lower ionisation potential in periods is shown by:

(A) Inert gases (B) Halogens (C) Alkali metals (D) Alkaline earth metals

(A) 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 , 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠1 (B) 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 , 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 , 3𝑝1

(C) 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 , 2𝑝6 (D)1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 , 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠 2 , 3𝑝3 ,

Q.29 Which of element has the highest ionisation energy?

(A) Hydrogen (B) Lithium (C) Boron (D) Sodium

Q.30 Correct order of first ionization potential among the following element Be, B, C, N, O is

(A) 𝐵 < 𝐵𝑒 < 𝐶 < 𝑂 < 𝑁 (B) 𝐵 < 𝐵𝑒 < 𝐶 < 𝑁 < 𝑂

Extra Practice for lecture 17 to 20 set 2

Q.1 Ionization potential does not depend upon –

(A)Atomic size (B)Type of electron
(C) Nuclear charge (D) Atomic number
Q.2 Ionization potential phosphorus is greater than that of sulphur because –
(A) of its smaller size
(B) of more penetrating power of p-orbitals
(C) its nuclear force of attraction on electrons
(D) half-filled orbitals are more stable

Q.3 Most metallic elements –

(A) will have least ionization potential (B) will form most highly charged cation
(C) will display strongest metallic bonding (D) will have zero electronegativity

Q.4 The correct sequence of electron affinity of C, N, O and F is –

(A) C > N < O < F (B) C > N < O > F (C) C < N > O < F (D) C > N > O > F

Q.5 The compound X – O – H is likely to act as a base, if compared to hydrogen, X has –

(A) higher ionization potential (B) lower ionization potential
(C) higher electronegativity (D) lower radius

Q.6 Which of the following has the highest electron affinity?

(A) C (B) N (C) Si (D) P
Q.7 The electron affinity of nitrogen is lower than that of carbon because –
(A) atomic radius of nitrogen is lower than that of carbon
(B) effective nuclear charge in carbon in greater
(C) addition of an electron in N gives 2p4 configuration
(D) nitrogen is gaseous element

Q.8 The second ionization potential of sodium is much more than the second ionization potential of
magnesium because –

Q.9 Predominantly ionic compound will be obtained by combination of elements belonging to –

(A) IA and VII A group (B) II A and VI A group
(C) III A and V A group (D)Zero and VII A group

Q.10 Electropositive or metallic character –

(A) increases in a period
(B) decreases in a group
(C) decreases in a period and increases in a group
(D) of an element is reflected in its tendency to form covalent compounds.

Q.11 Commonly used electro negativity scale was given by –

(A)Pauling (B)Mulliken (C)Allred&rochow (D) Pauli

Q.12 Which of the following groups of elements is assigned zero electronegativity?

(A) noble gases (B) alkali metals
(C) alkaline earth metals (D) rare earths

Q.13 As compared with calcium, hydrogen would be –

(A) electropositive (B) electronegative (C) amphoteric (D) neutral

Q.14 The most polar bond is –

(A) Br – H (B) Cl – H (C) O – H (D) N – H

Q.15 covalent oxide is –

(A) CaO (B) SrO (C) MgO (D) BeO

Q.16 In which process energy will be released –

(A) A(g) → +(g) + e (B) 1/2 A2(g) → A(g)
(C) A(s) → A(g) (D) A+(g) + B–(g) → A+B–(s)

Q.17 Ionization potential is lowest for –

(A) halogens (B) inert gas
(C) alkaline earth metals (D) alkali metals

Q.18 which of the following the ion with the smallest ionic radius is –
(A) K+ (B) Ca2+ (C)Ti3+ (D)Ti4+
Q.19 Alkali metals in each period have
(A) smallest size (B) lowest ionization potential
(B) highest ionization potential (D) highest electronegativity
Q.20 The electro negativity of the following elements increases in the order –
(A) C, N, Si, P (B) N, Si, C, P (C) Si, P, C, N (D) P, Si, N, C

Q.22 Exothermic process is –

(A) Na → Na– + e (B) O + e → O– (C) O– + e → O–2 (D) Cl–→ Cl + e

Q.23 Which of the following has the least acidic–

(A) HF (B) HCl (C) HBr (D) HI

Q.24 The element which have lowest ionization potential –

(A) Cs (B) Li (C) Na (D) K

Q.25 Which of the following elements is expected to have highest electron affinity?

(A) 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 2 3𝑝5 (B) 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝3

(C) 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝4 (D) 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝5

Ans Key: Lecture 17 to 20 set 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A D A A C A C D B C

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

C A C C B D B D A B

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

B D D D B B C A A A

Ans Key Lecture 17 to 20 set 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D D A A B D B D A C

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

A A B D D D D D B C

21 22 23 24 25

A B A A A

Topics for self study to bridge between Basic and Advanced

CHAPTER 5: TYPES OF BONDS

Air is a mixture containing nitrogen (78%), oxygen (20% and about 1.3% by mass containing mixture of
gases called noble gases or inert gases like helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), and xenon
(Xe), inert gas molecule (monatomic). They do not react with ordinary reagents. All these gases except
helium have eight electrons in the outermost shell.

Sr. No. Name of the Atomic number Electronic Number of

element (Symbol) configuration electrons in the
outermost orbit
(1) Helium (He) 2 2 2
(2) Neon (Ne0 10 2, 8 8
(3) Argon (Ar) 18 2, 8, 8 8
(4) Krypton (Kr) 36 2, 8, 18, 8 8
(5) Xenon (Xe) 54 2, 8, 18, 8 8
The non-reactivity or inertness of noble gases (except helium) is probably due to their peculiar electronic
structure of closed shell of eight electronic configurations (octet electronic configuration).

But other elements exist as aggregate of atoms with 2, 3, 4 or 8 atoms in their molecule.
(polyatomicity of non-metallic elements).

Atoms of the same element or different elements combine to form compounds or molecules. The
attractive or binding forces responsible for molecule formation are the electrical force between the electron
and nuclei. However, not all electrons are involved in molecule formation. The electrons present in the inner
orbitals are well protected and they are generally not involved in the chemical combination. The electrons
present in the outermost shell of an element are taking part in the chemical reactions. Hence, they are called
as velency electrons.

Octet rule: Thus the tendency of atoms of different elements rearrange their valency electrons to attain
the stable electronic configuration of their nearest inert gas i.e., with eight electrons in their valency shell is
the cause or chemical combinations. This principle of attaining maximum number of eight electrons in the
valence shell of atom is called the octet rule (except helium)

Tendency to acquire minimum energy

A state of minimum energy of a system corresponds to maximum stability state. Hence, atoms
combine with others to form maximum stability with least energy. Greater the decrease in energy, stability
of the compound is highest.

Electron dot symbol G.N. Lewis, an American chemist in 1916, introduced a simple dot (⋅)symbol to
denote valence electrons in an atom. Thus the representation of a molecule formation with electron
distribution in dot formation is called electron dot symbol.

Electronic theory of valency The formation of chemical bonds between two atoms take place either by
transfer or sharing of valency electrons so as to acquire the electronic configuration of their theory of
valency.

An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of electron/s from a metal to a non-metal, there by each
atom attaining stable octet electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas. Metals generally loose one or
more electrons and non-metal atom after losing electron/s. The metal atom after losing electron/s acquire
positively charged cations and the non-metal atom by gaining electrons becomes negatively charged anions.
These two oppositely charged ions torm the ionic bond (solid).

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Hot sodium metal burns in chlorine gas forms sodium. It is represented by the following equation.

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Sodium atom (Z = 11; 2, 8, 1) loses one electron to acquire electronic configuration of neon (Z = 10;
2, 8) becoming sodium ion (Na+). Chlorine atom (Z = 17; 2, 8) gains an electron and complete its octet
electronic configuration acquiring electronic structure of argon. The positively charged cation sodium ion
and negatively charged chloride ions held together by electrostatic force of attraction becomes sodium
chloride (crystalline solid). Sodium atom loses the electron hence atom is reduced to chloride ion (gain of
electron). Sodium is the donor of electron called the reducing agent and the acceptor of electron chlorine is
the oxidizing agent.
11Na𝑐 +17 𝐶𝑙 0 → Na+ Cl−

2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 8

Other examples

212 mg 0 + 𝑂20 → 2mg 2+ + 𝑂2−

2, 8, 2 2, 6 2, 8 2, 8

20Ca + 29 𝐹9 → Ca2+ + 𝐹2−1

7, 8, 8 2 2, 7 2, 8, 8 2, 8

Common ions of the main group of elements

Group 1 2 3 15 16 17
Number

Li+ Be2+ N3- O2- F-

Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl-
K+ Ca2+ Br-
Rb+ Sr2+ I-

Cs+ Ba2+

(1) In anionic compound, the number of electrons lost by the metal is equal to the number of electrons
gained by the non-metal and the ionic compounds is electrically neutral.

Compound Number of Valency of No, of electron Valency of non-

electron cation gained metallic
s lost by by the ion
the non- anion
metal metal
MgCl2 2 +2 1 -1
CaO 2 +2 2 -2
AIF3 3 +3 1 -1
(2) The number of electrons lost or gained by the atom is the valency of the element.

(3) Sodium ion (Na+). Fluoride (F) and neon have thesome electronic configuration 2, 8.Atoms, ions or
molecules having the same electronic configuration are said to be isoelectronic.

Properties of ionic compounds

(1) Physical state; Ionic compounds are closely held together by strong electrostatic force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions (interionic attraction) with closely packed structure. They are
generally crystalline.

(2) Solubility: Ionic compounds dissolve in solvents like water (polar solvents) and less soluble or do
not dissolve in solvents like ethanol, either, benzene etc. (non-polar solvents).

(3) Melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds are closely held together by interionic attraction and
hence their melting and boiling point are high.

(4) Electrical conductivity: A substance conducts electricity either due to movement of electrons or
ions.

Electrical conduction is not possible in crystalline ionic compounds due to crystalline state. They
conduct in the molten state and in aqueous solution by the movement of ions.

Energy changes in the formation of sodium chloride crystal NaCl(s)

The energy changes involved in the formation of sodium chloride crystal can be explained in the following
steps:

(1) Formation of gaseous atoms from sodium metal (Heat of vaporization).

Na(s) + 108 kJ mol-1→ Na(g)

(2) Formation of sodium ions from gaseous sodium atoms (ionization energy of Na)
+
Na(g) + 496 kJ mol-1→ Na (𝑔) + 1e

(3) Dissociation of chlorine molecules to gaseous chlorine atoms (dissociation energy).

1
Cl2 (𝑔) + 121kJmol−1 → Cl(𝑔)
2

Cl(𝑔) + le−1 → Cl−

(𝑔) + 349kJmol
−1

(5) Sodium chloride crystal formation by the attraction between Na+ and Cl- (Lattice energy).

Na+(𝑔) + Cl−
(𝑔) →

Na+ Cl−
(𝑠) + 787kJmol
-1

Step 1, 2, 3 are endothermic process (absorption of heat) and steps 4 and 5 are exothermic process.

Net energy released

= (Energy released in steps 4 and 5) – (Energy consumed in steps 1, 2, and 3)

= (787 + 349) – (108 + 496 + 121)

= 411 kJ mol-1

COVALENT BOND: Formation of ionic compound takes place between two elements of opposite
properties (metal and non-metals). But several molecules are formed by the combination of atoms of same
electron or two or more similar elements not loosing their valency electrons.

G.N. Lewis suggested that atoms can combine by sharing of electrons between them and this type of bond is
called covalent bond.

Combining of atoms of the same or different elements (non-metals) is called covalent bond formation. Each
atom contributes equal number of electrons; they are shared to attain the stable electronic configuration of
their inert gas.

Example of covalently bonded compounds are elements of non-metals and some inorganic
compound and all organic compounds.

Example

(1) Hydrogen molecule H2 (dihydrogen)

Each hydrogen atom 1 electron in its valency shell. Two hydrogen atom mutually share the two valency
electron and gets electronic configurated helium molecule. The two shared electrons between the two
hydrogen atoms in the molecule is denoted by a dash.

(2) Chlorine molecule Cl2 (dichlorine)

Each chlorine atom has seven valency electrons but each chlorine contribute one electron; the pair of
electrons are shared to attain argon (2, 8, 8) electronic configuration.

LONE PAIR: Non-bonding electrons

The pair of electrons not used in covalent bond formation in covalent molecule is called lone pair or non-
bonding electrons. Lone pair of electron in covalent molecule may be 0, 1, 2, 3 etc.

In chlorine molecule, there are 6 lone pairs/non-bonded electrons.

(3) Formation of H2O molecule

(4) Formation of Ammonia NH3

(5) Formation of Methane CH4

(6) Formation of oxygen molecule (O2)

An oxygen atom (electronic configuration 2, 6) completes its octet by sharing two electrons with
another oxygenation.

When to pair of electrons are shared between two atoms there is a double bond in between them.

When three pair of electrons are shared between two atoms, a triple bond is formed in the molecule.

(8) Formation of SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) and PCl5 (phosphorus pentachloride)

Properties of covalent compounds

(1) Physical state: Covalent compounds exist as solid, liquid or gas.

(2) Solubility: Covalents are non-polar. They are soluble in non-polar solvent like, ethylalcoho, either
benzene etc and insoluble polar solvents like water.

(3) Covalent bonds are held together by weaker forces. Melting point and boiling points are low as less
energy is required to overcome these weak forces.

(4) Covalent bonds are non-polar molecules containing no free electron or ions. They do not conduct
electricity.

Polar covalent bond and electro negativity

When a covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms, the shared pair of electrons are equidistance
from the two atom. The compound so formed is a perfect covalent, non-ionic molecule.

E.g.,, hydrogen molecule and chlorine molecules are (homonuclear molecules) and compounds with
identical groups like CH3 – CH3 ethane are perfect covalent compounds.

When a covalent bond is formed by two dissimilar atoms like HCI (hetero nuclear molecules), the snared
pair of electrons is attracted and pulled towards the atom (CI-) having a greater tendency to attract the
bonded pair of electrons.

The tendency of atom in a covalent molecule to attract the bonding pair of electrons towards itself is named
as electro negativity.

Example: In hydrogen chloride gas molecule, the bonded pair of electrons lies more towards the chlorine
atoms. Hence, the chlorine acquires a partial negative charge (-8) and the hydrogen gets an equal amount of
positive charge (+ 8) delta means small). A dipole is created in the molecule (equal amount of opposite

-𝛿 +𝛿

𝐻 → Cl → 𝐻 - Cl

The shifting of bonded electrons from one atoms to another is indicated by putting an arrow in the centre of
the line representing the bond between them. The head of the arrow points towards the more electronegative
atom, which attract the bonding pair of electrons.

Greater the electronegativity of an atom in a covalent molecule, greater will be its tendency to attract the
shared pair of electrons towards itself. Greater will be polarity of the molecule. Fluorine atom with the
smallest size (Z = 9; 2, 7) has the greatest power of attracting the shared pair of electron in a covalent
molecule, and fluorine is the most electronegative element.

Electronegativity concept was introduced by Noble Laurette Prof. Pauling. He derived negativity value for
all elements by thermodynamic methods. Electronegativity values of some elements are listed below.

2.1

Li Be B C N O F

1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Na Mg Al Si P S Ci

0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

K Ca As Se Br

0.8 1.0 2.0 2.4 2.8

Rb Sr Sb Te I

0.8 1.0 1.9 2.1 2.5

Electronegativity value of elements decrease down a group (with increase of atomic size) and increase along
a period (with decrease in size of an atom)

Electronegativity values (Pauling scale)

When the difference is electronegativity of two atoms exceed certain limit (> 1.8), they form an ionic bond
between them,

Electronegativity values of elements may be used to make rough prediction of the type of bonding to be
found in a compound. The larger the difference between the electronegativity values of the two combining
atoms, the molar is the covalent bond. If the difference is zero or small (C25, H2.1) the bond is essentially
non polar, e.g, hydrocarbons are non polar. If the difference is very large, greater is the ionic character.
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If XA an XB represent the electro negativities of two atoms A and B and if XA – XB = 1.7, the bond A – B is
said to have 50% ionic character. On this basis, the percentage character in some typical bonds are given
below.

IONIC CHARACTER OF BONDS

C–H N–H O–H F–H

4% 19% 39% 60%

C–F C – Cl C – Br C–I

43% 11% 3% 0.0%

Some compounds contain both ionic and covalent bonds in their molecules.

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ OH-

Hydrogen cyanide HCN H+ C = N-

+
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 NH 4 CI-
+
Ammonium chloride NH4CI NH 4 CI-

Nitric acid HNO3 H+ −2

NO 3

−
Potassium KMnO4 K+ MnO 4

permanganate

Calcium sulphate CaSO4 Ca+2 −2

SO 4

Lewis Dot structures:

• Arrangement of various atoms & types of bonding present but no idea of geometry.
• Selection of central atom [least E.N. of all elements excluding hydrogen]
• In hydrogen containing proton donor oxy acids all ‘H’ atoms are attached to oxygen as –OH groups
except in H3PO3(dibasic), H3PO2(monobasic) & H4P2O5 (dibasic).

Applications:

• To know various linkages present

• To calculate O.S. of various elements.

Steps to draw Lewis Dot Structure:

1. Count the total number of valence electrons

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2. Identify the central atom, least electronegative will be central atom, H can never be central atom
please think about the reason.
3. Link the terminal atoms to the central by a single bond. (1 bond = 2 electrons)
4. Fill the octet of the terminal atoms.
5. a) If done with number of electrons and central atom doesn’t of octet, form multiple bonds b) If
still electrons are left out after filling the octet of the terminal atom, place them as lone pairs on
central atom.
6. If the central atoms belongs to third period or higher, remember it can take more than octet as it
has empty d-orbitals.
It is useful to remember some important categories of exceptions:
• Odd-electron species like NO, NO2, O2 etc. Since it is impossible to distribute an odd number of
electrons into pairs, these species necessarily violate the octet rule.
• The Valence Bond theory couldn’t explain odd-electron bonds etc. the molecular orbital theory
explains much better.
• Species in which the central atom `exceeds' its octet PCl5, SF6, many transition metal compounds
etc.
• Electron -deficient species like BCl3, BeCl2, AlCl3, B2H6 etc. in which the central atom has less
than octet.

Choose the correct alternative.

1. The atomic number of an element is related to

(A) its atomic mass (B) the number of neutrons in the nucleus
(C) its mass number (D) the X-ray spectrum of the element

2. Which of the following element has the lowest first ionization potential?
(A) Li (B) K (C) Cs (D) Ne

3. The mass number of neon is 20. This value indicates that

(A) a neon molecule contains 2 atoms
(B) the nucleus contains 20 protons
(C) the nucleus contains 20 neutrons
(D) the nucleus contains the combination of protons and neutrons totaling 20

4. The difference between isotopes of 35 CI and37CI lies in the

(A) number of electrons (B) number of protons
(C) number of neutrons (D) atomic number

5. The distribution of maximum number of electrons in the first four energy levels is
(A) 1,2,3,4 (B) 8,8,8,8 (C) 2,8,8,18 (D) 2,8,18,32

6. The arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table is based on

(A) atomic number (B) atomic mass (C) mass number (D) molar mass

7. The Rutherford model of on atom indicates that nucleus is

(A) a solid with a negative coating

8. Which halogen has the highest electron affinity?

(A) F (B) I (C) Br (D) CI

9. Fluoride ion F- has electronic configuration as that of

(A) Cl- (B) O- (C) Mg+ (D) Na+

10. Element x is strongly electropositive and element Y is stronglyelectronegative. Both are univalent.
The compound formed would be
(A) X+ Y- (B) X- Y+ (C) X - Y (D) X → Y

11. The charge of an electron is

(A) 1.6 × 10-18 coulombs (B)1.6 × 10-19 coulombs
(C) 1.9 × 10-19 coulombs (D) 2.7 × 10-19 coulombs

12. The X-ray study of Moseley indicate that in an atom

(A) The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus are nearly equal.
(B) The frequency of X-ray vibration is independent of the atomic number.
(C) The frequency of vibration is is inversely proportional to the atomic number.
(D) The atomic number is equal to the positive charge on the nucleus.

13. When 𝛼 particles are passed through a thin gold foil

(A) all of them pass straight (B)they are all deflected
(C) some of them deflected back (D)some of them pass through the nucleus of atom

14. Which of the following contains both ionic and covalent bonds?
(A) H2O (B) NaOH (C) C6H5Cl (4) CO2

15. Which of the following will not have a mass of 10 g?

(A) 0.1 mol of CaCO3 (B)1.505 × 1023 calcium ions
1 −2
(C) 6mol of co 3 (D)0.5 mol of fluorine
16. The mol of BaSO4 precipitated, when 1 mol of H2SO4 is treated with excess of barium chloride will
be
(A) 2 mol (B) 1 mol (C)0.5 mol (D) 0.25

17. One atom of an element weighs 1.8 × 10-22 g, the atomic mass of the element is
(A) 18 (B) 154 (C) 108 (D) 36

18. Which of the following is different in its state at room temperature from others?
(A) cuprum (B) plumbum (C)aurum (D) hydrargyrum
19. Molten sodium chloride conducts electricity due to the presence of
(A) Free electrons (B)Free ions
(C) Free molecules (D)Atoms of sodium and chlorine
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20. Variable valency is not exhibited by
(A) potassium (B) copper (C)iron (D) mercury
21. The molecular formula for aluminium phosphate is
(A)Al2PO4 (B) Al2(PO4)3 (C) Al3 (PO4)2 (D) AlPO4
22. In which of the following compound is the percentage of magnesium is equal to 20%?
(A) Magnesium sulphate (B)Magnesium oxide
(C) Magnesium chloride (D)Magnesium carbonate

23. The mass of single molecule of water is approximately.

(A)6 ×10-23 g (B) 18 ×10-23 g (C)3×10-23 g (D) 9 ×10-23 g
24. Which of the following contain the same number of molecules?
(A) 4 g of hydrogen and 16 g of oxygen (B)2 g of hydrogen and 32 g of oxygen
(C) 16 g of hydrogen and 4 g of oxygen (D) 32 g of hydrogen and 2 g of oxygen

25. The number of atoms in 11.2 L of chlorine at STP is

(A) 2 × 6.023 × 1023 (B) 3.011 × 1023 (C) 6.023 × 1023 (D) 1.5 × 1023

26. Which of the following are variable?

(A) atomic mass of an element (B) valency of an element
(C) molar mass of a compound (D) atomic number of an element

27. Which of the following compounds contains equal percentage of elements?

(A) Methane (B)Carbon dioxide (C)Sulphur dioxide (D)Hydrogen chloride

28. Which of the following is the heaviest particle?

(A)Proton (B) Neutron (C)𝜶particle (D) 𝜷 particle

29. In a period, the atomic radii of elements

(A) remains constant
(B) increases upto group four and decrease in the reverse order
(C) decreases from left to right
(D) increases from left to right

30. The ionization potential of an elements in a groups

(A) remains constant
(B) increases down the group
(C) decrease down the group as the atomic number increases
(D) increases and then decreases down a group

31. Proton is
(A) an alpha particle
(B) neutral particle
(C) ionised hydrogen
(D)negatively charged particle ejected out of the nucleus
32. The properties of elements are a periodic function of their

34. Second ionization energy is always higher than the first, because
(A) an electron is removed from a neutral atom
(B) two electrons are removed
(C) electron is removed from smaller sized cation
(D) electron is removed from octet electronic configuration

35. The element with highest ionization energy is

(A) hydrogen (B) helium (C)fluorine (D) iodine

36. Which of the following is false about transition elements?

(A) They form colored salts (B)They are non-metals
(C) They have variable valency (D)They form complexes

37. Hydrogen chloride molecule contain

(A) Covalent bond (B)Double bond
(C)Co-ordinate bond (D)Electrovalent bond

38. An element a. of group 1 and another element b. from group 17 reacts to form a compound. The
molecular formula of the compound
(A)AB (B) AB2 (C) AB3 (D) A2B
39. Electron affinity for 17th group elements halogens are the highest because
(A) by gaining one electron they attain the stable octet inert gas electronic arrangement.
(B) of larger size
(C) smaller size
(D) non-metallic nature

40. Tyndall effect is due to

(A) scattering of light by colloidal particle
(B) constant bombardment of colloidal particles
(C) size of the colloidal particles
(D) charge of the colloidal particle

41. Emulsion is colloidal system containing

(A) liquid dispersed in a solid
(B) solid dispersed in another solid
(C) an insoluble liquid dispersed in another liquid
(D) insoluble solid dispersed in a liquid

42. The octet rule is not valid for the molecule

44. Mass number of an atom is

(A) number of electrons
(B) number of neutrons
(C) total number of protons + number of neutrons
(D) number of atoms in a molecule of the element

45. A catalyst is a substance which

(A) does not affect the rate of reaction
(B) alters the rate of reactions without undergoing any permanent change
(C) produces different products
(D) alters the rate of reaction

46. Among suspension, solution, and colloidal system.

(A) suspension and colloidal systems are heterogenous
(B) solution and colloidal systems are homogenous
(C) only suspension is heterogeneous
(D) all the three are heterogeneous

47. Which of the following is a moderate conductor of electricity

(A)diamond (B) graphite (C)silica (D) carborundum

48. The reducing agent in the following reaction is 2 H2S + SO2 → 3S + 2 H2O
(A) H2S (B) SO2 (C)Sulphide ion (D) hydrogen ion

49. Glass is soluble in

(A)Water (B) HCl (C) HF (D) NHO3

50. Bleaching powder is represented as

(A)CaCl2 (B) CaOCl2 (C) CaClO3 (D) CaOCl

Match the following

1. (A) electron (P) 2 positive charges

(B) proton (Q) ±neutral

(C) neutron (R) unit (−) negative charges

(D) 𝛼particle (S) positively charged with different values

(U) unit +ve with zero mass

2. (A) Dobereiner (P) molecules

(B) Newland (Q) periodic law

(C) Mendeleev (R) atomic number

(D) Moseley (S) law of octaves

(E) Avogadro (T) triads

(U) atoms

3. (A) Krypton (P) polyatomic

(B) Antimony (Q) amalgam

(C) Mercury (R) radioactive

(D) Caesium (S) inert gas

(E) Sulphur (T) reactive element

(U) metalloid

4. (A) Fluorine (P) octet electronic configuration

(B) Sodium (Q) transition element alkali metal

(C) Iron (R) alkali metal

(D) Neon (S) highest electronegativity

(E) Iodine (T) sublimation

(U) metalloid

ANSWER KEY:

1. (D) 2. (C) 3. (C) 4. (C) 5. (D)

6. (A) 7. (B) 8. (D) 9. (D) 10. (A)
11. (B) 12. (D) 13. (C) 14. (B) 15. (D)
16. (B) 17. (C) 18. (D) 19. (B) 20. (A)

1. a. – (R) b. – (T) c. – (Q) d. – (P) (e) – (S)

2. a. – (T) b. – (S) c. – (Q) d. – (R) e – (P)

3. a. – (S) b. – (U) c. – (Q) d. – (T) e – (P)

4. a. – (S) b. – (R) c. – (Q) d. – (P) e – (T)

CHAPTER 6A:CARBON & ITS COMPOUDS

6.1 INTRODUCTION:
Organic compounds: The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils, dyes, proteins vitamins etc.,
which were isolated directly or indirectly from living or indirectly from living organisms such as animals
and plants were called organic compounds. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of these
compounds is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
6.2 BONDING IN CARBON = THE COVALENT BOND:
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity. The boiling and melting points of the
carbon compounds are low. Forces of attraction between these molecules of organic compounds are not very
strong / As these compounds are largely non conductors of electricity hence the bonding in these compound
does not give rise to any ions.
The reactivity of elements if explained at their tendency to attain a octet filled outer shell, that is,
attain noble gas configuration. Element forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing
electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and
needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. It were to gain or lose electrons –
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C4-anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to
just two electrons.
6.2 a. Some Simple Molecules Formed by the Sharing of Valence Electrons are s follows:
(i) Hydrogen molecules: This is the simplest molecule formed by sharing of electrons. The atomic number
of hydrogenis 1 and it has only one electron is its outermost K shell. It required only one more electron to
complete the K shell. So, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other, the single electron of both the
atoms form a shared pair. This may be represented as:

x

H + H ⎯⎯→ H•xH or H2 or H - H
Hydrogen Hydrogen
atoms molecule
Shared electron
pair

According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the valence shell are represented by dots and crosses. This
method was proposed by G.N.Lewis and is known as Lewis representation or Lewis structure. The shared
pair of electron (show x) is said to constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms and is
represented by a line between the two atoms. Pictorially, the molecule can be represented by drawing two
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overlapping circles around the symbols of the atoms and showing the shared pair of electrons in the
overlapping part.

(ii) Chlorine molecule: Each chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell. When the two
chlorine atoms come close together, an electron of both the atoms is shared between them.

or CI - CI
or CI2

Chlorine Chlorine
atoms molecule
Shared electron pair
(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule: It may be note that a covalent bond is not only formed between two
similar atoms, but it may be formed between dissimilar atoms also. For example, hydrogen and chlorine
form a covalent bond between their atoms. In HCI, hydrogen atom (1) has only one electron in its valence
shell and chlorine atom (2,8,7) has seven electrons in its valence shell. Therefore, by mutual sharing of
electron pair between hydrogen and a chlorine atom. Both the atoms acquit nearest noble gas configuration.

or H - CI

Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen chlorine

atom atom molecule
Shared electron Pair

(iv) Formation of water molecule (H2O): Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost shell.
Therefore, each hydrogen atom required one more electron to achieve the stable configuration of helium
(nearest noble gas). The oxygen atom has the electronic configuration 2,6 and has six electrons in its
outermost shell. It needs two electrons to complete its octet. Therefore, one atom of oxygen shares its
electrons with two hydrogen atoms.

Hydrogen Oxygen Water

Atoms atom molecule
2 Shared electron
pairs

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(v) Formation of methane molecule (CH4): Methane (CH4) is a covalent compound containing covalent
bonds. Carbon atom has atomic number 6. Its electronic configuration is 2,4. It has four electrons in its
valence shell and needs 4 more electrons to get the stable noble gas configuration. Hydrogen atom has one
electron and needs one more electron to get stable electronic configuration of nearest noble gas, helium.
Therefore, one atom of carbon shares its four electrons with four atoms of hydrogen to form four covalent
bonds.

Carbon Hydrogen Methane

Atom atoms 4 Shared electrons
pairs
6.2 b. Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds:

Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the formation of a covalent bond. This shared pair is also
called bonding pair of electron.

• If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known as single covalent bond and is represented by
one dash (-)

• If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known as double covalent bond and is represented by
two dashed (=).

• If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known as triple covalent bond and is represented by
three dashes ( ).

(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule): Two oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen molecule
by sharing two electron pairs. Each oxygen atom (2, 6) has six electrons in the valence shell. It required two
electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration. Therefore, both the atoms contribute two electrons
each for sharing to form oxygen molecule. In the molecule, two electron pairs are shared and hence there is
a double bond between the oxygen atoms.

or O = O

Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen

atoms molecule molecule
2 Shared electrons
pairs

(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule): Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell. In
the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each of the following atoms provide three electrons to form three
electrons pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed between two nitrogen atoms.

or N ≡N
Nitrogen Nitrogen Nitrogen
atoms molecule molecule
3 Shared electron
pairs

6.2 c. Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds:

The important characteristic properties of covalent compounds are:

(i) Covalent compounds consist of molecules: The covalent compounds consist of molecules. They do not
have ions. For example - hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. consist of H2, O2 and N2 molecules respectively.

(ii) Physical state: Weak Vanderwaal’s forces are present between the molecules of covalent compounds.
So, covalent compounds are in gaseous or liquid state at normal temperature and pressure.
For example: Hydrogen, chlorine, methane, oxygen, nitrogen are gases while carbon tetrachloride, ethyl
alcohol, ether, bromine etc. are liquids. Glucose, sugar, urea, iodine etc. are some solid covalent compounds.
(iii) Crystal structure - Covalent compounds exhibit both crystalline and non crystalline structure.
(iv) Melting point and boiling point: Energy required to break the crystal is less due to the presence of
weak Vanderwaal’s force, so their melting and boiling points are less.
(v) Electrical conductivity - Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity due to the absence of
free electrons or free ions.
(vi) Solubility: Due to the non - polar nature of covalent compounds they are soluble in non - polar
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc. and insoluble in polar solvents like water etc.

6.3 ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON:

Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exist in more than one form and each form has
different physical properties but identical chemical properties. These different forms are called allotropes.
The two common allotropic forms of carbon are diamond and graphite.
6.3 a. Diamond:
(i) Structure of Diamond: Diamond crystals found in nature are generally octahedral (eight faced). In the
structure of diamond, each carbon is linked to four other carbon atoms forming regular and tetrahedral
arrangement and this network of carbon atoms extends in three dimensions and is very rigid. This strong
bonding is the cause of its hardness and its high density. This regular, symmetrical arrangement makes the

Elements in which atoms are bonded covalently found in solid state. For example diamond, graphite,
sulphur etc.

Three-dimensional tetrahedral structure

(ii) Properties of Diamond:

(A) It occurs naturally in free state and has an octahedral shape.

(B) It is the hardest natural substance known.

(C) It has high specific gravity (about 3.5).

(D) It is transparent, colourless and brittle solid.

(E) It has a high refractive index (about 2.4).

(F) It is non-conductor of electricity.

(iii) Uses of Diamond:

(A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect and refract light.

(B) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling rocks.

(C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to this reason, it is used for
making high precision thermometers.

(D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiation and due to this reason it is used for making
protective windows for space probes.

(E) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten wires of diameter less than
one-sixth of the diameter of human hair have been drawn using diamond dies.

6.3 b. Graphite:

Graphite is an allotrope of carbon, which is black or bluish grey with a metallic lustre and or greasy feel. It
occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as marble.
(i) Structure of Graphite: Each carbon is bonded to only three neighboring carbon atoms in the same plane
forming layers of hexagonal networks separated by larger distance. The different layers are held together by
weak forces, called vanderwaal’s forces. The layers can therefore easily slide over one another. This makes
graphite lubricating, soft and greasy to touch.

One layer Showing how the layers fit together.

Within each layer of graphite, every carbon atom is joined to three others by strong covalent bonds. This
forms a pattern of interlocking hexagonal rings. Carbon atoms are difficult to separate from one another. So,
graphite also has a high melting point.
However, the bonds between the layers are weak. The layers can slide easily over one another, rather like
pack of cards. This makes graphite soft and slippery. When we write with a pencil, layers of graphite flake
off and stick to the paper.

(ii) Properties of Graphite:

(A) It is soft and greasy in touch.

(B) Its specific gravity is 2.25 (generally).
(C) It is grayish black and opaque.
(D) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(E) It occurs in hexagonal layers.
(F) It is stable and has a high melting point.

(iii) Uses of graphite:

(A) It is used for making pencil lead, printer ink, black paint etc.
(B) It is used as dry lubricant for heavy machinery.
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(C) It is used in making crucibles for melting substances.
(D) It is used as an electrode in batteries and electric furnaces.
(E) It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator to regulate nuclear reactions.
(F) It is also used in making artificial diamonds.
6.3 c. Fullerenes:

(i) Structure: Fullerene is a naturally occurring allotrope of carbon in which 60 carbon atoms are linked to
form a stable structure. Previously, only two forms of carbon (diamond and graphite) were known. The third
allotrope of carbon, called fullerene, was discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Herald Kroto and Richard
Smalley.

STRUCTURE OF FULLERENE

The correctly suggested the cage structure as shown in the figure and named the molecule Buckminster
fullerene after the architect Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the Geodesic dome, which resembles the
molecular structure of C60. Molecules of C60 have a highly symmetrical structure in which 60 carbon atoms
are arranged in a closed net with 20 hexagonal faces and 12 pentagonal faces. The pattern in exactly like the
design on the surface of a soccer ball. C60 has been found to form in sooting flames when hydrocarbons are
burned.
All the fullerenes have even number of atoms, with formulae ranging upto C400 and higher. These materials
offer exacting prospects for technical application. For example, because C60 readily accepts and donates
electrons, it has possible application in batteries.

(ii) Uses of Fullerenes: It is hoped fullerenes or their compounds may find used as -

(A) superconductors
(B) semiconductors
(C) lubricants
(D) catalysts
(E) as highly tensile fibers for construction industry.
(F) inhibiting agents in the activity of the AIDS virus.

6.3 d. Explaining Conduction in Carbon:

In diamond, all four electrons in the outer shell of each carbon atom are used to make covalent bonds. This
means that there are no free electrons and so diamond is an insulator. In graphite, only three of the outer
shell electrons are used in bonding to other carbon atoms. This leaves one electron per atom free to move, so
graphite acts as an electrical conductor.
12.3 (e) Difference Between Properties of Diamond and Graphite :

Property Diamond Graphite

Hardness Hardest natural substance Very Soft

Density 3.5 g/cm3 2.4 g/cm3

Tendency to Bad conductor Good conductor

counduct electric current

Colour Pure diamond is colourless Black

Transparency Transparent Opaque

Occurrence Rare Abundant

OBJECTIVE - 6.1

1. Which of the following is an allotropic form of carbon?

(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) All of these

2. Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because -

(A) it is very hard.
(B) its structure is very compact.
(C) it is not water soluble.
(D) is has no free electrons to conduct electric current.

3. In a double covalent bond, number of electron pairs shared are -

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6

4. Which of the following compounds contains single covalent bond?

(A) Oxygen (B) Nitrogen (C) Methane (D) Carbon dioxide

6. Covalent bond between atoms is formed by -

(A) loss of electrons (B) gain of electrons
(C) sharing of electrons (D) loss and gain of electrons both

7. Covalent compounds can be dissolved in -

(A) benzene (B) ether (C) alcohol (D) all of these

8. Covalent compounds are -

(A) good conductors of electricity. (B) bad conductors of electricity.
(C) semiconductors of electricity. (D) none of these.

9. Which of the following allotrope of carbon is used in making crucibles?

(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) Coke

10. Structure of diamond is -

(A) linear (B) tetrahedral (C) trigonal (D) hexagonal

SUBJECTIVE - 6.2

1. Why do atoms take part in bond formation?

2. Write the Lewis dot structure of PH3.

3. Name one electrovalent and one covalent compound containing chlorine.

4. An element ‘X’ has four valence electrons, while an element ‘Y’ has six valence electrons. What
type of bond is expected to be formed between the two? Draw the structure of the compound.

5. Name a carbon containing molecule in which two double bonds are present.

CHAPTER 6B: CARBON & ITS COMPOUDS

6B.1 VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON:

About 3 million organic compounds are known today. The main reasons for this huge number of organic
compounds are =

(i) Catenation: The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows maximum catenation in the
periodic table due to its small size, electronic configuration, and unique strength of carbon - carbon bonds.

(ii) Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon belongs to group 14 of periodic table. Since the atomic number of
carbon is 6. The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2,4. It has four electrons in the outermost shell.
Therefore, its valency is four. Thus, carbon forms four covalent bonds in its compounds. A methane
molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atoms are shown
below.
H
x x•
xC x + 4H H •x C x•H or CH 4
x x•
H
Carbon Hydrogen Methane
atom atom
(iii) Tendency to form multiple bond: Due to small size of carbon it has a strong tendency to form
multiple bond (double & triple bonds) by sharing more than one electron pair. As a result, it can form a
variety of compounds. For example -
𝐻 𝐻
| |
𝐻− 𝐶 − 𝐶 −𝐻
| |
𝐻 𝐻
H H

𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 H − C = C− H 𝐻−𝐶 ≡𝐶−𝐻

Ethene
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑛𝑒

6B.2 VITAL FORCE THEORY OF BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS:

Organic compounds cannot by synthesized in the laboratory because they require the presence of a
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only in living organisms.

6B.3 WOHLER’S SYNTHESIS:

(NH4)2 SO4 + 2 KCNO → NH4CNO + K2SO4

Ammonium Potassium Ammonium Potassium
sulphate cyanate cyanate sulphate

⎯⎯ Heat
⎯
⎯→
NH4CNO NH2 − C − NH2
Re arrangemen t
Ammonium Urea
Cyanate

6B.4 HYDROCARBONS:

6B.4 a. Introduction:

Organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are the simplest
organic compounds and are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other compounds are considered to
be derived from them by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups of
atoms. The major source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.

6B.4 b. Types of Hydrocarbons:

The hydrocarbons can be classified as:
(I) Saturated hydrocarbons.
a. Alkanes: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only carbon - carbon and carbon - hydrogen
single covalent bonds.
General formula: CnH2n+2
For e.g.,:CH4 (Methane)
C4H6 (Ethane)

Electron dot structure of ethane

(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
a. Alkenes: These are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain carbon - carbon double bond. They
contain two hydrogens less than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula: CnH2n

For e.g.,: C2H4 (Ethene)

C3H6 (Propene)

Electron dot structrure of ethene

Electron dot structure of ethyne

6B.4 c. Classification of Organic Compounds:
The organic compounds are very large in number on account of the self - linking property of carbon called
catenation. These compounds have been further classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.
Organic compounds

Open chain Closed chain

compounds compounds

Alicyclic Aromatic
compounds compounds

(i) Open chain compounds: These compounds contain an open chain of carbon atoms which my be either
straight chain or branched chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be saturated or unsaturated based
upon the nature of bonding in the carbon atoms. For example.

H
Butane 2-Methylpropane
Butane is a straight chain alkane while 2- Methylpropane is branched chain in nature.

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(ii) Closed chain or Cyclic compounds: Apart from the open chains, the organic compounds can have
cyclic or ring structures. A minimum of three atoms are needed to form a ring. These compounds have been
further classified into the following types.
a. Alicyclic compounds: Those carboxylic compounds which resemble aliphatic compounds in their
properties are called alicyclic compounds.

For eg.
or Cyclopropane

or Cyclobutane

or Cyclopentane

or Cyclohexane

b. Aromatic compounds: Organic compounds which contain one or more fused or isolated benzene rings
are called aromatic compounds.

For eg.

Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene Phenol Aniline

6B.5 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:

Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly constituted compounds in which the members
possess similar chemical characteristics, and the two consecutive members differ in their molecular formula
by – CH2.
6B.5 a. Characteristics of Homologous Series:

(i) All the members of series can be represented by the same general formula.

For eg. General formula for alkane series is CnH2n+2.

(ii) Any two consecutive members differ in their formula by a common difference of – CH2 and differ in
molecular mass by 14.

For eg. All the members of alcohol family have - OH group.

(iv) The members in any family have almost identical chemical properties. Their physical properties
such as melting point, boiling point, density etc. show a regular gradation with the increase in the
molecular mass.

(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the identical methods.

6B.5 b.Homologues: The different members of a homologous series are known as homologues.

For example:(i) Homologous series of alkanes

General formula: CnH2n+2.

Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name
n=1 CH4 Methane
n=2 C2H6 Ethane
n=3 C3H8 Propane

(iii) Homologous series of alkenes

General formula:CnH2n

Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name

n=1 C2H4 Ethene Ethylene
n=3 C3H6 Propene Propylene
n=4 C4H8 But - 1 – ene 𝛼 - Butylenes
(H3C – CH2 - HC = CH2)
(iii) Homologous series of alkynes
General formula: CnH2n-2

Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name

n=2 C2H2 Ethyne Acetylene
n=3 C3H4 Propyne Methyl acetylene
n=4 C4H6 But - 1 - yne Ethyl acetylene
(CH3– CH2 - C ≡ CH)
OBJECTIVE – 6B.1

1. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbon is -

(A) CnH2n+2 (B) CnH2n (C) CnH2n-2 (D) CnH2n-n

2. Select the alkyne form the following -

4. In order to form branching, an organic compound must have a minimum of -

(A) four carbon atoms (B) three carbon atoms
(C) five carbon atoms (D) any number of carbon atoms

5. The number of C - H bonds in ethane (C2H6) molecule is -

(A) four (B) six (C) eight (D) ten

6. The main reason for this huge number of organic compounds are -
(A) catenation (B) tetravalency of carbon
(C) tendency to form multiple bonds (D) all of these

7. Which of the following is a saturated hydrocarbon?

(A) C2H6 (B) C2H4 (C) C2H5 (D) All of these

8. Whish of the following is not an open chain compound.?

(A) methane (B) ethane (C) Toluene (D) Butyne
9. Which of the following is an aromatic compound?
(A) Cyclohexane (B) Ethyne (C) Phenol (D) All of these

10. Which of the following does not belong to alkane?

(A) C2H4 (B) CH4 (C) C2H6 (D) C4H10

SUBJECTIVT 6B.2

1. What is the common difference in two consecutive members in a homologous series?

2. What is catenation? Why does carbon show maximum tendency to catenate?
3. What are saturated hydrocarbons? Give one example.

CHAPTER 6C NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

6C.1 NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic compounds. There are two main systems of
nomenclature of organic compounds –

• Trivial system

• IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)

6C.1 a. Basic Rules of Nomenclature or Compounds in IUPAC System:

For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal saturated hydrocarbons have been considered as the
parent compounds and the other compounds as their derivatives obtained by the replacement of one or more
hydrogen atoms with various functional groups.
Each systematic name has first two or all three of the following parts:

(i) Word root: The basic unit is a series of word rot which indicate linear or continuous number of carbon
atoms.

(ii) Secondary suffix: Suffixes added after the primary suffix to indicate the presence of a particular
functional group in the carbon chain are known as secondary suffixes.

6C.1 b. Name of Straight Chain Hydrocarbons

The name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into two parts
(i) Word root
(ii) (ii) Primary suffix

(i) Word roots for carbon chain lengths:

Chain Word root Chain Word root

length length
C1 Meth- C8 Hex –
C2 Eth – C7 Hept –
C3 Prop – C8 Oct –
C4 But – C9 Non –
C5 Pent - C10 Dec -

Class of Primary suffix General name

Cmpounds

C-C - ane Alkane

Saturated

C=C - ene Alkene

Unsaturated

(−𝑪 ≡ 𝑪−) - yne Alkyne

Unsaturated

Examples:

Molecular Word root Primary IUPAC

formular suffix Name
CH4 Meth – - ane Methane
CH3-CH3 Eth – - ane Ethane
CH3CH2CH3 Prop – - ane Propane
CH3CH2CH2 CH3 But – - ane Butane
CH2 = CH2 Eth – - ene Ethene
CH3 –CH = CH2 Prop – - ene Propene
CH3 -C ≡ CH Prop - - yne Propyne

6C.1 c. Names of Branched Chain Hydrocarbon:

The carbon atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are present as side chain. These side chain carbon atoms
constitute the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group is obtained from an alkane by removal of
hydrogen. General formula of an alkyl group = CnH2n+1

An Alkyl group is represented by R.

For eg.

Rule 1: Longest chain rule: Select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon atoms. If some
multiple bonds are present, the chain selected must contain the multiple bonds.

(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the word root.

(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix (P. suffix).

(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes.

Rule 2: Lowest number Rule: The chain selected in numbered in terms of arabic numerals and the position
of the alkyl groups are indicated by the number of the carbon atom to which alkyl group is attached.

(i) The numbering is done in such a way that the substituents carbon atom has the lowest possible number.

(ii) If some multiple bonds are present in the chain, the carbon atoms involved in the multiple bonds should
get the lowest possible numbers.
4 3 2 1
eg. ꠀ CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 3
|
CH 3
2 – Methyl butane 3 – Methyl butane
(Correct) (Wrong)

5 4 3 2 1
eg. ꠀ CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3
|
CH 3
2- Methylpentane 4- Methylpentane
(Correct) (Wrong)

4 3 2 1
eg. CH 3 − CH - CH = CH 2
|
CH 3
3 – Methylbut – 1 – ene (Correct)

(wrong)

e.g., CH3 CH 3
4 | 4 |
CH3 − 3 CH − 2 C 1 CH CH 3 − 2 CH − 3 C  4CH
3 – Methylbut – 1 – yne 2 – Metylbut- 3 - yne
(Correct) (Wrong)

The name of the compound, in general, is written in the following sequence. (Position of substituents) -
(prefixes) (word root) (p - suffix)

Rule: 3 Use of prefixed di, tri etc.: If the compound contains more than one similar alkyl groups, their
positions are indicated separately and an appropriate numerical prefix, di, tri, etc., is attached to the name of
the substituents. The positions of the subsistent are separated by commas.
CH 3
CH 3 CH 3 5 4 3| 2 1
eg. CH 3 − CH 2 − C − CH − CH 3
1 2| 3| 4 5
CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 2 − CH 3 | |
CH 3 CH 3
2, 3 – Dimethylpentane 2,3,3 – Trimethylpentane

Rule 4: Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes: If there are differentalkyl substituents present in the
compound their names are written in the alphabetical order. However, numerical prefixes such as di, tri etc.
are not considered for alphabetical order.

For eg:

Rule 5: Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions:

If two alkly substituents are present at the equivalent position, then numbering of the chain is done is such a
way that the alkyl group which comes first in alphabetical order gets the lower position.

eg.

3 – Ethyl – 4 – methylhexane

6C.1 (e) Some More Example:

(i)
Word root: Hex
Primary suffix: ane
Substituents: two methyl & one ethyl groups

IUPAC name: 4- Ethyl - 2,4 - dimethylhexane

CH 3
1 2| 3
(ii) CH 3 − C − CH 3
|
CH 3
Word root: Prop
P. Suffix: ane
Substituents to methyl groups

IUPAC name: 2,2- Dimethylpropane

3 4
CH 3 − CH − CH 3
|
(iii) CH 3 − C = CH 2
2 1
Word root: But
P. Suffix: ene
Substituents: two methyl groups
IUPAC name: 2, 3 – Dimethylbut - 1 - ene
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − C  C − CH 3
(iv) |
CH 3
4 – Methylhex – 2 - yne

6C.2 a. Introduction: An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is responsible
for the compound’s characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known as functional group. An
organic compound generally consists of two parts -

(i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group

𝑯 𝑯
| |
For eg. 𝑯 − 𝑪 − 𝑪 − 𝑶𝑯
| |
𝑯 𝑯
Hydrocarbon radical Functional group
The functional group is the most reactive part of the molecule.

• Functional group determines the chemical properties of an organic compound.

• Hydrocarbon radicals determine the physical properties of an organic compound.

6C.2 b. Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as alcohols.
For e.g., Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3– CH2 - OH) etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing CHO group are known as aldehydes.
For e.g., Methanol (HCHO), Ethanol (CH3CHO) etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-CO-): All organic compounds containing -CO- group are known as ketones.
For e.g., 2- Propanone (CH3COCH3), 2-Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain carboxyl group. Hence they are also called
carboxylic acids.

For e.g., CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)

CH3CH2COOH (Propanoic acid)

(v) Halogen group (x= F, Cl, Br, I): All organic compounds containing - X(F, CI, Br or I) group are
known as halides.

For e.g., Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br) etc.

6C.2 c. Nomenclature of Compounds Containing Functional Group:

In case come functional group (other than C = C and C ≡ C) is present, it is indicated by adding secondary
suffix after the primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is removed if it is followed by a suffix
beginning with ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’. Some groups like - F, - Cl, - Br and - I are considered as substituents and
are indicated by the prefixes.
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Some groups like – CHO, - COOH, and - OH are considered as functional groups and are indicated by
suffixes.

Function
General Suff IUPAC
Class al Prefix
Formula ix Name
Group

O
Carboxylic - oic Alkanoic
Carboxy
acid − C − OH
acid acid

O
Alk
O yl
R − C − O − R' Alkyl
Ester Carbalkoxy (R)
− C − OR
alkanoate
–
(R  R' )
oate

Formyl or
Aldehyde - CHO R - CHO - al Alkanal
oxo

-
Ketone oxo Alkanal
one

Alcohol -OH R – OH Hydroxy - ol Alkanol

-
Alkenes C =C CnH2n - Alkene
ene
-
Alkynes 𝐶≡𝐶 CnH2n-2 - Alkene
yne
-X
Haloalkan
Halides (X = F, R–X Halo -
e
CI, Br, I)

6C.2 d. Naming of an Organic Compound Containing Functional Group:

Step 1: Select the longest continuous chain of the carbon atoms as parent chain. The selected chain must
include the carbon atom involved in the functional groups like - COOH, - CHO etc., or those
which carry the functional groups like - OH, - CI etc.
Step 2: The presence of carbon - carbon multiple bonds decide the primary suffix.
Step 3: The secondary suffix is decided by the functional group.

Step 4: The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered in such a way so that the carbon atom of the
functional group gets the lowest possible number. In case the functional group does not have the
carbon atom, then the carbon atom of the parent chain attached to the functional group should get
the lowest possible number.

The number of carbon atoms in the parent chain decides the word root.

Common Derived
Compound IUPAC Strucutre
name name
H

Methyl
1 H−C −O −H
CH3 – OH alcohol or Carbinol Methanol
H
Wood spirit
H H

2 Methyl H−C −C −O −H
CH3 – CH2 – OH Ethyl alcohol Ethanol
carbinol H H
H H H

3 CH3–CH2– CH2 – n-Propyl Ethyl H−C −C −C −O −H

1-Propanol
OH alcohol carbinol H H H

H H

H−C− C −O −H
CH3 − CH − OH
4 | Isopropyl Dimethyl
CH3
2-Propanol H H−C −H
alcohol carbinol
H

H H H H

5 n-Butyl n-Propyl H−C−C−C−C−O −H

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 -
1-Butanol
OH alcohol carbinol H H H H

O
6 Methanoic
HCOOH Formic acid - H− C −O −H
acid
H O

- H − − C − C − OH
7 Ethanoic
CH3 COOH Acetic acid
acid H
H H O

- H−C −C − C −O −H
8 Propionic Propanoic
CH3 – CH2 – COOH
acid acid H H

H H H O

-
9 Butyric Butanoic H − C − C − C − C − OH
CH3–CH2–CH2 – COOH
acid acid H H H

H H H H O

1 -
Petanoic H − − C − C − C − C − C − OH
0 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Valeric acid
acid H H H H

6C.2 (e) Some More Example:

IUPAC Name: 2,5 - Dimethylheptan -1 - ol

(ii) O
5 4 3 2 1||
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH = CH − C − OH

Word root: Pent

Primary suffix: ene

Secondary suffix: -oic acid

Position of double bond: 2nd

IUPAC name: Pent - 2 - en - 1 - oic acid

1 2 3 4
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3
(iii) |
CI

Word root: But

Primary suffix: ane

Prefix: chloro

IUPAC name: 2 - Chlorobutane

6C.3 ISOMERS &ISOMERSISM:

6C.3 a.Introduction:
Such compounds which have same molecular formula but different in some physical or chemical properties
are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
ISOMERSIM

Structural Stereoisomerism
Isomerism

Chain Position Functional Metamerism Tautomerism Geometrical Optical

6C.3 b. Structural Isomerism:

Such compounds which have the same molecular formula but different structural arrangement of atoms in
their molecules are known as structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.

(i) Chain isomerism: The isomerism in which the isomers differ from each other due to the presence of
different carbon chain skeletons in known as chain isomerism.
(ii) For eg:

a. C4H10
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3’ CH 3 − CH − CH 3
|
CH 3

n - Butane 2- Methylpropane (Isobutane)

b. C5H12

CH3– CH2– CH2– CH2– CH3 CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3

|
CH 3

n - Pentane 2- Methylbutane (isopentane)

CH 3

CH 3 − C − CH 3

CH 3

2,2 - Dimethylpropane (neo – pentane)

CH 3
|
c. C4H8 CH3– CH2 - CH = CH2 , CH 3 − = CH 2
C

But - 1 - ene 2 - Methylpropene

(ii) Position isomerism: In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in structure due to difference in the
position of the multiple bond or functional group.

For eg.

a. C4H8
CH2– CH2 - CH = CH2 , CH3 - CH = CH – CH3
But - 1 - ene But-2-ene

b. C3H8O
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH CH 3 − CH − CH 3

Propane - 1 - ol Propane - 2 – ol

(iii) Functional group isomerism: In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in structure due to the presence
of different functional groups.

For eg.

a. C3H8O
CH3– CH2 - O – CH3 and CH3– CH2– CH2 - OH
Methoxy ethane Propane - 1 - ol

b. C4H6
CH3-CH2C≡CH and CH2 = CH - CH = CH2
But-1-yne Buta - 1, 3-diene
[or 1, 3 - Butadiene]
OBJECTIVE - 6C.1

1. The general formula for an ester (where R represents an alkyl group) is -

(A) ROH (B) R-COOH (C) R-COOR (D) RH

2. The functional group, present in CH3COOC2H5 is-

(A) ketonic (B) aldehydic (C) ester (D) carboxylic

3. IUPAC name of CH3CH2OH is -

(A) wood spirit (B) methyl carbinol (C) ethanol (D)ethyl alcohol

4. The IUPAC name of the compound having the formula (CH3)3 CCH = CH2 is -
(A) 3,3-trimethyl -1-propane (B) 1,1,1- trimethyl-1-butene
(C) 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene (D) 1,1-dimethyl-1,3-butene

5. The IUPAC name of (CH3CHCH3 is -

(A) 2-methylpropane (B) 2,2-dimethylethane
(C) trimethylmethan (D) none of these

6. The IUPAC name of the following compound is -

CH2 - CH - CH (CH3)2
(A) 1,1-dimethyl -2 propane (B) 3- methyl -1-butene
(C) 2- vinyl propane (D) 1-isoproply ethylene

7. IUPAC name of second member of homologous series of carboxylic acids is -

(A) methanoic acid (B) ethanoic acid (C) propanic acid (D) butanoic acid

8. The IUPAC name of CH3 - C(CH3) (OH) CH2 - CH(CH3) CH3 is -

(A) 2,4-dimethyl pentan -2-ol (B) 2,4- dimethyl pentan -4-ol
(C) 2,2- dimethyl butane (D) butanol -2-one

9. The IUPAC name of (CH3)2 CHCH2CH2Br is

(A) 1-bromopentance (B) 2- methyl-4-bromo pentane
(C) 1- bromo -3- methyl butane (D) 2-methyl -3- bromo pentane

10. The functional group in an alcohol is -

O O O

(A) − C − O − (B) − C − OH (C) -OH (D) − C − H

SUBJECTIVE 6C.2
1. In an organic compound, which part largely determines its physical & chemical properties?

2. Give IUPAC name of the following compounds -

(A) CH3– CH2– CH2 - OH

(B) CH 3 − CH − CH 3

(C) How are these two compounds related to each other?

3. Draw the structures of the following compounds -

(A) Simplest ketone (B)Next higher homologue of butanoic acid
(C) Acetic acid (D)N-butly alcohol

4. Name a functional group which can never occupy the terminal position.

5. Give the IUPAC names of -

(A) CH3– CH2 - Br
(B) CH3– CH2– CH2– CH2 - C ≡ CH

6. How many structural isomers are possible for pentane? Draw the structures.

7. Name the isomerism exhibited by the following pairs of compounds -

(A)Proponal& Propanone (B) 1- Propanol & 2- Propanol

CHAPTER 6D: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF C COMPOUNDS

6D.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS:

The important chemical properties of organic compounds are discussed below:

6D.1 a. Combustion: Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and
releases energy in the form of heat and light.
Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.

C + O2 CO2 + Heat and light

Carbon Oxygen Carbondioxide

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light

Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light

Ethane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light

Ethyne Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

CH2CH2OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O +Heat and light

Ethanol Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

(Note: using the above examples please try to find the general form of the reaction)
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will give a
yellow flame with lots of black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on the metal plate. However, limiting
the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.

6D.1 b. Oxidation: Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The substances which
add oxygen to other substances are called oxidising agents. There are many oxidising agents such as
alkaline potassium permanganate (alk. KMnO4), acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid
(HNO3) etc. which are commonly used in organic chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are -

CH 2 − CH 2
𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4
(i) CH2 = CH2 + H2O + (O)→ OH OH
Ethylene glycol
Ethane

8.1 c. Substitution Reaction: The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or
substituted by different atoms or group of atoms are called substitution reactions. Saturated hydrocarbons
are unreactive. For example, chlorine does not react with methane at room temperature. However, in the
presence of sunlight the reaction of chlorine and hydrocarbons is fast reaction. It gives a variety of products.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Methane Chlorine Chloromethane Hydrogen chloride

In this reaction H - atom of methane has been replaced by a - CI atom converting CH4 to CH3Cl. However,
if Cl2 is used in excess, all the hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atoms one by one.

CH3Cl + Cl2 CH3Cl2 + HCl

Chloromethane Chlorine Dichloromethane Hydrogen chloride

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl2 + HCl

Dichloromethane Chlorine Trichloromethane Hydrogen chloride
(Chloroform)

`CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl

Trichloromethane Chlorine Tetrachloromethane Hydrogen chloride
(Carbon tetrachloride)
6D.1 d. Addition Reaction: The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all
the atoms of the combining molecules are called addition reactions. Unsaturated compounds such as alkenes
contain a double bond between carbon atoms. Because of the presence of double bond, they undergo
addition reaction.

(i) Addition of halogen to alkenes:

CH 2− CH 2
CH2 = CH2 + Cl2
CI CI

Ethane Chlorine 1,2-Dicloroethane

CH 2− CH 2
CH2 = CH2 +Br2
Br Br

Ethene Bromine 1,2- Dibromoethane

(ii) Addition of hydrogen:

𝑁𝑖
CH2 = CH2 + H2 → CH2– CH3
573𝐾
Ethene Hydrogen Ethane

This reaction is called hydrogenation. Hydrogenation reaction is used in the manufacture of vanaspati ghee
from vegetable oils. Vegetable oil such as ground nut oil, cotton speed oil and mustard oil contain bonds (C
= C) in their molecules. When reacted with hydrogen in the presence of nickel as catalyst, they are
converted into vanaspati ghee which is solid at room temperature like butter or ghee.

Ni
⎯⎯→⎯
Vegetable oil + H2 Catalyst
Vegetable ghee or Vanaspati ghee

(Unsaturated hydrocarbons) (Saturated hydrocarbons)

6D.2 BURNING OF SUBSTANCES WITH OR WITHOUT SMOKY FLAME:

When coal or charcoal burns n an ‘angithi’, sometimes it just glows red and gives out heat without a flame.
This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When wood or charcoal is ignited,
the volatile substances present vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
A luminous flame is also observed when the atoms of the gaseous substances are heated and start to glow.
The colour of the flame is characteristic of that element. For example, when a copper wire is heated in the
flame of the a gas stove, a bluish green colour is obtained.

The incomplete combustion gives soot or smoke which is due to carbon. Saturated hydrocarbons burn with
blue non-sooty flame. This is because the percentage of carbon in these compounds is low which gets
oxidised completely by the oxygen present in the air.
On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with yellow sooty flame. This is because the percentage
of carbon in these compounds is comparatively higher (than saturated compounds). Therefore, all the carbon
does not get oxidised completely in the oxygen of the air. Due to incomplete combustion, the flame is sooty
due to the presence of unburnt carbon particles.

The fuels such as coal, petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. On heating, they are
burnt to oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which are released in the atmosphere. These are the major
pollutants in the environment.

6D.3 FORMATION OF COAL AND PETROLEUM: Coal and petroleum are the fossil fuels. These are
believed to be formed from biomass which has been subjected to various biological and geological

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processes inside the earth. Coal is formed from the remains of plants and animals (fossils) which died about
millions of years ago. These remains gradually got buried deep in the earth during earthquakes, volcanoes
etc. These remains were covered with sand, clay and water. Due to high temperature and high pressure and
the absence of air inside the earth, the fossils got converted into coal. This process of conversion of plants
and animals buried inside the earth under high temperature and pressure to coal is called carbonisation. It is
a very slow process and may have taken thousands of years.

Petroleum is formed form the bacterial decomposition of the remains of animals and plants which got buried
under the sea millions of years ago. When these organisms died, they sank to the bottom and got covered by
sand and clay. Over a period of millions of years, these remains got converted into hydrocarbons by heat,
pressure and catalytic action. The hydrocarbons formed rose though porous rocks and got trapped between
two layers of impervious rock forming an oil trap.
OBJECTIVE - 6D.1

1. Sometimes during cooking the bottom of the vessel becomes black from outside. This means that -
(A) food is not cooked properly. (B) fuel is not burning completely.
(C) fuel is burring completely. (D) fuel is dry.

2. Rectified spirit is -
(A) 50% ethanol (B) 80% ethanol (C) 95% ethanol (D) 100 % ethanol

3. Which of the following gives ethene when heated with conc. sulphuricacid?
(A) CH3CHO (B) CH3COOH (C) CH3OH (D) CH3CH2OH

4. Which of the following will react with sodium metal?

(A) Ethanol (B) Ethene (C) Ethane (D) Propene

5. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives -

(A) CO2 and water (B) acetaldehyde (C) acetic acid (D) acetone

6. When ethyl alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4 the product formed is -
(A) C4H8 (A) C2H4 (C) C3H4 (D) C2H2

7. When alcohol reacts with sodium metal the gas evolved is-
(A) O2 (B) H2 (C) CO (D) CO2

8. Power alcohol contains -

(A)50% petrol and 50% ethanol (B) 80% petrol and 20% ethanol
(C)25% petrol and 75% ethanol (D) 70% petrol and 30% ethanol

SUBJECTIVE - 6D.2
1. What is denatured alcohol? How is it prepared?
2. What are the harmful effects of drinking alcohol?
3. What is an antifreeze?

OBJECTIVE -6A.1

Que 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. D D A C B C D B B B

SUBJECTIVE – 6A.2

Sol.1 To achieve the configuration of nearest noble gas element.

Sol.2

Sol.3 Sodium chloride (NaCI) & Chlorine gas (CI2)

Sol.4 Covalent, Y = X = Y

Sol.5 O = C= O (CO2)

OBJECTIVE - 6A.1

Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B D A N D A C C A

SUBJECTIVE - 6A.2

Sol.1 a. Functional group isomerism b. Position isomerism

Sol.2 The common difference is -CH2.

OBJECTIVE -6B.1

Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C C C C A B B A C C

SUBJECTIVE – 6B.2
Sol.1 Functional group

Sol.3 a. CH3COCH3 b. CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH

c. CH3COOH d. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

Sol.4 Ketone group ( - CO - )

Sol.5 a. 1- Bromoethane b. 1- Hexyne

OBJECTIVE DPP – 6C.1

Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. B C D A C B B B

SUBJECTIVE - 6C.2

Sol.3 It is a mixture of ethanol and water which has a much lower freezing point that than of water. It is
used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.

Sol.4 No, because they are neutral in nature.

OBJECTIVE DPP – 6D.1

Que 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans B C D A C B B B

CHAPTER 7: ACIDS AND BASES

7.1 ACIDS: Substances with sour taste are regarded as avoids. Lemon juice, vinegar, grape fruit juice and
spoilt milk etc. taste sour since they are acidic. Many substances can be identified as acids based on their
taste but some of the acids like sulphuric acid have very strong action on the skin which means that they are
corrosive in nature. In such case it would be according to modern definition-
An acid may be defined as a substance which release one or more H+ ions in aqueous solution.
Acids are mostly obtained from natural sources. One the basis of their source avids are of two types -

a. Mineral acids b. Organic acids

a. Mineral Acids: Acids which are obtained from rocks and minerals are called mineral acids.

b. Organic Acids: Acids which are present in animals and plants are known as organic acids. A list of
commonly used acids along with their chemical formula and typical uses, is given below -

Name Type Chemical Where found or used

Formula
Carbonic acid Mineral H2CO3 In soft drinks and lends fizz, In
acid stomach as gastric juice, used in
tanning industry
Nitric acid Mineral HNO3 Used in the manufacture of
Acid explosives. (TNT, Nitroglycerine)
and fertilizers (Ammonium
nitrate, Calcium nitrate,
Purification of Au, Ag.)
Hydrochloric acid Mineral HCI In purification of common salt,
Acid in textile industry as bealching
agent, to make aqua regia
mixture of Hu2HNO3 in ration
of 3 : 1
Sulhuric acid Mineral H2SO4 Commonly used in car batteries,
Acid in the manufacture of fertilizers
(Ammonium sulphate, super
phosphate) detergents etc, in
paints, plastics, drugs, in
manufacture of artificial silk, in
petroleum refining.
Phosphoric acid Mineral H3PO4 Used I antirust paints and in
Acid fertilizers.
Formic acid Organic HCOOH(C Found in the stings of ants and
Acid H2O2) bees, used in tanning leather, in
medicines for treating gout
disease of jointly.
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Acetic acid Organic CH3COOH Fount in vinegar used a solvent
Acid (C2H4O2) in the manufacture of dyes and
perfumes.
Lactic acid Organic CH3CH(O Responsible for souring of milk
Acid H)COOH( in curd.
C3H6O3)
Benzoic acid Organic C6H5COO Used as a food preservation.
Acid H
Citric acid Organic C6H8O Present in lemons, oranges and
Acid citrus fruits.

c.Chemical Properties of Acids:

1. Action with metals: Dilute acids like dilute HCI and dilute H2SO4 react with certain active metals to
evolve hydrogen gas.

2Na(s) + 2HCI (dilute) 2NaCI(aq) + H2 (g)

Mg(s) + H2SO4 (dilute) MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

Metals which can displace hydrogen from dilute acids are known as avtive metals. e.g., Na, K, Zn, Fe,
Ca, Mg etc.
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (dilute) →ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The active metals which lie above hydrogen in the activity series are electropositive in nature. Their
atoms lose electrons to form positive ions and these electrons are accepted by H+ ions of the acid. As a
result, H2 is evolved.
For e.g.,
Zn(s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

ZH+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- H2 (g) + SO42- (aq)

Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn++(aq) + H2(g)

2. Action with metal oxides: Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water. These reactions are
mostly carried out upon heating.
For e.g.,
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

CuO(s) + 2HCl(dil.) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

(Black) (Bluish green)

CaCO3(s) + 2HCI(aq) CaCI2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) +CO2(g)

Calcium carbonate Calcium chloride
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(aq) + CO2(g)
Sodium Sodium
bicarbonate sulpahte
4. Action with bases: Acids react with bases to give salts and water.
HCI + NaOH NaCI + H2O
d. Strong and Weak Acids:

(i) Strong acids: Acids which are completely ionised in water are known as strong acids.
For e.g.,
Hydrochloric acid (HCI), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) etc. are all strong acids.
HCI + Water H+(aq) + CI-(aq)
H2SO4 + Water 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

(ii) Weak acids: Acids which are weakly ionised in water are known as weak acids.
For e.g.,
Carbonic acids (H2CO3), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH)
are weak acids.
CH3COOH + Water CH3COO-(aq) + H+ (aq)

In general MINERAL acids are STRONG acids while ORGANIC acids are WEAK acids.

7.2 Base:Substances with bitter taste and soapy touch are regarded as bases. Since many bases like
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide have corrosive action on the skin and can even harm the body,
so according to the modern definition -
a base may be defined as a substance capable of releasing one or more OH- ions in aqueous solution.

a.Alkalies: Some bases like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are water soluble. These are known
as alkalies. Therefore water soluble bases are known as alkalieseg. KOH, NaOH. A list of a few typical
bases along with their chemical formulae and uses is given below-

Name Commercial Chemical Uses

Name Formula
In manufacture of soap, paper, pulp,
Sodium hydroxide Caustic Soda NaOH rayon, refining of petroleum etc.

In alkaline storage batteries, manufacture

Potassium hydroxide Caustic Soda KHO of soap, absorbing CO2 gas etc.

In manufacture of bleaching powder

Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 softening of hard water etc.

Magnesium hydroxide Milk of Mg(OH)2 As an antacid to remove acidity from

Magnesia stomach

Aluminum hydroxide - Al(OH)3 As foaming agent in fire extinguishers.

In removing greases stains from cloths

Ammonium hydroxide - NH4OH and in cleaning window panes.

b. Chemical Properties:
1. Action with metals: Metals like zinc, tin and aluminum react with strong alkalies like NaOH (caustic
soda), KOH (caustic potash) to evolve hydrogen gas.

Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium zincate
Sn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium stannite
2Al(s) + 2NaOH + 2H2O 2NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium meta aluminate

2. Action with non-metallic oxides: Acids react with metal oxides, but bases react with oxides of non-
metals to form salt and water.
For e.g.,
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na3CO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
Ca(OH)2(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(ℓ)

c. Strong and Weak Bases:

(i) Strong base: A base contains one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups which it releases in aqueous solution
upon ionisation. Bases which are almost completely ionised in water, are known as strong bases.

For e.g.,
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (OH) groups which it releases in aqueous solution upon
ionisation. Bases which are almost completely ionised in water, are known as strong bases.
NaOH(s) + Water Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH(s) + Water K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

(ii) Weak bases: Bases that are feebly ionised on dissolving in water and reduce a low concentration of
hydroxyl ions are called weak bases.

eg.Ca(OH)2, NH4OH

7.3 CONDUCTING NATURE OF ACID AND BASE SOLUTIONS:

Acids are the substances which contain one or more hydrogen atoms in their molecules which they can
release in water as H+ ions. Similarly, bases are the substances which contain one or more hydroxyl groups

in their molecules which they an release in water as OH- ions. Since the ions are the carries of charge
therefore, the aqueous solutions of both acids and bases are conductors of electricity.

Experiment:In a glass beaker, take a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (HCI). Fix two small nails of iron
in a rubber cork in the beaker as shown in the figure. Connect the nails to the terminals of a 6 volt battery
through a bulb. Switch on the current and bulb will start glowing. This shows that the electric current has
passed through the acid solution. As the current is carried by the movement of ions, this shows that is

solution HCI has ionised to give H+ and CI- ions. Current will also be in a position to pass if the beaker
contains in it dilute H2SO4 (H+ ions are released in aqueous solution). Similarly, aqueous solutions

containing NaOH or KOH will also be conducting due to release of OH- ions.

Bulb will not glow if glucose (C6H12O6) or ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) solution is kept in the beaker. This means
that both of them will not give any ions in solution.

Acids Bases
1. Sour in taste. 1. Bitterness in taste.
2. Change colours of indicators et. Litmus 2. Change colours of indicators eg, litmus
turns from blue to red, phenolphthalein turns from red to blue, phenolphthalein
remains colourless. furns from colourless to pink.
3. Shows electrolytic conductivity in 3. Shows electrolytic conductivity in
aqueous solution. aqueous solutions.
4. Acidic properties disappear when reacts 4. Basic properties disappear when reacts
with bases (Neutralisation). with acids (Neutralisation).
5. Acids decompose carbonate salts. 5. No decomposition of carbonate salts by
bases.

7.4 ROLE OF WATER IN THE IONISATION OF ACIDS AND BASES:

Substances can act as acids and bases only in the presence of water in aqueous solution. In dry state which is
also called anhydrous state, these characters cannot be shown Actually, water helps in the ionisation of acids
or base by separating the ions. This is also known as dissociation and is explained on the basis of a theory
called Arrhenius theory of acids and bases.
In the dry state, hydrochloric acid is known as hydrogen chloride gas i.e. HCI(g). It is not in the position to
give any H+ ions. Therefore, the acidic character is not shown. Now, let us pass the gas through water taken
in a beaker with the help of glass pipe. H2O molecules are of polar nature which means that they have
partial negative charge (𝛿 + ) on oxygen atom and partial positive charge (𝛿 − ) on hydrogen atoms. They will
try to form a sort of envelope around the hydrogen atoms as well as chlorine atoms present in the acid and
thus help in their separation as ions. These ions are said to be hydrated ions.

HCI(g) + Water H+ (aq) + CI- (aq)

(Hydrated ions)

The electrical current is carried through these ions. The same applied to other acids as well as bases. Thus
we conclude that -

(i) acids can release H+ ions only in aqueous solution.

(ii) base can release OH- ions only in aqueous solution.

(iii) hydration helps in the release of ions from acids and bases.

DILUTION OF ACIDS AND BASES: Acids and bases are mostly water soluble and can be
diluted by adding the required amount of water. With the addition of water the amount of acid or base per
unit volume decrease and dilution occurs. The process is generally exothermic in nature. A concentrated
acid like sulphuric acid or nitric acid is to be diluted with water. Acid should be added dropwise to water
taken in the container with constant stirring.

2. Common name of H2SO4 is-

(A) Oil of vitriol (B) Muriatic acid (C) Blue vitriol (D) Green vitriol

3. CuO + (X) CuSO4 + H2O. Here (X) is-

(A)CuSO4 (B) HCI (C) H2SO4 (D) HNO3

4. Which of the following is the weakest base?

(A) NaOH (B) NH4OH (C) KOH (D)Ca(OH)2

5. Reaction of an acid with a base is known as-

(A) decomposition (B) combination (C) redox reaction (D) neutralization

6. When CO2 is passed through lime water, it turns milky; The milkiness is due to the formation of
(A) CaCO3 (B) Ca(OH)2 (C) H2O (D) CO2

7. Caustic soda is the common name for-

(A) Mg(OH)2 (B) KOH (C) Ca(OH)2 (D) NaOH

8. Antacids contain -
(A) Weak base (B) Weak acid (C) Strong base (D) Strong acid

9. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in -

(A) Plastics and dyes (B) Fertilizers (C) Antacids (D) White washing

10. Acids gives -

(A) H+ in water (B) OH- in water (C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these

11. H2CO3 is a -
(A) strong acid (B) weak acid (C) strong base (D) weak base

SUBJECTIVE I

1. Equal amounts of calcium are taken in test tubes a. and b.. Hydrochloric acid (CHI) is added to test
tube a. while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test tube b. In which case, fizzing occurs more
vigorously and why?

2. Give the name of two mineral acids and their uses.

3. What effect does concentration of H+ (aq) have on acidic nature of the solution?

4. What do you understand by organic acids? Give the name of the organic acids and their sources.

INDICATORS: Indicator indicated the nature of particular solution whether acidic, basic or neutral. Apart
from this, indicator also represents the change in nature of the solution from acidic to basic and vice versa.
Indicators are basically coloured organic substances extracted from different plants. A few common acid
base indicators are

a.Litmus: Litmus is a purple dye which is extracted from ‘lichen’ a plant belonging to variety Thallophytic.
It can also be applied on paper in the form of strips and is available as blue and red strips. A blue litmus
strip, when dipped in an acid solution acquires red colour. Similarly a red strip when dipped in a base
solution becomes blue.
b.Phenolphthalein: It is also an organic dye and acidic in nature. In neutral or acidic solution, it remains
colourless while in the basic solution, the colour of indicator changes to pink.

c. Methyl Orange: Methyl orange is an orange coloured dye (yellow) and basis in nature. In the acidic
medium the colour of indicator becomes red and in the basic or natural medium, it colour remains
unchanged.

d. Red Cabbage Juice: It is purple in colour in natural medium and turns red or pink in the acidic medium.
In the basic or alkaline medium, its colour changes to green.

(e) Turmeric Juice: It is yellow in colour and remains as such in the neutral and acidic medium. In the
basic medium its colour becomes reddish or deep brown.

Sample Blue litmus Red litmus solution Phenolphthalein Methyl orange

solution
HCI Changes to red No colour change Remains colourless Changes to red
HNO3 Changes to red No colour change Remains colourless Changes to red
NaOH No colour change Changes to blue Changes to light pink No changes in colour
KOH No colour change Changes to blue Changes to light pink No changes in colour

NEUTRALISATION: It may be defined as a reaction between acid and base present in aqueous solution to
form salt and water.
HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCI(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
Basicallyneutralision is the combination between H+ ions of the acid with OH- ions of the base to form H2O.
For e.g., H+(aq) + CI-(aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Na+(aq) + CI-(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O ()
Neutralisation reaction involving an acid and base is of exothermic nature. Heat is evolved in all
naturalisation reactions. If both acid and base are strong, the value of heat energy evolved remains same
irrespective of their nature.
For e.g., HCI (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCI (aq) + H2O () + 57.1 KJ

HNO3 (aq) + KOH(aq) KNO3(aq) + H3O(ℓ) + 57.1 J

(Strong (Strong
acid) base)

Strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised of their own in the solution. No energy is needed for
their ionisation. Since the action of base and anion of acid on both sides of the equation cancels out
completely, the heat evolved is given by the following reaction -

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O(ℓ) + 57.1 KJ

APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRALIZATION:

(i) People particularly of old age suffer from acidity problems in the stomach which is caused mainly due
to release of excessive gastric juices containing HCI. The acidity is neutralised by antacid tablets
which contain sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), magnesium hydroxide etc.

(ii) The sting of bees and ants contain formic acid. Its corrosive and poisonous effect can be neutralised by
rubbing soap which contains NaOH (an alkali).

(iii) The stings of wasps contain an alkali and its poisonous effect can be neutralised by an acid like acetic
acid (present in vinegar).

(iv) Farmers generally neutralise the effect of acidity in the soil caused by acid rain by adding slaked lime
(Calcium hydroxide) to the soil.

pH SCALE:
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution called pH scale, has been developed by
S.P.L. sorrensen. The P in pH stands for potenz’ in German meaning power. On the pH scale we can
measure pH from O (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline). pH should be thought of simply as a number which
indicates the acidic or basic nature of solution. Higher the hydrogen ion concentration, Lower is the pH
scale.

Characteristic of pH scale are -

(i) For acidic solution, pH < 7
(ii) For alkaline solution, pH > 7
(iii) For neutral solution, pH = 7

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a. Universal Indicator Papers for pH Values:
Indicators like litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange are used in predicting the acidic and basic
characters of the solutions. However universal indicator papers have been developed to predict the pH of
different solutions. Such papers represent specified colours for different concentrations in terms of pH
values.
The exact pH of the solution can be measured with the help of pH meter which gives instant reading and it
can be relied upon.
pH values of a few common solutions are given below -

Solution Approximate Solution Approximate

pH pH
Gastric 1.0 – 3.0 Pure water 7.0
juices
Lemon 2.2 - 2.4 Blood 7.36 – 7.42
juices
Vinegar 3.0 Baking soda 8.4
solution
Bear 4.0 – 5.0 Sea water 9.0
Tomato 4.1 Washing soda 10.5
juice solution
Coffee 4.5 – 5.5 Lime water 12.0
Acid rain 5.6 House hold 11.9
ammonia
Milk 6.5 Sodium hydroxide 14.0
Saliva 6.5 – 7.5

b. Significance of pH in daily life:

(i) pH in our digestive system: Dilute hydrochloric acid produced in our stomach helps in the digestion
of food. However, excess of acid causes indigestion and leads to pain as well as irritation. The pH of
the digestive system in the stomach will decrease. The excessive acid can be neutralised with the help
of antacid which are recommended by the doctors. Actually, these are group of compounds (basic in
nature) and have hardly and side effects. A very popular antacid is ‘Milk of Magnesia’ which is
insoluble magnesium hydroxide. Aluminum hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate can also be
used for the same purpose. These antacids will bring the pH of the system back to its normal value.
The pH of human blood varies between 7.36 to 7.42 it is maintained by the soluble bicarbonates and
carbonic acid present in the blood. These are known as buffers.
(ii) pH change leads to tooth decay : The white enamel coating on our teeth is of insoluble calcium
phosphate which is quite hard. It is not affected by water. However, when the pH in the mouth falls
below 5.5 the enamel gets corroded. Water will have a direct access to the roots and decay of teeth will
occur. The bacteria present in the mouth break down the sugar that we eat in one form or the other to

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acids, Lactic acid is one these. The formation of these acids causes decrease in pH. It is therefore
advisable to avoid eating surgery foods and also to keep the mouth clean so that sugar and food
particles may not be present. The tooth pastes contain in them some basic ingredients and they help in
neutralising the effect of the acids and also increasing the pH in the mouth.
(iii) Role of pH in curing stings by insects: The stings of bees and ants contain methanoic acid (or formic
acid). When stung, they cause lot of pain and irritation. The cure is in rubbing the affected area with
soap. Sodium hydroxide present in the soap neutralises acid injected in the body and thus brings the
pH back to its original level bringing relief to the person who has been stung. Similarly, the effect of
stings by wasps containing alkali is neutralised by the application of vinegar which is ethanoic acid (or
acetic acid)
(iv) Soil pH and plant growth: The growth of plants in a particular soil is also related to its pH.Actually,
different plants prefer different pH range for their growth. it is therefore, quite important to provide the
soil with proper pH for their healthy growth. Soils with high iron minerals or with vegetation tend to
become acidic. This soil pH can reach as lows as 4. The acidic effect can be neutralised by ‘liming the
soil’ which is carried by adding calcium hydroxide. These are all basic in nature and have neutralising
effect. Similarly, the soil with excess of lime stone or chalk is usually alkaline. Sometimes, its pH
reaches as high as 8.3 and is quite harmful for the plant growth. In order to reduce the alkaline effect,
it is better to add some decaying organic matter (compost or manure). The soil pH is also affected by
the acid rain and the use of fertilizers. Therefore soil treatment is quite essential.

OBJECTIVE II

1. A solution turns red litmus blue. Its pH is likely to be-

(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 7 (D) 10
2. If pH of any solution is equal to zero then solution will be-
(A) acidic (B) basic (C) neutral (D) none of these
3. Methyl orange is -
(A) an acidic indicator (B) a basic indicator
(C) a neutral indicator (D) none of these
4. pH of Blood is-
(A) 6.4 (B) 7.4 (C) 4.7 (D) 6.4
5. If pH of solution is 13, means that it is-
(A) weakly acidic (B) weakly basic (C) strongly acidic (D) strongly basic

6. Which is a base and not an alkali?

(A) NaOH (B) KOH (C) Fe(OH)3 (D) None is true
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7. Energy released in neutralisation reaction which occurs between strong acid and strong base is-
(A)57.8 kJ (B) 57.1 kJ (C) hNO3 (D) H2C2O4
9. A solution has pH 9. On dilution the pH value
(A) decreases (B) increases (C) remain same (D) none of these
SUBJECTIVE II
1. Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with universal indicator shows pH as 5,3,13,7 and 9
respectively. Which solution is -
(A) neutral. (B) strongly alkaline. (C) strongly acidic. (D) weakly alkaline. (E)weakly acidic.

Arrange the pH in decreasing order of H+ ion concentration.

2. What will you observe when-
(i) red litmus paper is introduced into a solution of sodium sulphate ?
(ii) methyl orange is added to dilute hydrochloric acid ?
(iii) a drop of phenolphthalein is added to solution of lime water ?
(iv) blue litmus is introduced into a solution of ferric chloride ?
3. Give two applications of pH in our daily life.
4. Explain why?
(i) Aqueous solution of sodium acetate has pH more than 7.
(ii) Aqueous solution of copper sulphate has pH less than 7.
(iii) Aqueous solution of Potassium nitrate has pH value 7.

ANSWER KEY
OBJECTIVE I

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ans B A C B D A D A D A B

OBJECTIVE II
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Ans D A B B D D B C A

HINTS AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 1 Basic concepts of chemistry.

Solutions for lecture 1 & 2

Answer Key :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
C B C D B C A C D A B B C A C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B C C C A A B A C B C B A B A
31 32
C C

Solution 1: Formula of Baking soda is ‘NaHCO3’.

Solution 2: Law of constant composition
A chemical compound always contains same elements in definite proportion by mass and it does not
depend on the source of compound.
Solution 3: The law of conservation of mass is given by Antoine Lavoisier.
Solution 4: Refer the definition of law of conservation of mass

Solution 5: Info, the term ‘Parmanu’ for the smallest particle of matter was given by Maharishi
Kanad’.

Solution 6: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 CaCO3(s) on heating will decompose and form CaO (s) +
CO2 (g)

Solution 7: Density has unit of g/ml, so the formula for density would be mass/volume.

Solution 8: Sublimation means conversion of solid to gaseous form with-out forming any liquid
form, so in the given options I2 undergoes sublimation, as the inter molecular attractions ( between
two molecules attractions) are weak, it goes to gaseous state directly from solid state.

Solution 9: Refer definitions

Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an
increase in temperature and/or pressure. Evaporation is a fundamental part of the water cycle and is
constantly occurring throughout nature.

Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turn into a solid when
its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase and is
the reverse of evaporation. The word most often refers to the water cycle. It can also be defined as
the change in the state of water vapor to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid surface
or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere.

Solution 10: Info

Solution 11: Refer definition of law of constant proportions

Solution 12 : Refer definition of Avogadro’s law , its equal number of molecules...not atoms ,
electrons or protons.

Solution 13 : The hint for this question is irrespective of the weight of S the ratio of O that which
will react with S will always be 2:3, In SO2 the weight ratio of S: O is 32:32 and in SO3 its 32:48, so
it has to be 2:3 with reference to S reacting with O :)

Solution 14 : Irrespective of its source SO3 will always have weight ratio of 32:48 so the answer will
be 2:3

Solution 15 : Good question ☺ as the question says 14 g of something (X) binds with 16 g of O the
formula of the compound has to be X2O, In X2O the weight of X is 14 as there are 2 X and O will be
16 which fits in the data given in the question. Because for example in X2O3 it will be 28:48 and for
XO2 it will be 14: 32.

Solution 16 : Hint is balanced equation of the process N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 now think of the answer

Solution 17 : Refer definitions

Solution 18 :: Refer definitions

Solution 19: : Refer definitions

Solution 20 : : Refer definitions

Solution 21 : Refer Question no 16 the Hint is the balanced equation.

Solution 22: Info, worth remembering...

Solution 23 : : Refer definitions

Solution 24 : : Refer definitions

Solution 26 : Isotones have different atomic number but same number of neutrons.
76
Solutions 27: Isotones have different atomic number but same number of neutrons. For 32 Ge
the number of neutrons is 44.
77
(A) Ge
32 Difference is 45
77
(B) As
33 Difference is 44
77
(C) Se
34 Difference is 43
79
(D) Se
34 Difference is 45
so the answer is B.

Solution 28: The difference between atomic number and mass number has to be same and atomic
number has to be different for the species to be isotonic.

14 15 17
(A) C, N , F difference is (14-6)=8, (15-7)=8,(17-9)=8
6 7 9
12 14 19
(B) C, N, F difference is (12-6)= 6, (14-7)=7, (19-9)=10
6 7 9
(C) → difference is 8,7,8
14 14 19
(D) C, N, F
6 7 9 difference is 8,7,10

so, the answer is A.

Solution :29. Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass number, so they differ in
number of neutrons.

For example : 1H1,1H2, 1H3 these are isotopes of H and they differ in number of neutrons which is
0, 1 and 2 respectively...

Solution 30 : Isotopes have generally same properties.

Isobars example 19K40 and 20Ca40 will have different properties
Allotropes: Example Diamond and Graphite have different properties
so the answer is isotopes.

Solution 31 : Mass number - No of Neutrons = Atomic Number , so 14-8 = 6

14
so, the atom will be C
6

Solution 32: The hint is the balanced equation...

SUBJECTIVE:

Solution 1: Refer topic Law of conservation of mass.

Solution 2: 2KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3O2

24.5 g 14.9 ?

According to law of conservation of mass,

Total mass of reactant = Total mass of product
Mass ( KClO3 ) = M(KCl) + M (O2 )
24.5 = 14.9 + M (O2 )
M (O2 ) = (24.5 − 14.9) g
=9.6 g

Solution 3: Exp 1:
1.288 g of copper oxide was obtained from 1.03g of Cu.
So, 1.288 g of copper oxide contains 1.03g of copper and (1.288 – 1.03) g of
oxygen = 0.258g of oxygen.
Now, 1.03 g of copper combined with 0.258g of oxygen
0.258
1 g of copper combined with = 0.258 g of oxygen
1.03

Key for Lecture 3 & 4

Single Options Correct

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
D A A D C B C D C D B A B A C
16 17 18 19 20
A D B D D

More than one Options:

1 2 3 4 5
C,D A,B C,D B,C ABC

❖ Match the Column

1. A → P,R,S ; B → P ; C→ P,Q,R ; D→S

6. 64 g 7. 1.5055 × 1023, 5.6 L 8. 0.72 g, 1.445 × 1022

9. 0.0268 × 1021 molecules 10. 1.2046 × 1023 sec

Solutions or Hints for lecture 3 & 4

Solution 1:
(A) Phosphorus (P4) has 4 atoms
(B) Sulphur (S8) has 8 atoms
(C) Ethane (C2H6) has 8 atoms
(D) Methane (CH4) has 5 atoms

Solution: 2: 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

80 g 32g 112 g
5g 20g ?
80g of Ca gives 112g of CaO
5g of Ca will give 
112 
*5  of CaO
 80 
= 7g of CaO
Ans: (A)

Solution 3 : 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O (l)

From the balanced equation it is clear that 32g of oxygen requires 4 g of hydrogen to react
completely, so 3g of hydrogen will require 24g of oxygen

Solution 4: Convert 10g of O2 N2 and Cl2 to moles and the number will be proportional to
molecules.
(10/32)= 0.3125 moles = 0.3125 *6.023*1023 =1.88 *1023molecules
(10/28) = 0.357 moles = 0.357*6.023*1023 = 2.15*1023 molecules
(10/71)= 0.140 moles = 0.14*6.023*1023 = 0.84*1023 molecules

So the answer is D
Solution 5: 4g He is 1 mole He, 6.023 × 1023 atoms of He is also 1 mole He, Weight of 1 atom of
He is 4/6 *10-23g.

Solution 7: 6.023X 1023 atoms of silver weighs 108 g

108
6.023X 1020 atoms of silver weighs X 6.023 X 1020 = 0.108 g
6.023 X 1023

Solution 8 : (A) 8g of CH 4
16 g of CH 4 contains 1 NA molecules
8 g of CH 4 contains 0.5 NA molecules

(B) 4.4g of CO2

44 g of CO2 contains 1 NA molecules
1 NA
4.4 g of CO2 contains X 4.4 = 0.1 NA molecules
44

(C) 34.2 g of C12 H 22O11

342 g of C12 H 22O11 contains 1 NA molecules
34.2 g of C12 H 22O11 contains 0.1 NA molecules

(D) 2g of H 2 2g of H 2 contains 1 mole.

Ans (D)

Solution 9: 16g of O2 is half mole, 7g N2 is ¼ mole, 2g H2 is 1mole and 36g H2O is 2 mole so the
answer is C

Solution 10 : 32 g of O2 contains 6.023X 1023

6.023 X 10 23
16 g of O2 contains X 16 = 3.02 X 10 23 molecules
32
Ans: (D)

Solution 11 : At NTP, 1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 litre of volume.

Solution 12: 4g He contains 1g atom

8g He contains  X 8  g atom
1
4 
Ans: (A)

Solution 14: 1N 3− ions has 3X1.602 X10−19 C charge.

3 X 1.602 X 10−19
1gram ion ( 6.023X 1023 ions) has X 6.023 X 1023 = 2.894 X 105 C
1
Ans: (A)

Solution 15: 101 g of KNO3 contains 48g of oxygen

48
1000 g of KNO3 contains X 1000 = 475.29 of oxygen
101
Ans: (C)

Solution 16 :
Isotopic mass number 1 (Percentage abundance) + Isotopic mass number 2(Percentage abundance) = Atomic Mass

The sum of percentage abundance is taken as 1 representing 100%

Using the relation 79(0.497) + 81 (0.503) = Atomic mass of Br
39.263 + 40.743 = Nearly 80
Solution 17 : 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O using this balanced equation it’s clear that 4g H means 2 mole H2
and 1 mole O2 32g , will form 2 mole water and 1 mole occupies 22.4L at STP so the final volume
of the product will be 22.4*2 = 44.8L = 44800mL

Solution 18: From the balanced equation 1 volume of C3H8 will react with 5L of O2 so 20L of C3H8
will react with 100L of 2.

Solution 19.
(I) CH3+ C has six and H has one so the electrons is 9, + signifies loss of one electron so total = 8
(II) H3O+ 3(1) + 8 -1 =10
3 electrons from H, 8 from O and loss of one electron because of plus charge.

(III) NH3 7 +3(1) = 10 (7 from N and 1 each from H)

(IV) CH3- 6 + 3(1) +1 = 10
negative charge signifies gaining electron, so we added one electron extra...

Solution 20 :
1atom of Cl has 35.5amu and gram atomic mass is 35.5g

SUBJECTIVE:

Solution 1: Refer topic ‘Mole Concept’.

Solution 2: 1 mole oxygen atoms weigh 16g

Solution 4: 16 g oxygen element contain N A atoms of oxygen

N
1 g oxygen element contain A atom
16
NA
Given = X  N A = 16 X
16
27g Aluminium atom contain 1 N A atoms
1N A
1 g Aluminium atoms contains atoms
27
16 X
atoms [ N A = 16 X ]
27

Solution 5: 102g of Al2O3 contains 2 N A atoms of Al.

2N A
0.051g of Al2O3 contains X 0.051 atoms of Al
102
= 6.023X1020 [1N A = 6.023 X 10 23 ]

Solution 6: 56g Nitrogen gas (N 2 ) contain 2 mole (4 N A molecules)

And 32g of oxygen gas (O2 ) contains 1 N A molecules
2 N A molecules of O 2 weighs 32X2= 64g oxygen

Solution 7: 4g He contains 6.023X 1023 atoms of He

6.023 X 10 23
1g He contains atoms of He
4
4g He at STP occupies 22.4 l
22.4
1g He at STP occupies = 5.6l
4
Solution 8: 1 mole of C6 H12O6 has mass 180g
180
4 X10−3 mole of C6 H12O6 has mass ( 1
𝑋4𝑋10−3 ) 𝑔 = 72𝑔
1 mole of C6 H12O6 contains 6 N A atoms
4 X10−3 moles of C6 H12O6 contains (6𝑁𝐴 𝑋4𝑋10−3 ) C atoms
[1N A = 6.023 X 10 23 ]

6.023 X 10 23
Solution 10: Time taken = Sec
5
= 1.2046 X1023 Sec.

More than one options :

Solution 1: 1g atom of nitrogen is 1 mole of Nitrogen atoms

1 mole of N-atom  0.5 mole N 2 molecules
 0.5 X 6.023 X 10 23 N 2 molecules
 4.2 L of N 2 at NTP
 14 g of Nitrogen
Ans: (C, D)

Solution 2: 1g molecule of V2O5 contains 2 mole of v atoms; 5 mole atoms of ‘O’ atoms
Ans: (A, B)

Solution 3: 11.2 L of a gas at STP weighs 14g

14
22.4 L of a gas at STP weighs X 22.4 = 28 g
112
So, the molecular weight of gas would be 28
Hence, Ans: (C, D)

Solution 4 : Good question to be attempted by the student compulsorily

a) CH3COOH (24 g of Carbon /60 g of acetic acid) & C6H12O6 (72 g of Carbon
/180 g of Glucose)
b) CH3COOH (24 g of Carbon /60 g of acetic acid) & C2H5OH (24 g of Carbon /46
g of ethanol, Daru ;) )

c) HCOOCH3 (24 g of Carbon /60 g of methyl formate ester) & HCOOH (12g of
Carbon / 46g of formic acid )

d) C2H5OH (24 g of Carbon /46 g of ethanol, Daru ;) )& CH3OCH3(24 g of Carbon

/46 g of ether )

Solution 5 Compound is CO2

Mol. Wt = 44 Ans: (ABC)

MATCH THE COLUMN:

B) 1g H 2  0.5 mole
 occupy 11.2 L at STP
 1g
 0.5 N A Hydrogen atoms.

C) 0.5 mole of O3  occupy 11.2 L at STP

 weighs 48 X 0.5 = 24 g
 3 X 0.5 = 1.5 N A atoms.
D) 1g molecule of O2 is 1 mole, 22.4 L at STP, 2 N A ‘O’ atoms, Weighs 32g

Solutions for Lecture 5 & 6

Single options:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A C D C B B B B C
More than one Options:

1 2 3 4 5
A,C,D A,C B,C,D A,B BC

Single Options Correct

nA nB
Solution 1 : Hint for this question is mole fraction XA = : XB =
nA + nB nA + nB

Moles of solute
Molarity ( M ) =
Solution 2 : Molarity (M) of a solution Liters of solution

Solution 3 : Mass percentage of Mg in Mg(NO3)2 will be given by formula

Molar mass of Mg(NO3)2 = 148.3g/mol

 mass of Mg  24
 Total weight  *100% = 148 *100% = 16.2
 

b. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 % N = 28/80

c. Nitric oxide, NO % N = 14/30

d. Ammonia, NH3 % N = 14/17

Solution 5 : Using density of solution and mass of solution we need to calculate mL or L of solution.
Once we have volume of solution and Moles of solute we can calculate the molarity of solution

weight of solute 1
Molarity = *
molwt of solute liter of solution

mass
Density = so volume = 1120 / 1.15 = 974ml
volume
974ml = 0.974 Liter
120 1
Molarity = * = 2.05
60 (0.974)

Solution 6: C6H5OH(g) + 7O2(g) →6CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

30 ml 180 ml produced
Volume used initially= 30 (for C6H5OH) + 210 (For O2) = 240ml
Volume formed = 180 ml
Change in volume = 240 -180 = 60 ml

Solution 7: Using the volume of stock solution and Molarity we can calculate the moles of HCl and
then weight of HCl in grams.
weight of solute 1
Molarity = *
molwt of solute liter of solution

weight of solutein grams = 0.4 * 0.2 * 36.5 = 2.92 g

So we require 10g of stock solution, so using the density of solution and 10g of solution

10
So, volume of solution = = 8ml
1.25

Solution 8: Balanced equation

P4 + 20HNO3→ 4H3PO4 + 20 NO2 + 4 H2O

Solution 9: From the formula MCl3 its clear that the charge of M is +3 . The formula of its
phosphate will be M(PO4) as the charge on phosphate is also -3.

Solution 10 : Limiting reactant is A

Ideally with 2 moles of A, D formed = 3 moles
But yield = 25%
So, moles of D formed
= 3 × 0.25 = 0.75 mol

More than one options:

Solution 1: Vapor density, Specific gravity and Mass fractions are the ratios of same
Quantity hence dimensionless.

Solution 2: All the terms which depend upon the volume, are affected by the temperature

Solution 3: 1 mole of Ba(OH)2 will generate 2 moles of OH- so to completely neutralize this we
require 2 mole H+ .

0.5 mole HCl will generate 0.5 mole H+

1 mole H2SO4 will generate 2 mole H+
1 mole H3PO3will generate 2 mole H+
2 mole H3PO2 will also generate 2H+.

In the case acids having oxygen in their formula only those H are acidic which are linked to one O
atom ☺

Solution 4: Using the formula of Molarity we can calculate the concentrations of the given solutions
Answer will be A, B

weight of solute 1
A = Molarity = * = (20/40)*(1/0.2) =2.5M
molwt of solute liter of solution

weight of solute 1
B= Molarity = * = (0.5mole/0.2liter) = 2.5M
molwt of solute liter of solution

Solution 5: 1mole of N3- has 7 mole protons, 7 mole neutrons and 10 mole electrons

Practice for lecture 7 & 8: OBJECTIVE LEVEL I / SECTION I

Q. 1 Oxidation states
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. -2 +6 -1 -1 +1 +3 +5 +7 +5 +3
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. +1 +5 +6 -1 -1 -2 -1/2 +7 +6 +6
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. +6 +3 +2 +1 +5 +3 +4 +1 +5 +3
Que. 31 32 33 34 35
Ans. +4 0 +3 +1 +2

Q.2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C B B E C B B D C D

MCQ from Q3 to Q12

Que. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. A B B D C D D B B D

OBJECTIVE level I section - II

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B D A A C B D C D

SUBJECTIVE I
6. a. ZnO is reduced and C is oxidised.
b. MnO2 is reduced and HCl is oxidised.
c. FeCl3 is reduced and H2S is oxidised.
d. Mg is oxidised and N2 is reduced.
7. 1. Cr2O72-+ 14H+ +3SO32- → 2Cr3+ + 4H2O + 3 SO42-

First identify the species getting oxidised and reduced respectively....

In Dichromate ion Cr2O72- Cr is in +6 charge and is becoming Cr3+ so getting reduced and is
the oxidising agent.

Balance Oxidising Half and Reduction Half separately...

1) balance atom other than O and H

2) Balance atom O by adding H2O

3) Balance H by adding H+

4) Balance charge by adding electrons to more positive side....

Then add both of them...

Cr2O72- → Cr3+

1) Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+

2) Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

3) 14 H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

4) Add electrons to LHS as its more positive... 6e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

Do the same for SO32- → SO42-

5) H2O + SO32- → SO42

6) H2O + SO32- → SO42-+ 2H+

7) H2O + SO32- → SO42-+ 2H+ + 2e-

While adding both half reactions electrons lost = electrons gained so multiply 7 equation by 3

H2O + SO32- → SO42-+ 2H+ + 2e-

3 H2O + 3SO32- → 3SO42-+ 6H+ + 6e-

6e- + 14 H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

14 H+ + Cr2O72- + 3SO32- → 3SO42-+ 6H+ + 2Cr3+ + 4 H2O

4. 2MnO4- + 6I- + 4H2O → 2MnO2 + 3I2 + 8OH- (Basic)

Oxidation Half :
I- → I2
Balance Iodine
2 I- → I2
Balance charge by adding electrons to more positive side
2 I- → I2 + 2e- ...............(2)
To make electrons equal in both 1 and 2 multiply 1 by factor 2 and 2 by three

6e- + 8H+ + 2MnO4- → 2MnO2 + 4H2O

6 I- → 3I2 + 6e-
6 I- + 8H+ + 2MnO4- → 2MnO2 + 4H2O + 3I2
Now this reaction is balanced in acidic medium for basic medium add OH- equal to that of
H+ on both sides
8OH- + 6 I- + 8H+ + 2MnO4- → 2MnO2 + 4H2O + 3I2 + 8OH-
in LHS H+ and OH- will become H2O
8H2O + 6 I- + 2MnO4- → 2MnO2 + 4H2O + 3I2 + 8OH-
Now we have to cancel H2O
4H2O + 6 I- + 2MnO4- → 2MnO2 + 3I2 + 8OH-
Now this reaction is balanced in basic medium.

OBJECTIVE LEVEL I / SECTION I

1. Find the oxidation states of the underlined elements:

The sum of all oxidation states will be equal to overall charge.

(2) H 2 SO4

2(1) + x+ 4(-2) = 0

(8) H ClO4

1 + x+ 4(-2) = 0

(9) H 3 PO4

3(1) + x+ 4(-2) = 0

(13) H 2 S2O7

2(1) + 2x + 7(-2) =0

(17) NaO2

1+ 2x =0

(18) K MnO4

1+ x + 4(-2) =0

(19) K 2 MnO4

2 + x + 4(-2) =0

(20) K 2 Cr 2O7

2 + 2x + 7(-2) =0

(21) K 2 CrO4

2 + x + 4 (-2) = 0

(29) N 2O5

2x + 5(-2)= 0

(33) HAuCl4

1+ x +4(-1) = 0

(35) CuO

x +(-2) = 0

Solution 2 : Classify the following reactions as combination, decomposition, displacement or

disproportionation reactions

(A) Combination A + B ⎯⎯
→C (B) Decomposition A ⎯⎯ → B+C

(D) Disproportionation : Its a redox reaction in which same species gets oxidised as well as
reduced.

(E) Combustion

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Solution 3: A combination reaction (also known as a synthesis reaction) is a reaction where two
or more elements or compounds (reactants) combine to form a single compound
(product). Such reactions may be represented by equations of the following form: X +
Y → XY..

Solution 4: Refer Q No 1

Solution 5: A single replacement reaction, also known as a substitution reaction, is a type of

chemical reaction where one element replaces another element in a compound.

Solution 6: A decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a single compound

breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds. These reactions often
involve an energy source such as heat, light, or electricity that breaks apart the bonds of
compounds. Please remember that a decomposition reaction is irreversible change.


Solution 7: (i) CaCO3 ⎯⎯→ CaO + CO2. Example of decomposition reaction
(ii) 2H2O ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯→ 2H2 + O2 Analysis reaction
Electricity

(iii) CaO + CO2 ⎯⎯→ CaCO3Example of combination reaction

(iv) Fe + CuSO4 (aq.) ⎯⎯→ FeSO4(aq) + Cu Example of displacement reaction

Solution 8: A double displacement reaction, also known as adouble replacement reaction or

metathesis, is a type of chemical reaction where two compounds react, and the positive
ions (cation) and the negative ions (anion) of the two reactants switch places, forming
two new compounds or products. AX + BY → AY + BX

Solution 9: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ⎯⎯→ AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
In this reaction AgCl will precipitate so it is a precipitation reaction also.

Solution 10: Acid + Base → Salt + Water is neutralization and it’s a double displacement also.

Solution 11: Information based

Solution 12: Refer Q. No 6

Section II

Solution 1: An oxidizing agent will oxidize others and will reduce itself.

Solution 2: A reducing agent will reduce others and will oxidize itself.

Solution 4: CuO + H2 → H2O + Cu , In the given reaction Cu got reduced from +2 charge to
zero and H got oxidized from zero to +1, so it’s a redox reaction.

Solution 5: (A) Sn+2 - 2e- → Sn+4 if your positive charge increases that means you lost
electrons that is oxidation (LEO)
(B) Fe+3 + e- → Fe+2Here positive charge decreased (Gaining electron is reduction)
(C) Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl Here positive charge decreased (Gaining electron is reduction)

Solution 6: This is the reaction which is happening 2 Mg + O2 →2 MgO.

Solution 7: Info

Solution 8: Refer Q. No 3

Solution 9: In a reaction species which gets oxidized is the reducing agent.

Solution 10: Refer definition , Info

Subjective

Subjective I :

Solution 5 : Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-
stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually
metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment.

Solution 6 :
Oxidation means positive charge will increase for a species and in reduction negative charge increases.
(a) ZnO + C ⎯⎯→ Zn + CO , C is getting oxidized and Zn is getting reduced
(b) MnO2 + 4HCl ⎯⎯→ MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2Mn is getting reduced and Cl is getting oxidized

(d) 3Mg + N2 ⎯⎯→ Mg3N2 Mg is getting oxidized and N is getting reduced.

Solution 2 : (i) N2 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2NO – Heat Combination Reaction

(ii) 2HgO ⎯⎯→ 2Hg + O2 Analysis Reaction
(iii) Na2SO4 + BaCl2 ⎯⎯→ 2NaCl + BaSO4 Double Displacement
(iv) CuSO4(aq.) + Zn ⎯⎯→ ZnSO4(aq.) + Cu Single Displacement
(v) NH3 + HCl ⎯⎯→ NH4Cl Neutralization.

Solution 3 : Combination Reaction : A combination reaction (also known as a synthesis reaction)

is a reaction where two or more elements or compounds (reactants) combine to form a single
compound (product). Such reactions may be represented by equations of the following form: X + Y
→ XY..
Synthesis Reaction :A synthesis reaction or direct combination reaction is a type of
chemical reaction in which two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex
product. The reactants may be elements or compounds. The product is always a compound.

Solution 4 : Decomposition reaction in which a compound decomposes into its elements is known as
analysis reaction. For eg.

• 2HgO ⎯⎯→ 2Hg + O2

• 2HI ⎯⎯→ H2  + I2 

All analysis reactions are decomposition reactions, but all decomposition reactions are not
analysis reaction

Solution 5 : The substance X is AgCl. When silver chloride is kept in sun, it decomposes to form
Cl2 gas and Ag, as the reaction proceeds in the forward direction white colored substance turns grey
because of the formation of silver metal.

2AgCl (s) 2 Ag (s) + Cl2 (g)

Solution 6 : Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces
a less reactive element from its compound. Both metals and non-metals take part in displacement
reactions.
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Foundation Basic Chem Booklet Bakliwal Tutorials - IIT
Example : Reaction of iron nails with copper sulphate solution.
Fe (s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Double Displacement :A double displacement reaction, also known as
adouble replacement reaction or metathesis, is a type of chemical reaction where two
compounds react, and the positive ions (cation) and the negative ions (anion) of the two reactants
switch places, forming two new compounds or products. AX + BY → AY + BX

Solution 7 : 2 AgNO3 (aq) + Cu (s) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Ag (s) Displacement

Solution 8 : When Iron nail (Ferrum) is dipped in Copper sulphate(CuSO4) there takes reaction
between them and coppersulphate change its color from blue to light green. This shows Iron is more
reactive than Copper, it can replace Copper from CuSO4. CuSO4 is in blue Color and FeSO4 is in
light green color.

Solutions for lecture 9 & 10

Answer Key :
Q.1 D Q.2 C Q.3 D Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 B Q.7 A Q.8 B Q.9 D Q.10 A

REDOX REACTION

Solution 1: (a) NH3 (0) in NH3 N is -3

(b) NH2OH (+1) NH2OH N is -1

(c) (N2H5)2SO4 (+2) in N2H5+ N is -2

(d) Mg3N2 (-3) N = -3

Solution 2: Displacement 2Al + 6HCl → AlCl3 + 3H2 In this example Al got oxidized and
H got reduced so its an example of redox reaction.

Solution 3: Sum of oxidation number must be 0 Ans D.

A3 (BC4 ) 2
3X (+2) + (2 X 5) + 8 X (−2) = 0

Solution 4: CaOCl2
Ca +2 (OCl)− Cl − Ans: C

3Cl2 + 6 NaOH → NaClO3 + 5 Nacl + 3H 2O

Solution 6: a) SO2 → S +4
b) H 2 SO4 → 2 + x − 8 = o  x = +6 S +6
c) H2SO3→ 2 + x -6 =0 then x = +4
d) S8 elemental state so the oxidation state of S is zero.

Ans (b)

Solution 7: K 2Cr2O7 + XH 2 SO4 + YSO2 → K 2 SO4 + Cr2 (SO4 )3 + 2H 2O

Ionic equation
Cr2O7 2− + SO2 + H + → Cr +3 + SO4 2−
Balancing the above equation by ion electron method.

Cr2O7 2− + 14 H + + 6e − → 2Cr +3 + 7 H 2O 3SO2 + 6 H 2O → 3SO4 2− + 12 H + + 6e −

(i) (ii)

Adding (i) and (ii)

Cr2O7 2− + 3SO2 + 2 H + → 2Cr +3 + 3SO4 2− + H 2O Ans( a ).

Solution 8 : M 3+ − 3e− → M +6 Ans ( b )

Solution 9: a. NO2 (+4) and N2O4 (+4) b. P2O5(+5) and P4O10(+5)

c. N2O and NO (+1 and +2) d. SO2 and SO3(+4 and +6)
The numbers represented in the ( ) are the charges or oxidation number of the central
atom so the answer is D

Solution 10 : OF2
x−2 =0
x = +2 Ans( a )

Questions based on equivalent weight

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C A A A A B C D A C B B B C C

Questions based on Normality

1 2 3 4 5
A C A D C

Questions based on equivalent weight

Solution 1 : For a salt the n factor is = total positive or negative charge, So the equivalent weight =
(M/6)

Solution 2 : For an acid n factor = number of acidic H it can generate in the solution, in the given
reaction one acidic hydrogen is used so the n factor for H3PO4 in this reaction is ‘1’.
So the equivalent weight = (M/1) = 98

Solution 3: For a salt the n factor is = total positive or negative charge, So the equivalent weight =
(M/1) = Molar mass of NaHCO3 = 84

Solution 4 : For a salt the n factor is = total positive or negative charge, So the equivalent weight =
(M/8) Total cation charge = total anion charge = 8.

Solution 5 : For a salt the n factor is = total positive or negative charge, So the equivalent weight =
(M/1) = M

Solution 6: For a salt the n factor is = total positive or negative charge, So the equivalent weight =
(M/2)
Solution 7 : For a base n factor is number of ‘OH’ groups it can generate in solution. So the
equivalent weight = (M/3) Al(OH)3→ Al3+ + 3OH-

Solution 8: For a metal n = valency so Equivalent weight = M/2 =40/2 = 20

Solution 9: Equivalent weight will be equal to molecular weight if the n factor for a substance = 1
So for HC l will be the answer.

Solution 10: Definition of equivalent weight is the mass of a substance especially in grams that
combines with or is chemically equivalent to eight grams of oxygen or one gram of
hydrogen or the atomic or molecular weight divided by the valence.
Solution 11: weight require to produce one mole of hydronium ion will be equal to 20g

H2SO4 n=2, H3PO2 n =1, H3PO3 n=3, H3PO4 n=3.

Solution 13 : For H3PO3 n=2 so equivalent weight will be 82/2 = 41

Solution 14: Eq.wt = GMM / n n factor will be 6 for Fe2(SO4)3 , as it’s an ionic compound it’s
called formula weight rather than molecular weight.

Solution 15 : In N2O5 equivalent mass of N= molwt / n = 14/5 = 2.8

Questions based on Normality

Weight in grams 1
Normality = * * n factor
(Molar mass) volume of solution in L
3.15 1
1) Normality = * *1
(63) 0.5
7.4 1
2) Normality = * *2
(74) 0.75
10.6 1
3) Normality = * *2
(106) 1.25
28 1
4) Normality = * *1
(56) 2
196 1
5) Normality = * *2
(98) 1

Normality = Molarity * n factor ☺

CHAPTER 3
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Solutions for lecture 13 & 14

ANSWER KEY
(OBJECTIVE LEVEL I SECTION I)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. A B A C C D A D C B

(OBJECTIVE LEVEL I SECTION II)

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. A D A D C

Match The Column

i. A → P,R ; B →Q,R ; C →S ; D → Q,R

Objective / level 1 / Section 1

Solution 1: For cathode rays the mass will remain same for different gases as they are electrons
and the mass of an electron will remain same.

Solution 2: 10-13

Solution 3: Anode rays are cationic species generated during experiment.

Solution 4: Info

Solution 5: Neutron has 1 unit mass and 0 unit charge.

Solution 6: Bohr theory is applicable to hydrogen like species that is one electron system ☺

Solution 7: Alpha particles are helium nuclide i.e, bare nucleus so like charges will repel each
other

Solution 8: Orbits are called stationary states, as long as there is an electron in that state it will
not lose or gain energy on its own.

Solution 9: Nucleus was discovered by alpha ray scattering experiment by rutherford.

Solution 1: Refer Topic ‘Bohr’s Atomic Model’

Solution 2: Refer topic ‘Rutherford’s Atomic Model’

Solution 3: The electronic configuration of given atom is 2, 8. ( 1s 2 2s2 2 p 6 )

(A) No. of subshell = 3.
(B) No. of orbitals = 5

Objective Section ( II )

Solution 1: Electronic Configuration of Na is 2, 8, 1.

Solution 2: Refer the definition of Valency.

A
Solution 3: (Hint) X
Z
A: No. Of proton + No. of neutron.
Z: No. of proton
N: A-Z = No of neutron.

Solution 4: N2H4CO : 2(7) + 4(1) + 1(6) + 1(8) = 32

N has 7 electrons, H has 1, C 6 and O has 8.

Solution 5: As we move away from the nucleus the energy of electron increases.

Subjective

Solution 1: Valency is a combining capacity of an atom, and inert gas has complete octet thus
zero Combining capacity.

Solution 2: a) ‘O’ atom No. of e − = 8

No. of p = 8
No. of n = 8

b) oxide ion ( O2− ) No. of e − = 10

No. of p = 8
No. of n = 8

c) O2 No. of e − = 16
No. of p = 16
No. of n = 16

Match the Column

1.
A) electron has -1.6  10-19 C charge.
B) Proton has +1.6  10-19 C charge.
C) Neutron is chargeless.
D) anti electron +1.6  10-19 C charge.

Solutions for Lecture 15 & 16

Answer Key :

1. C 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. D 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. D
11. B 12. A 13. A 14. A 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. A
21. B 22. C 23. D 24. C 25. B 26. D 27. D 28. C

Solution 1: Energy is determined by (n + ) rule. Higher the (n + ) , higher will be its energy, for
same
value of (n + ) , e − with higher value n, will have higher energy.
(n + )
e1 3
e2 4
e3 5
e4 4
e3 > e2 > e4 > e1 Ans :- (C)
Solution 2: Refer topic Bohr’s Atomic Model

Solution 3:

1s 2 2s2 2 p6 3s 2 3p 3

Atomic number of P is 15 so the electronic configuration of P will be 1s7 2s2 2p63s2 3p3.
Ans.:- No. of unpaired e − = 3 ,

Solution 4: Refer topic ‘Magnetic quantum Number’.

Solution 6: Refer topic Quantum Numbers.

Solution 7: If n = x
l = (x-1) till zero
m = -l to +l
s = +1/2 or -1/2
If l=2 m cannot be -3 so D is the answer.

Solution 8: Degenerate orbitals are two orbitals with different quantum states but have the
same energy.

Solution 9: Refer topic azimuthal Quantum no.

Solution 10: Refer topic Quantum Numbers.

Solution 11: Refer topic Quantum Numbers and Bohr’s atomic model.

Solution 12: Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.

Solution 13: Energy is proportional to (n+l) , if (n+l) is same then energy is proportional to n
value.
Solution 14: Cr3+ has 3 unpaired electrons or single electrons
Mn2+ has 5 unpaired electrons or single electrons
Ni2+ has 2 unpaired electrons or single electrons
Fe3+ has 5 unpaired electrons or single electrons
Vanadium At No 23 has 3 unpaired electrons

Solution 15: Fe26  Ar  3d 6 4s2

n = 3 (3rd shell)
l= 2 (d subshell), 3d carries 6 electron
Ans( c )
Solution 16: Cr3+ =[Ar]18 3d3
Fe3+ =[Ar] 18 3d5
Mn2+ = [Ar] 18 3d5

Solution 17: Refer Aufbau principle.

Solution 18: E  ( n + ).
a) n + = 4
b) n + = 2

Solution 19) n = 5, = 3
= 3, ( f subshell )
No. of e − = 2 ( 2 + 1)
= 2 ( 2  3 + 1 ) = 14 Ans ( b )
Solution 20: Energy is proportional to only n in the case of Hydrogen.

Solution 21 : No. of e − in a shell = 2n2

Solution 22 : Any orbital (s/p/d/f) can accomodate 2 electrons only.

Solution 23 : No. of e − in a shell = 2n2

No. of e − in N shell (n = 4) = 2  4 2
Ans ( D )
Solution 24: No. of e − in a subshell ( ) is 2 (2 + 1)
f subshell (n = 3)
No. of e − = 2(2  3 + 1) = 14
Ans( C )
Solution 25 : No. of orbitals in a subshell = (2 + 1)
No. of orbitals in a f subshell (n = 3) = (2  3 + 1) = 7 so electrons will be 14

Solution 26: If l=0 its s subshell, l=1 p subshell, l=2 d subshell, l=3 f subshell and if l=4 its g
subshell . it can have 9 values of magnetic quantum number...so 9 orbitals.

Solution 27 : Add 2n2 for all orbits individually and then add them. ( 1st + 2nd + 3rd + 4th orbit)

Solution 28 :
L shell electrons in P = 8 (L means second shell)
L shell of neon = 8
M shell of K = 8 (M means third shell.)
M shell of Argon = 8
M shell of Cr = 13

Solution 29 : In the A option there are 2 electrons which have same spin means they violate Paulis
exclusion principle and pairing of electrons happened without all orbitals of same energy having one
electron each.

Solution 30: In option B lower energy (than 2p) level 2s is not filled so it violates Aufbau principle.

CHAPTER 4
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
PERIODIC TABLE
Practice for lecture 17 and 18

Answer Key for Lecture 17 & 18 :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
C B C A C C C C C B D A C D C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
A B B A C D B A A C

1. If an atom has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2, it will be placed in -
(A) second group (B) third group (C) fifth group (D) sixth group

Hint or solution : The electronic configuration is inert gas plus five electrons so this element
will be in fifth group.

2. The tenth element in the periodic table belongs to :

(A) first period (B) second period (C) fourth period (D) ninth period

Hint or solution : First period has 2 elements , 2nd and 3rd periods have 8 each and then fourth
has 18 elements, so 10th element will be in second period.

3. The elements having the electronic configuration, 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d2
belongs to -
(A) s-block (B) p-block (C) d-block (D) f-block
Hint or solution : The outer most electron is going into (n-1)d where n is the last shell so the
element has to be in d block.

4. Atomic number decides chemical property of an element. It also decides which group the
element belongs to. Identify which of the following elements are from the same group in the
periodic table.
(A) 1, 3, 11, 19, 37 (B) 8, 24, 42, 74 (C) 4, 12, 20, 58 (D) 5, 13, 27, 47

Hint or solution : For the elements in the same group the difference in successive atomic
numbers should be 2,8,8,18,18,32….. 1 is H, 3 is Li, 11 is Na, 19 is K, 37 is Rb

5. To which block is related an element having electronic configuration

6. The early attempt to classify elements as metals and non metals was made by -
(A) Mendeleev (B) Lother Meyer (C) Lavoisier (D) Henry Moseley

7. CI, Br, I, if this is Dobereiner's triad and the atomic masses of Cl and I are 35.5 and 127
respectively the atomic mass of Br is -
(A) 162.5 (B) 91.5 (C) 81.25 (D) 45.625

Hint or solution :

Cl = 35.5 amu
Br = 80 amu
I = 127 amu
So (35.5 +127)/2 = 81.25
It is a triad
8. Newlands could classify elements only upto -
(A) Copper (B) Chlorine (C) Calcium (D) Chromium
Hint or solution : Info refer theory
9. Mendeleev classified elements in -
(A) Increasing order of atomic groups (B) Eight periods and eight groups
(C) Seven periods and eight groups (D) Eight periods and seven groups
Hint or solution : Info refer theory

10. The long form of periodic table consists of -

(A) Seven periods and eight groups (B) Seven periods and eighteen groups
(C) Eight periods and eighteen groups (D) Eighteen periods and eight groups
Hint or solution : Info refer theory

11. Metals are included in the long form of periodic table in the -
(A) s-block only (B) p-block only (C) s, d, f blocks (D) s, p , d & f blocks
Hint or solution : Metals are present in every group in periodic table.

12. Which of the following is not a representative element -

(A) Fe (B) K (C) Ba (D) N

Hint or solution : s and p block elements are representative elements, so Fe as it belongs to d

block is not a representative element.

13. In the modern periodic table one of the following does not have appropriate position -
(A) Transition elements (B) Inert gases
(C) Inner transition elements (D) Halogens

Hint or solution : The position of H and f-block elements are not properly explained by modern
periodic table.

14. The difference between ions and atoms is of -

15. An element M has an atomic number 9 and atomic mass 19. Its ion will be represented by
(A) M (B) M+2 (C) M– (D) M–2

Hint or solution : Atomic number 9 means Fluorine and it has a fixed charge of -1

16. Elements belonging to the same group have similar properties because -
(A) they have similar electronic configuration of the outer most shell
(B) their atomic numbers go on increasing as we move down the group
(C) all of them are metallic elements
(D) None of the above
Hint or solution : Info, refer theory
17. If the two members of a Dobereiner triad are chlorine and iodine, the third member of this triad
is -
(A) fluorine (B) bromine (C) sodium (D) calcium
Hint or solution : Cl, Br and I are triads

18. The elements with atomic numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 are all -
(A) halogens (B) noble gases (C) noble metals (D) light metals
Hint or solution : The given atomic numbers are inert gases ,as they are starting with He
And are gases at room temperature, the answer will be B

19. The elements with atomic numbers 3, 11, 19, 37 and 55 belong to -
(A) alkali metals (B) alkaline earth metals (C) halogens (D) noble gases

Hint or solution : The numbers given have one electron excess to the inert gas configuration,
so the elements are alkali metals that is 1st group in periodic table.

20. The elements with atomic numbers 9, 17, 35, 53 and 85 belong to -
(A) alkali metals (B) alkaline earth metals (C) halogens (D) noble gases

Hint or solution : The numbers given differ by one electron to the inert gas configuration, so
the elements are halogens that is 17th group in periodic table.

21. The number of elements in each of the inner transition series is -

(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 10 (D) 14

Hint or solution : Lanthanides or actinides are inner transition elements, they are 14 elements

22. The number of elements in the third period of the periodic table is -
(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 18 (D) 32

23. The total number of elements is the group IB is -

(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 9

Hint or solution : IB group elements are positioned after IIA so it is Scandium, Yttrium and
Lanthanum so the total number of elements are three.

24. Which of the following elements are analogous to the lanthanides -

(A) Actinides (B) Borides (C) Carbides (D) Hydrides

Hint or solution : Lanthanides or actinides are inner transition elements, they are a set of 14
elements each and they have nearly same outer configuration( shell is different) like in a group
so they are analogous to each other in properties.

25. Dobereiner traids is -

(A) Na, K, Rb (B) Mg, S, As (C) Cl, Br, I (D) P, S, As

Hint or solution : B and D options are not the correct answers because the elements given are
from different groups.

Sodium :23 amu

Potassium : 39 amu
Rubidium :85.5
So (23+85.5)2 = 54.25
It is not a triad

Cl = 35.5 amu
Br = 80 amu
I = 127 amu
So (35.5 +127)/2 = 81.25
It is a triad

Practice for lecture 19 & 20

Answer Key for Lecture 19 & 20 :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
B D D B C D B D C B B B D D B
16 17 18 19 20
B D D C C

1. Which of the following is the correct order of relative size

(A) I– < I+ > I (B) I– > I > I+ (C) I < I+ > I– (D) I+ < I– > I

Hint or solution : An anion of an atom is always greater in size its own atom and a cation is
always smaller than its own atom, In an anion there are more electrons than protons so
repulsions are more and in the case of a cation the number of protons are more than electrons
so nuclear attractions are more, size decreases.
I has 35 protons and 35 electrons
I +1 has 35 protons and 34 electrons
I-1 has 35 protons and 36 electrons

2. Which of the following properties generally decrease along a period -

(A) atomic size (B) non-metallic character
(C) metallic character (D) both (A) and (C)

Hint or solution : Left to right of periodic table size and metallic character decreases, so non
metallic character increases.
3. The element with smallest size in the 4th period is -
(A) chlorine (B) iodine (C) fluorine (D) bromine

Hint or solution : Left to right of periodic table size decreases and from top to bottom in a
group size increases. F is 2nd period so Br is 4th period.

4. The most metallic element in the fifth period is -

(A) silver (B) rubidium (C) gold (D) rhodium

Hint or solution : Left to right of periodic table metallic character decreases so most metallic
element will be on the left hand side of the periodic table , so the answer will be Rubidium.

5. Which of the following is most electronegative ?

(A) Carbon (B) Silicon (C) Lead (D) Tin

Hint or solution : Top to bottom of periodic table electronegativity decreases so in the given
list Carbon will be most electronegative.
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6. In the periodic table, the metallic character of elements -
(A) increases, (i) from left to right across a period and (ii) on descending a group
(B) decreases, (i) from left to right across a period and (ii) on descending a group
(C) increases from left to right across a period and decreases on descending a group
(D) decreases from left to right across a period and increases on descending a group

Hint or solution : Left to right of periodic table metallic character decreases and top to bottom
metallic character increases.

7. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with a high melting point.
X would most likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as -
(A) Na (B) Mg (C) Al (D) Si

Hint or solution : If an element forms MCl2 means its common charge will be M2+. In the
given set of elements only Magnesium has a common charge of +2.

8. Alkali metals are stored under oil because

(A) They are lighter than air (B) They conduct electricity in gaseous state
(C) They are magnetic (D) They are very reactive

Hint or solution : They are stored under oil because when exposed to air they start reacting
with it to form oxides etc…

9. As you go down the group, the alkali metals become -

(A) Brighter (B) Hotter (C) More reactive (D) Less reactive

Hint or solution : Top to bottom of periodic table, size increases so the ease with which you
can lose an electron increases ,we can conclude that as we go down the group reactivity
increases.

10. Arrange the following in increasing order of their atomic radius : Na, K, Mg, Rb -
(A) Mg < K < Na < Rb (B) Mg < Na < K < Rb
(C) Mg < Na < Rb < K (D) Na < K < Rb < Mg

Hint or solution : good question pls think again !!

11. Which is metalloid -

(A) Pb (B) Sb (C) Bi (D) Zn

Hint or solution : All the metalloids belong to p-block in periodic table. Pb and Bi are the last
elements of their respective groups and Zn belongs to d block hence a metal, so the answer is
Sb.

12. Which of the following are isoelectronic?

(I) CH3+ (II) NH2– (III) NH4+ (IV) NH3
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(A) I, II, III (B) II, III, IV (C) I, II, IV (D) II and I
Hint or solution : Remember that if you get plus charge you lost an electron if you have
negative charge you gained one electron.
(I) CH3+ has 6 + 3 -1 = 8 electrons (II) NH2– has 7 + 2 +1 = 10 electrons
(III) NH4+ has 7 + 4 -1 = 10 electrons (IV) NH3 has 7+ 3 = 10 electrons

13. Which of the following pairs of elements belongs to the same period of the periodic table?
(A) Na, Ca (B) Mg, Sb (C) Ca, Cl (D) Ca, Zn

Hint or solution :
Na : 3rd period Ca : 4th period
Mg :3rd period , Sb : 5th Period
Ca: 4th period , Cl : 3rd period
Ca: 4th period and Zn: 4th period.

14. Which among the following is not isoelectronic with O2–?

(A) N3– (B) Na+ (C) F– (D) S2–

Hint or solution : Isoelectronic means same number of electrons.

(A) N3– : has 10 electrons
(B) Na+ has 10 electrons
(C) F– has 10 electrons
(D) S2– has 18 electrons .

15. The one with maximum size is :

(A) Cl (B) Cl– (C) Cl+ (D) Cl3+

Hint or solution : Cl : 17 protons and 17 electrons

Cl-1: 17 protons and 18 electrons
Cl+1: 17 protons and 16 electrons
Cl+3: 17 protons and 14 electrons

16. Write the period number, group number and block of the element having atomic number 42
(A) 5, 5, d (B) 5, 6, d (C) 5, 2, d (D) 5, 15, p

Hint or solution : 42 element is Mo beneath Cr in periodic table so it belongs to 6th group and
5th period and is d block element.

17. Select the correct statement for Ne

(A) It is not isoelectronic with H2O (B) Its last electron enters in s-orbital
(C) The value of m must be 0 for last e– (D) The value of l must be 1 for the last electron
Hint or solution : The total number of electrons in Ne and H2O are 10, for Ne the last electron
enters p subshell and the value of m will be -1 to +1 as l value will be 1 for p subshsell so the
answer is D.

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18. The atomic number of two elements A and B are 17 and 20 respectiely. The formula of an
ionic compound made by A and B is (write the cation first)
(A) AB (B) A2B (C) AB2 (D) BA2
Hint or solution : Atomic number is 17 means Cl and 20 means Ca
So the formula will be BA2.

19. Elements of which group form anions most readily -

(A) Oxygen family (B) Nitrogen group (C) Halogens (D) Alkali metals

Hint or solution : Halogens have a common charge of -1 as they are most non metallic

20. The statement that is not correct for the periodic classification of elements is
(A) The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers
(B) Non-metallic elements are lesser in number than metallic elements
(C) The first ionization energies along a period vary in a regular manner with increase in atomic
number
(D) For transition elements the d-sub-shells are filled with electrons monotonically with
increases in atomic number
Hint or solution : Good question but theory based ☺
Metals are present in all blocks of periodic table where as non metals are only in p- block so non
metals are less in number than metals in periodic table.
Ne > F > N > O > C > Be > B > Li is the order of first I.E so C option is not correct.

Extra practice set 1 Lecture 17 to 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A D A A C A C D B C

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

C A C C B D B D A B

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

B D D D B B C A A A

Solution.1 Ans ( A ) Newlands

Solution.2 Ans ( D ) Hydrogen can exist in +1 oxidation state with nonmetal and -1 oxidation
state with metal and O in elemental form.( InNaH ( Sodium Hydride) H has a charge
of -1 , In H2O its in +1 and In H2 gas its zero charged.)

Solution.3 Ans ( A ) Mercury exist as liquid at room temperature. Ga belongs to p-block, Cs will
be in s-block.

Solution.5 n = 5 Since = 0, shows

=0
m=0 s – subshell
s = +1
2
So, element belongs to s-block

Solution.6 17 group means Halogen Family (F, Cl, Br and I ) 5th period means Iodine so the ans
[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5

Solution.7 Isoelectronic species are species-having same no. of electrons.

Solution.8 Refer Q.7

Solution .9 Scandium ( Ans B )

Soluiton.10 Modern periodic table is based on the atomic no. Ans (C)

Solution.11 Ans ( C ) Diagonal relationship is due to similarity of ionic radii, Charge/radius ratio
of two species need to be similar.

Solution.12 Ans ( A ) 2 B ,Info

Solution.13 Ans ( C ) Please remember elements 24 (Cr) and 29 (Cu) have different electronic
configurations than what is predicted because half-filled and completely filled
orbitals are more stable than other members.
4
Solution.14 Ans ( C ) ns2 np means 6 valence electrons so they require 2 more electrons to
octet configuration means they will carry general charge -2.
Solution.15 Refer periodic table

Solution.16 Ans( D )

Solution.17 Uranium( U ), is the heaviest metal in terms of atomic weight.

Solution.18 Ans( D ) , ‘K’ Potassium The elements of group I are Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr.

Solution.19 Ans( A ), Electronegativity of oxygen is less than that of fluorine. For eg LiF is called
lithium fluoride and In LiO its lithium oxide .in OF2 as F is more electro negative
will carry negative charge so the name of the compound will be fluoride rather than
an oxide ☺
Solution.20 Ans( B ) Manganese is a transition metal, so it has variable oxidation state. It can
show oxidation state +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7. Valency is the number of electrons lost
or gained by an atom.

Solution.22 Ans( D )

Solution.23 Lavoisier considered to be the father of chemistry.

Solution.24 C (On moving L to R in a period, I.E. increases)

Solution.25 M +3 + Y −2
M 2Y3 Ans(B) Cross over rule
Solution.26 Fluorine is highly reactive due low dissociation energy of F-F bond because as the
bond is short repulsions are on higher side when compared
Solution 27: Alkali metals have highest size in a period will have least Ionisation energy.
Solution 28: Option A results in inert gas configuration after losing one electron.
Solution 29: H has highest value of I.E in the given elements 13.6ev
Solution 30: Be 9.32ev, B 8.3 ev, C 11.26ev, N 14.53 ev and O 17.42 ev, very good question please
take teachers help regarding this one.

Extra practice Lecture 17 to 20 set 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D D A A B D B D A C

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

A A B D D D D D B C

21 22 23 24 25

A B A A A

Soluiton.1 Ans( D ) refer topic “Ionization Potential”

Solution.2 Ans( D ) refer topic “Ionization Potential”

Solution.3 Metallic elements have lesser ionization potentials then nonmetallic elements

Solution.4 Ans( A ) refer topic “ Electron Affinity “

Solution.5 Ans( B ) Metallic hydroxide are bases and metals have low ionization potential.

Solution.6 Ans( C ) refer topic “ Electron Affinity “

Solution.8 Ans( D ) all of these, please consider the stability of resultant configuration in both
atoms / ions

Solution.9 Ans( D ) Ionic compounds are formed by electronegative and electropositive

elements in periodic table.

Solution.10 Ans( C ) Metallic character decreases from left to right in periodic table and from top
to bottom metallic nature increases.

Solution.11 Ans( A ) , pauling scale is normally used.

Solution.12 Ans( A ) , refer topic ‘Electronegativity’

Solution.13 Ans( B ), refer topic ‘Electronegativity’

Solution.14 Ans( C ), The O-H bond is the most polar because the oxygen has a greater refer topic
Electronegativity than H, N Ce or Br

Solution.15 Ans( D ). The refer topic Electronegativity of Be and O are 2.04 and 3.44
respectively.
The difference in the refer topic electronegativity is 1.40. Hence covalent bond is
formed.

Solution.16 Ans( D ), if any process leads to a stable product then energy will be released.
First electron affinity of any element is always negative means energy will always
released.

Solution.17 Ans D, I.E is inversely proportional to size and Left to right of PT size decreases.

Solution.18 Ti 4+ has the smallest radius due to large nuclear charge , higher the charge on a cation
smaller will be its size.

Solution.19 Alkali metals has lowest ionization potential.

Solution.20 Si <P<C<N stability of configuration has to be considered.

Solution.21 Ans( A )
Solution.22 O− is more stable than O, so energy is released in the process O + e → O− Ans( B )
Solution.23 HF<HCl<HBr<HI
→ increasing acidic nature. Ans( A ) Greater the intermolecular attractions
greater will be the association so extent of dissociation will decrease.

Solution.24 Cs has the lowest ionization potential as it is inversely proportional to size, Ans ( A )

Solution 25 Cl has highest EA than F, the highest in Periodic table.

CHAPTER 5
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
TYPES OF BONDS
Hints :
1. Moseley has supplied very valuable evidence that this rule [atomic numbers changing by one
from element to element] also holds for a number of the lighter elements. By examination of
the wave-length of the characteristic X rays emitted by twelve elements varying in atomic
weight between calcium (40) and zinc (65.4), he has shown that the variation of wave-length
can be simply explained by supposing that the charge on the nucleus increases from element
to element by exactly one unit. This holds true for cobalt and nickel, although it has long
been known that they occupy an anomalous relative position in the periodic classification of
the elements according to atomic weights."
2. I.E inversely proportional to Size
3. Mass Number = No of Protons + No of Neutrons
4. Definition of Isotopes : each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal
numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in
relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an
element
5. The hint is quantum numbers, for nth shell the number of electrons feasible will be 2n2.
6. Modern periodic law
7. Rutherford’s nuclear concept of the atom.
(i)The atom of an element consists of a small positively charged ‘nucleus’ which is situated at
the centre of the atom and which carries almost the entire mass of the atom.
(ii)The electrons are distributed in the empty space of the atom around the nucleus in different
concentric circular paths, called orbits.
(iii)The number of electrons in orbits is equal to the number of positive charges (protons) in
the nucleus. Hence, the atom is electrically neutral.
(iv)The volume of the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the volume of the atom.
(v)Most of the space in the atom is empty.

8. 3rd period elements have higher value than 2nd period and is inversely proportional to size.
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9. Species needs to be isoelectronic, that is same number of electrons
10. Bond between electro positive and negative elements will be Ionic/ electrovalent.
11. Standard Information
12. Refer question 1
13. Refer Question 7
14. Compounds in (1)(3) and(4) are pure covalent compounds.
15. Convert the given moles to weight using the relation
number of moles = weight in g / mol. wt of substance
16. Think of Limiting Reagent, write the balanced equation
17. Weight of one mole ( 6.023*1023) of atoms = its atomic mass
18. Cuprum - Copper shows solid structure at room temperature , Plumbum Pb shows solid
structure at room temperature, Aurum Gold shows shows solid structure at room temperature,
Hydrogyrum is Mercury liquid at room temperature.
19. Sodium chloride ,NaCl is an ionic compounds will contains Ions in solid state, will conduct
electricity on melting because of the migration of Ions.
20. Potassium shows only +1 state only.
21. Al3+ and PO43- So the formula of the compound will be AlPO4.
22. % of an element = (mass of element/ molar mass) * 100 of the compound
for example Ca in CaCO3 will be = (40/100)* 100 = 40 %
23. Weight of one mole of water molecules will be 18g then calculate for one molecule.
24. Convert the given weights to moles
25. One moles of any gas @ STP will occupy a volume of 22.4L
26. Iron has 2 electrons in its valence shell. On donating these electrons, its valency is 2+. But it
can lose another electron from the shell next to the valence shell. The ion thus formed, has
3+ electropositive valency.
27. % of an element = (mass of element/ molar mass) * 100 of the compound
for example Ca in CaCO3 will be = (40/100)* 100 = 40 %
28. An alpha particle is a fast moving packet containing two protons and two neutrons (a
helium nucleus). A Beta Particle is the same as an electron.
29. Standard Question
30. Standard Question
31. Standard Question
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32. Modern periodic law.
33. The main group includes the elements (except hydrogen) in groups 1 and 2 (s-block), and
groups 13 to 18 (p-block), Main-group elements (with some of the lighter transition metals)
are the most abundant elements on Earth, in the Solar System, and in the Universe. They are
sometimes also called the representative elements.
34. I.E is inversely proportional to size.
35. I.E is inversely proportional to size.
36. Definition of transition elements :any of the set of metallic elements occupying a central
block (Groups IVB–VIII, IB, and IIB, or 4–12) in the periodic table, e.g. iron, manganese,
chromium, and copper.
37. H-Cl the bond between H and Cl is covalent, single bond
38. Think of Na and Cl the formula for the compound will be NaCl.
39. Standard information

40. The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall scattering, is light scattering by particles in a
colloid or particles in a fine suspension. It is named after the 19th-century physicist
JohnTyndall.
41. An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or
unblendable). Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, milk, mayonnaise
42. Every atom in H2O does not have octet
1
43. Hydrogen is represented as 1H

44. Standard Information

45. a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change.
46. A solutions is homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which one acts as a
solvent and other as solute.
47. To show electrical conductivity there should be free electrons, they are present in Graphite.
48. Reducing agent will reduce others will oxidize itelf ☺
49. Information
50. It’s a mixed salt, CaCl2 and Ca(OCl)2 so its represented as CaOCl2.

CHAPTER 6
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
Carbon and Its Compounds
Objective 6.1

2. To conduct electricity there should be free electrons in the system/species . In diamond there are
no free electrons that’s why it can’t conduct electricity.

3. Number of electrons shared in a bond is two ☺ or the number of electron pairs is one ☺.

4. Draw the lew is dot structure of the given examples.

5. , remember that the first bond between any two atoms will be sigma rest all are
pi.

6. Standard Info.

7. Remember the statement LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE , non polar species will be soluble in non
polar species only.

8. Refer Q 2.

9. Info

10. Think of the number of bonds per C atom that will help you to answer the question

Subjective 6.2

1. To get stability / decrease the Potential energy.

2. Lewis dot structure of PH3 is

3. NaCl and HClO4 in the perchloric acid the Cl atom is covalently bound to O and you want to
have both type of Cl in one then the example will be CaOCl2 bleaching powder.

4. X can be Carbon and Y can be Oxygen then think of the example.

7. Refer Q 1

9. Info

10. CnH2n+2 is the general formula of an Alkane.

Objective 6C.1
1.

Solution 6 : Three Isomers ☺

Objective 6D.1
1. If the burning efficiency of the fuel is less we get sooty flame.

2. 95% ethanol by volume.

3. Conc H2SO4 acts as dehydrating agent

4. To react with Na metal the compound should have an acidic Hydrogen, ROH + Na →RONa +
H2.

5. Alcohol on complete oxidation will give acid

6. Conc H2SO4 acts as dehydrating agent

8. B information

Subjective 6D.2

1. Denatured alcohol, also called methylated spirits or spiritus, is ethanol that has additives to
make it poisonous, extremely bad tasting, foul smelling or nauseating, to discourage recreational
consumption. In some cases it is also dyed.
2. Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for alcohol burners and camping stoves.
Because of the diversity of industrial uses for denatured alcohol, hundreds of additives and
denaturing methods have been used. The main additive has traditionally been 10% methanol, giving
rise to the term "methylated spirits". Other typical additives include isopropyl
alcohol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, and denatonium.
3. An antifreeze is an additive which lowers the freezing point of a water-based liquid. An
antifreeze mixture is used to achievefreezing-point depression for cold environments and also
achieves boiling-point elevation ("anti-boil") to allow higher coolant temperature.

CHAPTER 7
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
ACIDS AND BASES
Chapter 7

Q.1) Ans( B )

Q.2) Ans( A )

Q.3) Ans( C )

Q.4) Ans( B )

Q.5) Ans( D )

Q.6) Ans( B )

Q.7) Ans( D )

Q.8) Ans( A )

Q.9) Ans( D )

Q.10) Ans( A )

Q.11) Ans( B )

Subjective I

Solution 1
Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H 2
This section is vigorous and produces bubbles of hydrogen gas and colorless solution of metal
chloride.

Objective

Q.1) Ans( D )

Q.6) Ans( D )
Alkalis are 1) Basic salts of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal.
2) Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ion.

Subjective ( II )

1)
a) D
b) C
c) B
d) E
e) A B>A>D>E>C.

Q.4) 1) CH 3COONa + H 2O → CH 3COOH + NaOH

Weak acid Strong acid
Due to presence of strong acid. ( NaO 4 )
Solution is basic. Thus pH  7

+2 2− + −
2) CuSO4 + 2 H 2O → Cu (aq ) + SO4 (aq ) + 2 H (aq ) + 2OH aq
CO(O H )2 is weak base
H 2 SO4 is a strong acid
Therefore, solution is acidic.

3) Aqueous solution of KNO3 has PH 7 (neutral)

KNO3 + H 2O → KOH + HNO3
Strong base Strong acid
Hence the solution would be neutral.

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