SWITCHED-CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE BOOST
CONVERTER FOR ELECTRIC
AND HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE DRIVES
ABSTRACT

This paper presents a modular switched-capacitor (SC) dc-dc converter

based electric drive system for battery electric vehicles. In such a system,
modularization lithium-ion battery cell tied MOSFET SC converters are
used instead of the more conventional IGBT boost converter. Following
the drive train architecture, the modeling approach for each electrical
component, including the battery set, dc-dc and dc-ac converters, ac
machines, and their control is discussed. Emphasis is given on state of the
art lithium-ion battery models and SC converter design. System level
performance is analyzed based on simulation results across drive cycles.
Hardware including a three-cell lithium-ion battery tied SC converter
module is built and tested. Application notes such as economic and
spacing constraints are addressed.

Index Terms—Switched capacitor dc-dc converters, electric vehicles,

lithium-ion batteries, ac motor drives

INTRODUCTION
switched-capacitor (SC) converters are being applied at increasing power
levels . Because of the high energy density of capacitors , SC converters
can enable improved power density compared to conventional inductor-
based power converters. This makes SC converters attractive in space-
constrained applications such as battery electric vehicles (BEV). Recent
technological advances in SC converters have greatly reduced their sizes
and improved efficiencies while increasing switching frequencies. High
power applications utilizing SC converters have also made significant
progress [. However, low-voltage high-current small-sized modular SC
converters tied to lithium-ion batteries used in BEV motor drives
applications have not been fully explored. In , a simulation study on this
topic was developed. However, no hardware implementation was made,
and the system level efficiency analysis was not thorough in particular
regarding the impact of an unregulated dc bus voltage on motor drive’s
efficiency. BEV power train systems often employ a boost converter to
provide a high bus voltage and tight inverter package. Typical battery
packs consist of many single-cell lithium-ion batteries, usually 3.2-4.0 V
each, depending on their state of charge (SOC) . They are connected in
series to form a 300-400 V source, which is boosted to around 700 V for
the dc bus . Instead of a single bulky IGBT boost converter between the
battery pack and the dc bus, battery-cell-level modular SC converters,
based on MOSFET ’s, were proposed in . These SC converters are
connected in series and directly form a 600-800 V dc bus. Since the
conversion ratio for a SC converter is fixed by its circuit topology, this
strategy yields an unregulated dc bus. Potential advantages for modular
SC converters in the BEV application include reduced volume and weight
footprint, improved thermal flows, flexible structures, improved battery
cell balancing, increased reliability, and fault bypass modes, etc.
However, many other factors are unknown, such as the proposed system’s
feasibility, efficiency, cost, and also its impact on the motor drive. The
contribution of this paper is to design and simulate such a system and
analyze its performance. A state-of-the-art SC converter module tied with
lithium-ion batteries is designed, built, and tested to validate the concepts.
A comparison is made to a conventional boost converter.
LITERATURE REVIEW
1) Y. song and b. wang 2014. HEV Evaluation and Control Strategy for
Improving Power Electronics System Reliability," Y. Song and B.
Wang 2014 Reliability Management EV Decision and Control,
because it can provide an objective standard for comparative analysis
of different configurations and processes and can be used as effective
tools to improve the overall design and management of electrical
reliability Power systems research.
2) Y. Song and B. Wang 2013. Since electrical generators are widely
used in many different industries, their reliability has been widely
studied. This project conducts a qualitative analysis of electrical
power system reliability assessment and improvement in three
phases .
3) Fang Zheng Peng 2013. Impedance (or impedance source) power
supply is used to power the converter (Z converter for short) and its
control, dc-ac, ac-dc, ac-ac and dc-dc converters. The Z-source
converter uses a unique impedance network (or circuit) for several
main circuits from the converter to the main source, providing special
features not found in normal voltage (or voltage-fed) and current
sources. (Or current converter) uses a capacitor and an inductor.
4) Qian, H. Cha, F.Z. Peng, and L.M. Tolbert. Instead of traditional DC-
DC converters, it connects the battery to the inverter DC bus in plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) traction drives. The boost converter
used in commercial HEVs has encountered obstacles in increasing the
power rating and achieving good efficiency while reducing the size of
the converter.
5) Zonggen, YiMatthewShirk 2018. This study presents an optimal
charging decision framework for connected and automated electric
vehicles under a personal use scenario. The aim of this framework is
 to provide charging strategies, i.e., charging station selection and the
amount of charged energy, taking into account the limitations of
personal daily routes and existing charging infrastructure.
6) Jim Francfort1 Brion Bennett1 Richard “Barney” Carlson1 Thomas
Garretson2 2018, With gas stations seemingly on every block, one
would logically expect that refuelling or recharging PEVs would
require a similarly ubiquitous network of public charging stations.
However, charging stations can be installed where filling stations
cannot (i.e., in homes, workplaces and destinations where PEVs
spend long periods of time parked).
7) Michael Evzelman, M. Muneeb Ur Rehman, Kelly Hathaway 2019,
Electric vehicles, including plug-in hybrids battery for propulsion and
a low-voltage (LV) DC bus for auxiliary loads. This paper presents an
architecture that uses modular DC and DC bypass converters to
perform active balancing of battery cells and to power auxiliary loads,
thereby eliminating the need for a separate high-step-down DC-DC
converter.
8) Jorge Estima 2021, One of the most important research topics of
powertrain topologies applied to electric/hybrid vehicles is the
analysis of powertrain component efficiency, including global drive
efficiency. In this paper, two basic traction electric propulsion
systems for electric/hybrid vehicles are presented and evaluated, with
a special focus on efficiency analysis.
9) Zong-Zhen Yang 2020, In this paper, an active equalizer based on a
bidirectional buck-boost-converter is developed. Energy between
adjacent cells can be transferred bidirectionally by manipulating the
balancing current to solve the imbalance problem in the battery
module. It should be noted that the conduction time of the main
switch in a conventional buck-boost equalizer is fixed. Thus, the
 balancing current will decrease as the voltage difference of adjacent
cells decreases, resulting in an extended balance period.

EXISTING SYSTEM
VSIs are money transmitters by nature. Therefore, the DC link voltage
must be higher than the DC or AC input voltage. For applications where
available DC voltage is limited, two configurations are commonly used
for commercial traction electric propulsion: A battery directly feeding a
two-level converter and a battery connected to a DC/DC intermediate
stage inverter The power rating of the DC-DC converter should match the
power of the battery, resulting in a proportionally large choke. The
inductor is a costly and heavy component.

PROPOSED SYSTEM
Accurately predicting the reliability of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is
essential in planning, designing, managing, and controlling vehicle
operations. This helps to objectively evaluate different configurations and
topologies and can improve the design and control of the entire system.
To achieve this, the paper proposes a MATLAB-based simulation model
that can quantitatively evaluate the reliability of HEV electric
powertrains. The simulation model takes into account variable driving
scenarios, idle mode, electrical stress, and thermal stress, thereby
achieving a more reliable and accurate prediction of system reliability.
The paper details the methodology used and presents the results of the
reliability evaluation for the HEV series. Using the reliability analysis
results, two control strategies are proposed to increase the mean time to
failure of HEV power units. These strategies include variable DC link
voltage control and a hybrid discontinuous pulse width modulation
scheme. Implementing these new control schemes reduces energy losses
and thermal stress on the power converters, ultimately improving system
reliability. The numerical simulation results confirm the advantages of the
two proposed control strategies in terms of performance losses and
reliability to overcome the above limitations of traditional drivetrains, this
project presents a switched capacitor (SC) voltage converter and its
control methods.

 The research proposes the utilization of an inverter combined with a

switched capacitor circuit to create a unified circuit.
 A switching capacitor circuit is employed to generate a multi-level
DC voltage. 
 Consequently, the suggested switched capacitor circuit differs from
the conventional circuit by eliminating the need for a reverse blocking
diode or a large filter capacitor on the load side.
 The regulation of output current and voltage is achieved through
unified control of both the inverter and the switched capacitor.
BEV DRIVE SYSTEM WITH SC CONVERTERS
Figure 1 shows the electric drive system considered in this work: the
sbattery supplies a dc bus through a dc-dc converter and then an inverter
drives an ac induction machine. In the proposed system, single or
multiple battery cells form a module with an SC converter, and the
modules connect in series to form a dc bus. This is illustrated in Figures 2
and 3, respectively. Note that there must be multiple columns of modules
in parallel so that the current capacity meets the ac drive demand while
limiting battery cell discharge currents. A typical rating limit for each
battery cell is 1C, i.e., for a 2.2 Ah battery, the rating is 2.2 A
A 1:2 boost SC converter is chosen for the study. A 1:3 (or 2:5 or 1:N)
boost SC converter may be also used to reduce the number of series-
connected battery cells. However, SC converters with conversion ratios
above 1:3 may be challenging to implement in practice. This is because,
although the number of series battery cells is reduced, the number of
parallel battery cells is increased to match the total power output. The
number of SC converters remains the same as a result, but the number of
semiconductor devices increases in each converter as the conversion ratio
increases, which increases the converter cost and potentially reduces the
reliability. The 1:2 SC converter topology is shown in Figure 4. It uses
four switches controlled by complementary gate signals (Q1 and Q2),
which have a duty ratio of 50% and negligible dead time. In Phase 1, Q2
and Q4 are on, connecting Vin and Cc in parallel. Thus the flying
capacitor Cc is charged to Vin. In Phase 2, Q2 and Q4 are off, and Q1
and Q3 are on. Vin and Cc are connected in series, resulting an output
voltage of twice Vin. The flying capacitor provides the intermediate
voltage so that Q1 to Q4 only need to be rated at Vin (as opposed to Vout
for a conventional boost converter).

Figure 4. A 1:2 boost SC converter circuit topology.

The battery model is based on the circuit in Figure 5 [15]. The second,
minute, and hour based resistors and capacitors predict battery cell
dynamics in each of the corresponding time frames. The transfer function
of the battery terminal voltage is then given as
The voltage source, resistors, and capacitors depend non linearly on the
battery state of charge (SOC). In [15], V, C, and R values are modeled as
sixth-order polynomials of SOC. An improved set of V, C, and R values
adopted from [16] are used in this paper, which address the fitted
polynomial instability issues. To remedy this, a logarithmic interpolation
equation

is employed. The new method produces more accurate V, C, R values and

models the battery more robustly. The coefficients of (2) are listed in
Table I. The labels (C) and (D) indicate coefficients for charging and
discharging conditions. These values are from the single-cell data that
were extracted from measurements of Panasonic CGR18650A 3.7 V, 2.2
Ah Li-ion batteries .
The SOC is modeled based on

where the initial SOC is constant and defined prior to simulation, i(t) is
the instantaneous discharging or charging current, and f is a function of
that current and modeled as a look up table. The relationships between f
and i are given in Tables II and III for the charging and discharging.
DC to DC converter
In electronics engineering, a DC to DC converter is a circuit which
converts a source of direct current from one voltage to another. It is a
class of power converter.

DC to DC converters are important in portable electronic devices

such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which are supplied with
power from batteries. Such electronic devices often contain several sub-
circuits with each sub-circuit requiring a unique voltage level different
than that supplied by the battery (sometimes higher or lower than the
battery voltage, and possibly even negative voltage). Additionally, the
battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained. DC to DC
converters offer a method of generating multiple controlled voltages from
a single variable battery voltage, thereby saving space instead of using
multiple batteries to supply different parts of the device.

Conversion methods
A simple method of converting one voltage to another is a circuit
known as a voltage divider. This technique uses resistors in series with
the voltage supply to provide a lower voltage. However, this method
suffers serious drawbacks:

 Provides no voltage regulation

 Requires knowledge of the resistance of the load
 Poor efficiency, which also leads to excess heat dissipation
 Impossible to generate voltages higher than the supply voltage
 Impossible to generate negative voltages, unless the system ground
is defined by a node in the resistor network.

Any kind of voltage regulator solves the first two problems,

however, linear regulators still have the last three problems.

Switched-mode conversion
Electronic switch-mode DC to DC converters are available to
convert one DC voltage level to another. These circuits, very similar to a
switched-mode power supply, generally perform the conversion by
applying a DC voltage across an inductor or transformer for a period of
time (usually in the 100 kHz to 5 MHz range) which causes current to
flow through it and store energy magnetically, then switching this voltage
off and causing the stored energy to be transferred to the voltage output in
a controlled manner. By adjusting the ratio of on/off time, the output
voltage can be regulated even as the current demand changes. This
conversion method is more power efficient (often 80% to 95%) than
linear voltage conversion which must dissipate unwanted power. This
efficiency is beneficial to increasing the running time of battery operated
devices. A drawback to switching converters is the electronic noise they
generate at high frequencies, which must sometimes be filtered.

Isolated DC-DC converters convert a DC input power source to a

DC output power while maintaining isolation between the input and the
output, generally allowing differences in the input-output ground
potentials in the range of hundreds or thousands of volts. They can be an
exception to the definition of DC-DC converters in that their output
voltage is often (but not always) the same as the input voltage.

A current-output DC-DC converter accepts a DC power input, and

produces as its output a constant current, while the output voltage
depends on the impedance of the load. The various topologies of the DC
to DC converter can generate voltages higher, lower, higher and lower or
negative of the input voltage; their names are:
 Buck
 Boost
 Buck-boost
 Ćuk
In general, the term "DC to DC converter" almost always refers to one of
these switching converters.
Switching DC to DC converters are available in a wide variety of input
and fixed or adjustable output voltages.

DC to DC converters are now available as integrated circuits

needing minimal extra components to build a complete converter. DC to
DC converters are also available as complete hybrid circuits, ready for
use within an electronic device.

DC-DC CONVERTER BASICS

A DC-to-DC converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage
and produces a DC output voltage. Typically the output produced is at a
different voltage level than the input. In addition, DC-to-DC converters
are used to provide noise isolation, power bus regulation, etc. This is a
summary of some of the popular DC-to-DC converter topolopgies:
BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER
In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one
end of the inductor. This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to
rise. When the transistor is OFF, the current will continue flowing
through the inductor but now flowing through the diode. We initially
assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the
voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode
during the full OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will depend on the
average ON time of the transistor provided the inductor current is
continuous.
Buck Converter

Voltage and current changes

To analyse the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the
inductor current over one cycle. From the relation

the change of current satisfies

For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a
period T will not change. To get a simple relation between voltages we
assume no voltage drop across transistor or diode while ON and a perfect
switch change. Thus during the ON time V x=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0.
Thus

which simplifies to

or
and defining "duty ratio" as the voltage relationship becomes
Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the input and output powers
must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input and
output current must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the
assumption that the inductor current does not reach zero.
Transition between continuous and discontinuous
When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then
either the transistor T1 or the diode D1 must be conducting. For
continuous conduction the voltage Vx is either Vin or 0. If the inductor
current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will not be forced to
either of these conditions. At this transition point the current just reaches
zero as seen in Figure 3. During the ON time V in-Vout is across the
inductor thus

The average current which must match the output current satisfies

Buck Converter at Boundary

If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point
satisfies

1.2 Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous Mode)

As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral
of voltage across the inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The
transistor OFF time is now divided into segments of diode conduction d dT
and zero conduction doT. The inductor average voltage thus gives
(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0

Fig. 4: Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction

for the case . To resolve the value of consider the output

current which is half the peak when averaged over the conduction times

Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time

Thus from (6) and (7) we can get

using the relationship in (5)

and solving for the diode conduction

The output voltage is thus given as

defining k* = 2L/(Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current

on the voltage ratio of the converter.

Output Voltage vs Current

 As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the
voltage ratio depends only on the duty ratio "d". At low currents the
discontinuous operation tends to increase the output voltage of the
converter towards Vin.

BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER

The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the basic boost converter. This

circuit is used when a higher output voltage than input is required.

Boost Converter Circuit

While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor
current flows through the diode giving V x =Vo. For this analysis it is
assumed that the inductor current always remains flowing (continuous
conduction). The voltage across the inductor and the average must be
zero for the average current to remain in steady state

This can be rearranged as

and for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures

Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)
Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must
always be higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign
indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage.
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with
an output DC voltage greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of
switching-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two
semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy
storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to
reduce output voltage ripple.

Overview
Power can also come from DC sources such as batteries, solar
panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC
voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost
converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the
source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter
since it “steps up” the source voltage. Since power (P = VI) must be
conserved, the output current is lower than the source current.
A boost converter may also be referred to as a 'Joule thief'. This term is
usually used only with very low power battery applications, and is aimed
at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a
battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since a normal load
wouldn't be able to handle the battery's low voltage.
History
For high efficiency, the SMPS switch must turn on and off quickly
and have low losses. The advent of a commercial semiconductor switch
in the 1950’s represented a major milestone that made SMPSs such as the
boost converter possible. Semiconductor switches turned on and off more
quickly and lasted longer than other switches such as vacuum tubes and
electromechanical relays. The major DC to DC converters were
developed in the early 1960s when semiconductor switches had become
available. The aerospace industry’s need for small, lightweight, and
efficient power converters led to the converter’s rapid development.
Switched systems such as SMPS are a challenge to design since its model
depends on whether a switch is opened or closed. R.D. Middle brook
from Caltech in 1977 published the models for DC to DC converters used
today. Middle brook averaged the circuit configurations for each switch
state in a technique called state-space averaging. This simplification
reduced two systems into one. The new model led to insightful design
equations which helped SMPS growth.
Applications
 Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve
higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in
many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can
increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery-powered
applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
and lighting systems.
The Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost
converter, the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor.
However, a Prius actually uses only 168 cells and boosts the battery
voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power devices at
smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting systems. A white
LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step
up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost
converters can also produce higher voltages to operate cold cathode
fluorescent tubes (CCFL) in devices such as LCD backlights and some
flashlights.

Circuit analysis
Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of
an inductor to resist changes in current. When being charged it acts as a
load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a resistor), when being
discharged, it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The
voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of
change of current, and not to the original charging voltage, thus allowing
different input and output voltages.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see

figure 2):
 In the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an
increase in the inductor current;
 In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to
inductor current is through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C
and the load R. This results in transferring the energy accumulated
during the On-state into the capacitor.
 The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen
in figure 2. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and
the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a buck
converter.
Continuous mode
 When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current
through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical
waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode.
The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal
converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in
steady conditions:
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input
voltage (Vi) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current
(IL) flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation

period T during which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S
is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows
through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a
capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of
IL is:
 As we
consider
that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of
energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the
beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy
stored in the inductor is given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of
the commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the
sum of the changes) is zero:

This can be written as:

Which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be:

From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is
always higher than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1),
and that it increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D approaches 1.
This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.
Discontinuous mode
Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in
discontinuous mode.
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small
enough to be transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation
period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during
part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is
that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation
cycle (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a
strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as
follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum
value (at t = DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (I D). As can be
seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during
the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Therefore, the output voltage

gain can be written as flow:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the

continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated.
Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only
depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input
voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.

BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
schematic for buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin

when the transistor is ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For
zero net current change over a period the average voltage across the
inductor is zero

Waveforms for buck-boost converter

which gives the voltage ratio

and the corresponding current

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can
vary between lower or higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The
negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage.
 CONVERTER COMPARISON
The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC converters is
summarised in Fig. 10. Notice that only the buck converter shows a linear
relationship between the control (duty ratio) and output voltage. The
buck-boost can reduce or increase the voltage ratio with unit gain for a
duty ratio of 50%.

Comparison of Voltage ratio

CUK CONVERTER
The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy
between input and output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage
balance across the inductor. The CUK converter uses capacitive energy
transfer and analysis is based on current balance of the capacitor. The
circuit in Fig. 11 is derived from DUALITY principle on the buck-boost
converter.

CUK Converter
 If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially
ripple free we can examine the charge balance for the capacitor C1. For
the transistor ON the circuit becomes

CUK "ON-STATE"
and the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode
conducts and the current in C1 becomes IL2.

CUK "OFF-STATE"
Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise ,the net
current is zero

which implies

The inductor currents match the input and output currents, thus using the
power conservation rule

Thus the voltage ratio is the same as the buck-boost converter. The
advantage of the CUK converter is that the input and output inductors
create a smooth current at both sides of the converter while the buck,
boost and buck-boost have at least one side with pulsed current.

THREE PHASE INVERTERS

The basic configuration of a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) has

been described in Lesson 33. Single-phase half-bridge and full-bridge
configurations of VSI with square wave pole voltages have been analyzed
in Lesson 34. In this lesson a 3-phase bridge type VSI with square wave
pole voltages has been considered. The output from this inverter is to be
fed to a 3-phase balanced load. Fig. 35.1 shows the power circuit of the
three-phase inverter. This circuit may be identified as three single-phase
half-bridge inverter circuits put across the same dc bus. The individual
pole voltages of the 3-phase bridge circuit are identical to the square pole
voltages output by single-phase half bridge or full bridge circuits. The
three pole voltages of the 3-phase square wave inverter are shifted in time
by one third of the output time period. These pole voltages along with
some other relevant waveforms have been plotted in Fig. 35.2. The
horizontal axis of the waveforms in Fig. 35.2 has been represented in
terms of ‘ωt’, where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency (in radians per second)
of the fundamental component of square pole voltage and ‘t’ stands for
time in second. In Fig. 35.2 the phase sequence of the pole voltages is
taken as VAO, VBO and VCO. The numbering of the switches in Fig.
35.1 has some special significance vis-à-vis the output phase sequence.
Fig. 35.1: A 3-phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) feeding a balanced
load
 Fig. 35.2: Some relevant voltage waveforms output by a3-phase square
wave VSI

To appreciate the particular manner in which the switches have

been numbered, the conduction-pattern of the switches marked in Fig.
35.2 may be noted. It may be seen that with the chosen numbering the
switches turn on in the sequence:- Sw1, Sw2, Sw3, Sw4, Sw5, Sw6, Sw1,
Sw2, ….and so on. Identifying the switching cycle time as 360 degrees
(2π radians), it can be seen that each switch conducts for 1800 and the
turning on of the adjacent switch is staggered by 60 degrees. The upper
and lower switches of each pole (leg) of the inverter conduct in a ωt
complementary manner. To reverse the output phase sequence, the
switching sequence may simply be reversed.
Considering the symmetry in the switch conduction pattern, it may
be found that at any time three switches conduct. It could be two from the
upper group of switches, which are connected to positive dc bus, and one
from lower group or vice-versa (i.e., one from upper group and two from
lower group). According to the conduction pattern indicated in Fig. 35.2
there are six combinations of conducting switches during an output
cycle:- (Sw5, Sw6, Sw1), (Sw6, Sw1, Sw2), (Sw1, Sw2, Sw3), (Sw2,
Sw3, Sw4), (Sw3, Sw4, Sw5), (Sw4, Sw5, Sw6). Each of these
combinations of switches conducts for 600 in the sequence mentioned
above to produce output phase sequence of A, B, C. As will be shown
later the fundamental component of the three output line-voltages will be
balanced. The load side phase voltage waveforms turn out to be
somewhat different from the pole voltage waveforms and have been dealt
with in the next section.

Determination of Load Phase-Voltages

Fig. 35.1 shows a star connected balanced 3-phase load. The three load
terminals are connected to the three output points (A, B, C) of the
inverter. The neutral point ‘N’ of the load is deliberately left open for
some good reasons mentioned later. The load side phase voltages VAN,
VBN and VCN can be determined from the conduction pattern of the
inverter switches. With reference to Fig. 35.2, it may be seen that for
0≤ωt≤π/3, switches Sw5, Sw6 and Sw1 conduct. Under the assumption of
ideal switches Fig. 35.3(a) will represent the equivalent inverter and load
circuit during the time interval 0≤ωt≤π/3. In the equivalent circuit
representation the non-conducting switches have been omitted and a cross
(X) sign is used to represent a conducting switch. For a balanced 3-phase
load the instantaneous phase voltage waveforms have been derived below
for the following two cases (i) when the 3-phase load is purely resistive
and (ii) when the load, in each phase, consists of a resistor in series with
an inductor and a back e.m.f. In both the cases the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 35.3(a) has been referred to derive the expression for load-phase
voltage.
VAN = 1/3 Edc
VBN = -2/3 Edc
VCN = 1/3 Edc

Fig. 35.3(a): Schematic load circuit during conduction of Sw5, Sw6 and
Sw1 For case (i), when the load is a balance resistive load, it is very easy
to see that the instantaneous phase voltages, for 0≤ωt≤π/3, will be given
by VAN = 1/3 Edc, VBN = -2/3 Edc, VCN = 1/3 Edc.
For case (ii), the following circuit relations hold good.

where , are the instantaneous load-phase currents entering

phases A, B and C respectively., and are the instantaneous magnitudes of
load phase-emfs. R and L are the per-phase load resistance and
inductance that are connected in series with the corresponding phase-emf.
Since the load is balanced (with its neutral point floating) the algebraic
sum of the instantaneous phase currents and the phase emfs will be zero.
Accordingly,

From Eqns. 35.1 and 35.3, the following may be deduced:

 Now from Eqns. 35.2 and 35.4 it can be easily found that VAN =
1/3 Edc, VBN = -2/3 Edc, VCN = 1/3 Edc. Thus the instantaneous
magnitudes of load phase voltages, in case of a more general (but
balanced) R-L-E load are same as in case of a simple balanced resistive
load.
Fig. 35.3(b) shows the equivalent circuit during π/3≤ωt≤2π/3, when
the switches Sw6, Sw1 and Sw2 conduct. The instantaneous load phase
voltages may be found to be VAN = 2/3 Edc, VBN = VCN = -1/3 Edc.
The load phase voltage waveforms for other switching
combinations may be found in a similar manner. Two of the phase
voltages,V and V, along with line voltage V have been plotted over two
output cycles in Fig. 35.2. It may be seen that voltage V is similar to V
but lags it by one third of the output cycle period. Further, it can be
verified that the load phase voltage V also has a waveform identical to the
two other phase voltages but time displaced by one third of the output
time period. V waveform leads V by 120 degrees in the time (ωt) frame.
It should be obvious that the fundamental component of the phase voltage
waveforms will constitute a balanced 3-phase voltage having a phase
sequence A, B, C. It may also be recalled that by suitably changing the
switching sequence the output phase sequence can be changed. The phase
voltage waveforms of Fig. 35.2 show six steps per output cycle and are
also referred as the
 Fig. 35.3(b): Schematic load circuit during conduction of Sw6, Sw1 and
Sw2

For the VSI, as the full form denotes, the output voltage is
constant, with the output current changing with the load − type, and/or
the values of the components. But in the CSI, the current is nearly
constant. The voltage changes here, as the load is changed. In an
Induction motor, the developed torque changes with the change in the
load torque, the speed being constant, with no acceleration/deceleration.
The input current in the motor also changes, with the input voltage being
constant. So, the CSI, where current, but not the voltage, is the main point
of interest, is used to drive such motors, with the load torque changing.

Single-phase Current Source Inverter:

The circuit of a Single-phase Current Source Inverter
(CSI) is shown in Fig. 39.1. The type of operation is termed as Auto-
Sequential Commutated Inverter (ASCI). A constant current source is
assumed here, which may be realized by using an inductance of suitable
value, which must be high, in series with the current limited dc voltage
source. The thyristor pairs, Th1 & Th3, and Th2 & Th4, are alternatively
turned ON to obtain a nearly square wave current waveform. Two
commutating capacitors − C1 in the upper half, and C2 in the lower half,
are used. Four diodes, D1–D4 are connected in series with each thyristor
to prevent the commutating capacitors from discharging into the load.
The output frequency of the inverter is controlled in the usual way, i.e.,
by varying the half time period, (T/2), at which the thyristors in pair are
triggered by pulses being fed to the respective gates by the control circuit,
to turn them ON, as can be observed from the waveforms (Fig. 39.2). The
inductance (L) is taken as the load in this case, the reason(s) for which
need not be stated, being well known. The operation is explained by two
modes.

Fig. 39.1: Single phase current source inverter (CSI) of ASCI type.

Fig. 39.2: Voltage and current waveforms T/2 T/2 TVCo-VCoT0

Mode I: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 39.3. The following
are the assumptions. Starting from the instant, , the thyristor pair,
Th−=0t2 & Th4, is conducting (ON), and the current (I) flows through
the path, Th2, D2, load (L), D4, Th4, and source, I. The commutating
capacitors are initially charged equally with the polarity as given, i.e., .
This mans that both capacitors have right hand plate positive and left
hand plate negative. If two capacitors are not charged initially, they have
to pre-charged.

Fig. 39.3: Mode I (1 phase CSI)C2=C/2

At time, t = 0, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3, is triggered by pulses at
the gates. The conducting thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4, is turned OFF by
application of reverse capacitor voltages. Now, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3,
conducts current (I). The current path is through Th1, C1, D2, L, D4, C2,
Th3, and source, I. Both capacitors will now begin charging linearly from
() by the constant current, I. The diodes, D0CV−2 & D4, remain reverse
biased initially. The voltage, across D1Dv1, when it is forward biased, is
obtained by going through the closed path, abcda as It may be noted the
voltage across load inductance, L is zero (0), as the current, I is constant.
As the capacitor gets charged, the voltage across D1Dv1, increases
linearly. At some time, say t1, the reverse bias across D1 becomes zero
(0), the diode, [Link] conducting. An identical equation can be formed
for diode, D3 also. Actually, both diodes, D1 & D3, start conducting at
the same instant, t1. The time t1 for which the diodes, D1 & D3, remain
reverse biased is obtained by equating.
 Using the value of t1 obtained earlier. This means that the voltages
across C1 & C2, varies linearly from to zero in time, t0CV−1. Mode I
ends, when 1tt=, and 0=Cv. Note that t1 is the circuit turn-off time for the
thyristors.
Mode II: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 39.4a. Diodes, D2 &
D4, are already conducting, but at , diodes, D1tt=1 & D3, get forward
biased, and start conducting. Thus, at the end of time t1, all four diodes,
D1–D4 conduct. As a result, the commutating capacitors now get
connected in parallel with the load (L). For simplicity in analysis, the
circuit is redrawn as

Fig. 39.4(a): Mode II (1-phase CSI)

Fig. 39.4(b): Equivalent circuit for mode II

 At the end of the process, constant current flows in the path, Th1,
D1, load (L), D3, Th3, and source, I. This continues till the next
commutation process is initiated by the triggering of the thyristor pair,
Th2 & Th4.
The complete commutation process is summarized here. The
process (mode I) starts with the triggering of the thyristor pair, Th1 &
Th3. Earlier, the thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4 were conducting. With the two
commutating capacitors charged earlier with the polarity as shown (Fig.
39.3), the conducting thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4 turns off by the
application of reverse voltage. Then, the voltages across the capacitors
decrease to zero at time, (end of mode I), as constant (source) current, I
flows in the opposite direction. Mode II now starts (Fig. 39.4a), as the
diodes, D1t1 & D3, get forward biased, and start conducting. So, all four
diodes D1-D4, conduct, and the load inductance, L is now connected in
parallel with the two commutating capacitors. The current in the load
reverses to the value –I, after time, (end of mode II), and the two
capacitors also are charged to the same voltage in the reverse direction,
the magnitude remaining same, as it was before the start of the process of
commutation (t = 0). It may be noted that the constant current, I flows in
the direction as shown, a part of which flows in the two capacitors.

In the above discussion, one form of load, i.e. inductance L only,

has been considered. The procedure remains nearly same, if the load
consists of resistance, R only. The procedure in mode I, is same, but in
mode II, the load resistance, R is connected in parallel with the two
commutating capacitors. The direction of the current, I remains same, a
part of which flows in the two capacitors, charging them in the reverse
direction, as shown earlier. The derivation, being simple, is not included
here. It is available in books on this subject.

Three-phase Current Source Inverter

The circuit of a Three-phase Current Source Inverter (CSI) is
shown in Fig. 39.5a. The type of operation in this case is also same here,
i.e. Auto-Sequential Commutated Inverter (ASCI). As in the circuit of a
single-phase CSI, the input is also a constant current source. The output
current (phase) waveforms are shown in Fig. 39.5b. In this circuit, six
thyristors, two in each of three arms, are used, as in a three-phase VSI.
Also, six diodes, each one in series with the respective thyristor, are
needed here, as used for single-phase CSI. Six capacitors, three each in
two (top and bottom) halves, are used for commutation. It may be noted
that six capacitors are equal, i.e. . The diodes are needed in CSI, so as to
prevent the capacitors from discharging into the load. The numbering
scheme for the thyristors and diodes are same, as used in a three-phase
VSI, with the thyristors being triggered in sequence as per number
assigned (Fig. 39.5b).
 Fig. 39.5(A): Three-phase CSI

Fig. 39.5(b): Phase current waveforms

The commutation process in a three-phase CSI is described in

brief. The circuit, when two thyristors, Th1 & Th2, and the respective
diodes, are conducting, is shown in Fig. 39.6a. The current is flowing in
two phases, A & C. The three capacitors in the top half, are charged
previously, or have to pre-charged as shown. But the capacitors in the
bottom half are not shown.
Mode I: The commutation process starts, when the thyristor, Th3 in the
top half, is triggered, i.e. pulse is fed at its gate. Immediately after this,
the conducting thyristor, Th1 turns off by the application of reverse
voltage of the equivalent capacitor. Mode I (Fig. 39.6b) now starts. As the
diode D1 is still conducting, the current path is via Th3, the equivalent
capacitor, D1, and the load in phase A (only in the top half). The other
part, i.e. the bottom half and the source, is not considered here, as the
path there remains same. The current, I from the source now flows in the
reverse direction, thus the voltage in the capacitor, C1 (and also the other
two) decreases. It may be noted the equivalent capacitor is the parallel
combination of the capacitor, C1 and the other part, being the series
combination of the capacitors, C3 & C5. It may be shown the its value.
Also, the current in the capacitor, C1 is , and the current in other two
capacitors, CI⋅)3/2(3 & C5 is . When the voltage across the capacitor,
C3/I1 (and also the other two) decreases to zero, the mode I ends.

Fig. 39.6(a): Three-phase CSI with two thyristors, Th1 & Th2 conducting
Mode II: After the end of mode I, the voltage across the diode, D3 goes
positive, as the voltage across the equivalent capacitor goes negative,
assuming that initially (start of mode I) the voltage was positive. It may
be noted that the current through the equivalent capacitor continues to
flow in the same direction. Mode II (Fig. 39.6c) starts. Earlier, the diode,
D1 was conducting. The diode, D3 now starts conducting, with the
voltage across it being positive as given earlier. A circulating current path
now exists between the equivalent capacitor, two conducting diodes, D1
& D3 and the load (assumed to be inductive − R & L, per phase) of the
two phases, A & B, the two loads and also the two diodes being now
connected in series across the equivalent capacitor. The current in this
path is oscillatory, and goes to zero after some time, when the mode II
ends. The diode, D1 turns off, as the current goes to zero. So, at the end
of mode II, the thyristor, Th3 & the diode, D3 conduct. This process has
been described in detail in the earlier section on single-phase CSI (see
mode II). It may be noted that the polarity of the voltage across the
equivalent capacitor (at the end of mode II) has reversed from the initial
voltage (at the beginning of mode I). This is needed to turn off the
outgoing (conducting) thyristor, Th3, when the incoming thyristor, Th5 is
triggered. The complete commutation process as described will be
repeated. The diodes in the circuit prevent the voltage across the
capacitors discharging through the load.
Fig. 39.6(b): Mode I (3-phase CSI)

Fig. 39.6(c): Mode II (3-phase CSI)

Fig. 39.6(d): Three-phase CSI with two thyristors, Th3 & Th2 conducting

BLDC MOTOR:

The BLDC motor is an AC synchronous motor with permanent

magnets on the rotor (moving part) and windings on the stator (fixed
part). Permanent magnets create the rotor flux and the energized stator
windings create electromagnet poles. The rotor (equivalent to a bar
magnet) is attracted by the energized stator phase. By using the
appropriate sequence to supply the stator phases, a rotating field on the
stator is created and maintained. This action of the rotor, chasing after the
electromagnet poles on the stator, is the fundamental action used in
synchronous permanent magnet motors. The lead between the rotor and
the rotating field must be controlled to produce torque and this
synchronization implies knowledge of the rotor position.
Conventional dc motors have many attractive properties such as high
efficiency and linear torque-speed characteristics. The control of dc
motors is also simple and does not require complex hardware however
main drawback of the dc motor is to need periodic maintenance. The
brushes of the mechanical commutator have other undesirable effects
such as sparks. Despite the name, BLDC motors are actually a type of
permanent magnet synchronous motors. They are driven by DC voltage
but current commutation is done by solid state switches. Long operating
life High dynamic response,

 High efficiency
 Better speed versus torque characteristics
 Noiseless operation
 Higher speed range

DC motors are available in many different power ratings from very small
motors as used in hard drives to larger motors used in electric vehicles.
Three phase motors are most common but two-phase motors are also
found in many applications. A simple approach to current sensing and
PWM current control of BLDC motors has been presented. This method
will be applied here using hysteresis band control, PWM Control and
variables DC link voltage control.

Introduction of BLDC Motor

Brushless DC motors (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known
as electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are
synchronous electric motors powered by direct-current (DC) electricity
and having electronic commutation systems, rather than mechanical
commutators and brushes. The current-to-torque and voltage-to-speed
relationships of BLDC motors are linear.

BLDC motors may be described as stepper motors, with fixed

permanent magnets and possibly more poles on the stator than the rotor,
or reluctance. The latter may be without permanent magnets, just poles
that are induced on the rotor then pulled into alignment by timed stator
windings. However, the term stepper motor tends to be used for motors
that are designed specifically to be operated in a mode where they are
frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular position; this page
describes more general BLDC motor principles, though there is overlap.

When a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron core, the
side of the positive pole is acted upon by an upwards force, while the
other side is acted upon by a downward force. According to Fleming’s,
the forces cause a turning effect on the coil, making it rotate. To make the
motor rotate in a constant direction, "direct current" commutators make
the current reverse in direction every half a cycle (in a two-pole motor)
thus causing the motor to continue to rotate in the same direction.

A problem with the motor shown above is that when the plane of the coil
is parallel to the magnetic field—i.e. when the rotor poles are 90 degrees
from the stator poles—the torque is zero. In the pictures above, this
occurs when the core of the coil is horizontal—the position it is just about
to reach in the last picture on the right. The motor would not be able to
start in this position. However, once it was started, it would continue to
rotate through this position by inertia.

There is a second problem with this simple pole design. At the zero-
torque position, both commutator brushes are touching (bridging) both
commutator plates, resulting in a short-circuit. The power leads are
shorted together through the commutator plates, and the coil is also short-
circuited through both brushes (the coil is shorted twice, once through
each brush independently). Note that this problem is independent of the
non-starting problem above; even if there were a high current in the coil
at this position, there would still be zero torque. The problem here is that
this short uselessly consumes power without producing any motion (nor
even any coil current.) In a low-current battery-powered demonstration
this short-circuiting is generally not considered harmful. (Here, low-
current means that the battery is intrinsically limited to low current and
will not overheat if loaded with a short circuit; this is usually the case for
an AA alkaline cell but not the case for batteries like the Li-ion cells used
in many laptop batteries in this first decade of the 21st century.)
However, if a two-pole motor were designed to do actual work with
several hundred watts of power output, this shorting could result in severe
commutator overheating, brush damage, and potential welding of the
brushes—if they were metallic—to the commutator. Carbon brushes,
which are often used, would not weld. In any case, a short like this is very
wasteful, drains batteries rapidly and, at a minimum, requires power
supply components to be designed to much higher standards than would
be needed just to run the motor without the shorting.

One simple solution is to put a gap between the commutator plates

which is wider than the ends of the brushes. This increases the zero-
torque range of angular positions but eliminates the shorting problem; if
the motor is started spinning by an outside force it will continue spinning.
With this modification, it can also be effectively turned off simply by
stalling (stopping) it in a position in the zero-torque (i.e. commutator non-
contacting) angle range. This design is sometimes seen in homebuilt
hobby motors, e.g. for science fairs and such designs can be found in
some published science project books. A clear downside of this simple
solution is that the motor now coasts through a substantial arc of rotation
twice per revolution and the torque is pulsed. This may work for electric
fans or to keep a flywheel spinning but there are many applications, even
where starting and stopping are not necessary, for which it is completely
inadequate, such as driving the capstan of a tape transport, or any instance
where to speed up and slow down often and quickly is a requirement.
Another disadvantage is that, since the coils have a measure of
self inductance, current flowing in them cannot suddenly stop. The
current attempts to jump the opening gap between the commutator
segment and the brush, causing arcing.

Even for fans and flywheels, the clear weaknesses remaining in

this design—especially that it is not self-starting from all positions—
make it impractical for working use, especially considering the better
alternatives that exist. Unlike the demonstration motor above, DC motors
are commonly designed with more than two poles, are able to start from
any position, and do not have any position where current can flow
without producing electromotive power by passing through some coil.
Many common small brushed DC motors used in toys and small
consumer appliances, the simplest mass-produced DC motors to be
found, have three-pole armatures. The brushes can now bridge two
adjacent commutator segments without causing a short circuit. These
three-pole armatures also have the advantage that current from the
brushes either flows through two coils in series or through just one coil.
Starting with the current in an individual coil at half its nominal value (as
a result of flowing through two coils in series), it rises to its nominal
value and then falls to half this value. The sequence then continues with
current in the reverse direction. This results in a closer step-wise
approximation to the ideal sinusoidal coil current, producing a more even
torque than the two-pole motor where the current in each coil is closer to
a square wave. Since current changes are half those of a comparable two-
pole motor, arcing at the brushes is consequently less.

If the shaft of a DC motor is turned by an external force, the

motor will act like a generator and produce an Electromotive
force (EMF). During normal operation, the spinning of the motor
produces a voltage, known as the counter-EMF (CEMF) or back EMF,
because it opposes the applied voltage on the motor. The back EMF is the
reason that the motor when free-running does not appear to have the same
low electrical resistance as the wire contained in its winding. This is the
same EMF that is produced when the motor is used as a generator (for
example when an electrical load, such as a light bulb, is placed across the
terminals of the motor and the motor shaft is driven with an external
torque). Therefore, the total voltage drop across a motor consists of the
CEMF voltage drop, and the parasitic voltage drop resulting from the
internal resistance of the armature's windings. The current through a
motor is given by the following equation:

The mechanical power produced by the motor is given by:

As an unloaded DC motor spins, it generates a backwards-flowing

electromotive force that resists the current being applied to the motor.
The current through the motor drops as the rotational speed increases, and
a free-spinning motor has very little current. It is only when a load is
applied to the motor that slows the rotor that the current draw through the
motor increases.

"In an experiment of this kind made on a motor with separately excited

magnets, the following figures were obtained:

Revolutions per minute 0 50 100 160 180 195

Amperes 20 16.2 12.2 7.8 6.1 5.1

Apparently, if the motor had been helped on to run at 261.5 revolutions

per minute, the current would have been reduced to zero. In the last result
obtained, the current of 5.1 amperes was absorbed in driving the armature
against its own friction at the speed of 195 revolutions per minute

SPEED TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS

CONTROLLER IMPLEMENTATIONS

Because the controller must direct the rotor rotation, the

controller requires some means of determining the rotor's
orientation/position (relative to the stator coils.) Some designs use Hall
effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the rotor's position.
Others measure the back EMF in the un driven coils to infer the rotor
position, eliminating the need for separate Hall effect sensors, and
therefore are often called sensor less controllers. Like an AC motor, the
voltage on the un driven coils is sinusoidal, but over an entire
commutation the output appears trapezoidal because of the DC output of
the controller. The controller contains 3 bi-directional drivers to drive
high-current DC power, which are controlled by a logic circuit. Simple
controllers employ comparators to determine when the output phase
should be advanced, while more advanced controllers employ
a microcontroller to manage acceleration, control speed and fine-tune
efficiency.

Controllers that sense rotor position based on back-EMF have

extra challenges in initiating motion because no back-EMF is produced
when the rotor is stationary. This is usually accomplished by beginning
rotation from an arbitrary phase, and then skipping to the correct phase if
it is found to be wrong. This can cause the motor to run briefly
backwards, adding even more complexity to the startup sequence. Other
senseless controllers are capable of measuring winding saturation caused
by the position of the magnets to infer the rotor position.
VARIATIONS IN CONSTRUCTIONS
the radial-relationship between the coils and magnets
is reversed; the stator coils form the center (core) of the motor, while the
permanent magnets spin within an overhanging rotor which surrounds the
core. The flat type, used where there are space or shape limitations, uses
stator and rotor plates, mounted face to face. Out runners typically have
more poles, set up in triplets to maintain the three groups of windings,
and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all BLDC motors, the coils are
stationary.

There are also two electrical configurations having to do with how the
wires from the windings are connected to each other (not their physical
shape or location). The delta configuration connects the three windings to
each other (series circuits) in a triangle-like circuit, and power is applied
at each of the connections. The wye ("Y"-shaped) configuration,
sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the windings to a central
point (parallel circuits) and power is applied to the remaining end of each
winding. A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque
at low rpm, but can give higher top rpm. Wye configuration gives hi
BLDC motors can be constructed in several different physical
configurations: In the 'conventional' (also known as 'in runner')
configuration, the permanent magnets are part of the rotor. Three stator
windings surround the rotor. In the 'out runner' (or external-rotor)
configuration gh torque at low rpm, but not as high top rpm
Control of BLDC Motor

An electronic commutation of BLDC motor includes proper

switching of VSI in such a way that a symmetrical dc current is drawn
from the dc link for 120◦ and placed symmetrically at the centre of back-
EMF of each phase. A Hall effect position sensor is used to sense the
rotor position on a span of 60◦; which is required for the electronic
commutation of BLDC motor. When two switches of VSI, are in
conduction states, a line current is drawn from the dc link capacitor
whose magnitude depends on applied dc link voltage , back EMF’s,
resistances , and self and mutual inductance of stator windings. This
current produces the electromagnetic torque which in turn increases the
speed of the BLDC motor.

MODELING OF PROPOSED PMBLDCM DRIVE

PMBLDCM drive consists of modeling of various components of

the PFC converter and PMBLDCM drive in the form of mathematical
equations. The combination of these individual models represents a
complete model of proposed PFC drive.

1) Voltage Reference Generator: This is used to generate a reference

voltage at DC link which is equivalent to the desired reference speed of
the PMBLDCM. Therefore, it is an important component of the controller
as the accuracy of the speed control depends upon the equivalent DC link
voltage reference.

2) Rate Limiter: The rate limiter introduced in the reference voltage

maintains a constant voltage error (Ve) at DC link during transient states
so that the motor current (Idc) rises in a controlled manner. The rise of
the motor current ΔIdc depends upon the equivalent resistance (Req) of
the PMBLDC motor appearing at DC link and the voltage rise rate ΔVe
at DC link. Therefore the rate limiter considers various parameters of
PMBLDCM such as rated terminal voltage (VT), winding resistance per
phase (Ra), maximum allowable motor current per phase (Idc max), and
mechanical time constant (τm).

3) Voltage Controller: The voltage controller is a proportional and

integral (PI) controller which tracks the error voltage between reference
voltage and sensed voltage at DC link and generates a control signal Ic
based on the Kp and Ki the proportional and integral gains of the PI
controller, respectively.
4) Reference Current Generator: The reference current at input of
isolated zeta converter (id*) is generated using the unit template of the
AC mains voltage and the output of the PI controller.

5) PWM Controller: The PWM controller processes the current error

(Δid) between the reference input current (id*) of the isolated zeta
converter and the DC current (id) sensed after DBR. The PWM controller
amplifies this current error (Δid) by gain kd and compares with a fixed
frequency (fs) saw-tooth carrier waveform md (t) [8] to get the switching
signal for the MOSFET of the PFC converter.

6) Electronic Commutator: The electronic commutator uses signals

from Hall effect position sensors to generate the switching sequence for
the VSI.

7) Voltage Source Inverter: The voltage source inverter employed in the

proposed PMBLDCM drive uses insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs) because of its operation at lower frequency compared to PFC
converter. The output of VSI to be fed to phase ‘a’ of the PMBLDC
motor through the equivalent circuit of a VSI fed PMBLDCM where vao,
vbo, vco, and vno are the voltages the three phases (a,b,c) and neutral
point (n) with respect to virtual mid-point of the DC link voltage ‘o’. The
voltages van, vbn, vcn are voltages of three phases with respect to neutral
terminal of the motor (n) and Vdc is the DC link voltage. The values 1
and 0 for Sa1 or Sa2 represent ‘on’ and ‘off’ condition of respective
IGBTs of the VSI. The voltages for other two phases of the VSI feeding
the PMBLDC motor i.e vbo, vco, vbn, vcn and the switching pattern of
other IGBTs of the VSI (i.e. Sb1,Sb2,Sc1,Sc2) are generated in a similar
way.

8) PMBLDC Motor: It represent the dynamic model of the PMBLDC

motor where p represents differential operator (d/dt), ia, ib, ic are
currents, λa, λb, λc are flux linkages and ean, ebn, ecn are phase to
neutral back emfs of PMBLDCM, in respective phases, R is resistance of
motor windings/phase. Other symbols are Ls as self-inductance/ph, M as
mutual inductance/ph, Te as developed electromagnetic torque, ωr as
motor angular speed, P as number of poles, Tl as load torque, J as
moment of inertia and B as friction coefficient.

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

MATLAB is a software package for computation in engineering, science,

and applied mathematics.

It offers a powerful programming language, excellent graphics, and

a wide range of expert
knowledge. MATLAB is published by and a trademark of The
MathWorks, Inc.
 The focus in MATLAB is on computation, not mathematics:
Symbolic expressions and manipulations are not possible (except through
the optional Symbolic Toolbox, a clever interface to maple). All results
are not only numerical but inexact, thanks to the rounding errors inherent
in computer arithmetic. The limitation to numerical computation can be
seen as a drawback, but it’s a source of strength too: MATLAB is much
preferred to Maple, Mathematical, and the like when it comes to
numerics.

On the other hand, compared to other numerically oriented

languages like C++ and FORTRAN,
MATLAB is much easier to use and comes with a huge standard library.1
the unfavorable comparison here is a gap in execution speed. This gap is
not always as dramatic as popular lore has it, and it can often be narrowed
or closed with good MATLAB programming (see section 6). Moreover,
one can link other codes into MATLAB, or vice versa, and MATLAB
now optionally supports parallel computing. Still, MATLAB is usually
not the tool of choice for maximum-performance
Computing.
The MATLAB niche is numerical computation on workstations for non-
experts in computation.

This is a huge niche—one way to tell is to look at the number of

MATLAB-related books on [Link]. Even for supercomputer
users, MATLAB can be a valuable environment in which to explore and
fine-tune algorithms before more laborious coding in another language.
Most successful computing languages and environments acquire a
distinctive character or culture.
In MATLAB, that culture contains several elements: an experimental and
graphical bias, resulting from the interactive environment and
compression of the write-compile-link-execute analyze cycle; an
emphasis on syntax that is compact and friendly to the interactive mode,
rather than tightly constrained and verbose; a kitchen-sink mentality for
providing functionality; and a high degree of openness and transparency
(though not to the extent of being open source software).

The fifty-cent tour

When you start MATLAB, you get a multipaneled desktop. The

layout and behavior of the desktop and its components are highly
customizable (and may in fact already be customized for your site).
The component that is the heart of MATLAB is called the
Command Window, located on the 1Here and elsewhere I am thinking
of the “old FORTRAN,” FORTRAN 77. This is not a commentary on the
usefulness of FORTRAN 90 but on my ignorance of it.

INTRODUCTION

Right by default. Here you can give MATLAB commands typed at

the prompt, >>. Unlike FORTRAN and other compiled computer
languages, MATLAB is an interpreted environment—you give a
command, and MATLAB tries to execute it right away before asking for
another.

At the top left you can see the Current Directory. In general
MATLAB is aware only of files in the current directory (folder) and on
its path, which can be customized. Commands for working with the
directory and path include cd, what, add path, and edit path (or you can
choose “File/Set path. . . ” from the menus). You can add files to a
directory on the path and thereby add commands to MATLAB; we will
return to this subject in section 3.
Next to the Current Directory tab is the Workspace tab. The workspace
shows you what variable names are currently defined and some
information about their contents. (At start-up it is, naturally, empty.) This
represents another break from compiled environments: variables created
in the workspace persist for you to examine and modify, even after code
execution stops. Below the Command Window/Workspace window is the
Command History window. As you enter commands, they are recorded
here. This record persists across different MATLAB sessions, and
commands or blocks of commands can be copied from here or saved to
files.

As you explore MATLAB, you will soon encounter some

toolboxes. These are individually packaged sets of capabilities that
provide in-depth expertise on particular subject areas. There is no need to
load them explicitly—once installed, they are always available
transparently. You may also encounter Simulink, which is a semi-
independent graphical control-engineering package not covered in this
document.

Graphical versus command-line usage

MATLAB was originally entirely a command-line environment,
and it retains that orientation. But it is now possible to access a great
deal of the functionality from graphical interfaces—menus, buttons, and
so on. These interfaces are especially useful to beginners, because they
lay out the available choices clearly.2 As a rule, graphical interfaces can
be more natural for certain types of interactive work, such as annotating a
graph or debugging a program, whereas typed commands remain better
for complex, precise, repeated, or reproducible tasks. One does not
always need to make a choice, though; for instance, it is possible to save a
figure’s styles as a template that can be used with different data by
pointing and clicking. Moreover, you can package code you want to
distribute with your own graphical interface, one that itself may be
designed with a combination of graphical and command-oriented tools. In
the end, an advanced MATLAB user should be able to exploit both
modes of work to be productive.

That said, the focus of this document is on typed commands. In

many (most?) cases these have graphical interface equivalents, even if I
don’t explicitly point them out.
In particular, feel free to right-click (on Control-click on a Mac) on
various objects to see what you might be able to
do to them.

WHAT IS SIMULINK
Simulink (Simulation and Link) is an extension of MATLAB by
Math works Inc. It works with MATLAB to offer modeling, simulating,
and analyzing of dynamical systems under a graphical user interface
(GUI) environment. The construction of a model is simplified with click-
and-drag mouse operations. Simulink includes a comprehensive block
library of toolboxes for both linear and nonlinear analyses. Models are
hierarchical, which allow using both top-down and bottom-up
approaches. As Simulink is an integral part of MATLAB, it is easy to
switch back and forth during the analysis process and thus, the user may
take full advantage of features offered in both environments. This tutorial
presents the basic features of Simulink and is focused on control systems
as it has been written for students in my control systems .

Getting Started
To start a Simulink session, you'd need to bring up Matlab program first.
From Matlab command window, enter:
>> simulink
Alternately, you may click on the Simulink icon located on the toolbar as
shown
To see the content of the blockset, click on the "+" sign at the beginning
of each toolbox.
To start a model click on the NEW FILE ICON as shown in the
screenshot above.
Alternately, you may use keystrokes CTRL+N.
A new window will appear on the screen. You will be constructing your
model in this window. Also in this window the constructed model is
simulated. A screenshot of a typical working (model) window that looks
like one shown below:

To become familiarized with the structure and the environment of

Simulink, you are encouraged to explore the toolboxes and scan their
contents.

You may not know what they are all about but perhaps you could
catch on the organization of these toolboxes according to the category.
For instant, you may see Control System Toolbox to consist of the Linear
Time Invariant (LTI) system library and the MATLAB functions can be
found under Function and Tables of the Simulink main toolbox. A good
way to learn Simulink (or any computer program in general) is to practice
and explore. Making mistakes is a part of the learning curve. So, fear not,
you should be.

A simple model is used here to introduce some basic features of

Simulink. Please follow the steps below to construct a simple model.

STEP 1: CREATING BLOCKS:

From BLOCK SET CATEGORIES section of the SIMULINK

LIBRARY BROWSER window, click on the "+" sign next to the
Simulink group to expand the tree and select (click on) Sources.
 A set of blocks will appear in the BLOCKSET group. Click on the
Sine Wave blockand drag it to the workspace window (also known as
model window)

A set of blocks will appear in the BLOCKSET group. Click on the

Sine Wave blockand drag it to the workspace window (also known as
model window)
 I am going to save this model under the filename: "simexample1".
To save a model, you may click on the floppy diskette icon. Or from
FILE menu, select Save or CTRL+S. All Simulink model file will have
an extension ".mdl". Simulink recognizes file with .mdl extension as a
simulation model (similar to how MATLAB recognizes files with the
extension .m as an MFile).

Continue to build your model by adding more components (or

blocks) to your model window. We'll continue to add a Scope from Sinks
library, an Integrator block from Continuous library, and a Mux block
from Signal Routing library.

NOTE: If you wish to locate a block knowing its name, you may enter the
name in the SEARCH WINDOW (at Find prompt) and Simulink will
bring up the specified block.

To move the blocks around, simply click on it and drag it to a

desired location.
Once all the blocks are dragged over to the work space should consist of
the following components:
 You may remove (delete) a block by simply clicking on it once to
turn on the "select mode" (with four corner boxes) and use the DEL key
or keys combination CTRL-X.

STEP 2: MAKING CONNECTIONS

To establish connections between the blocks, move the cursor to the
output port represented by ">" sign on the block. Once placed at a port,
the cursor will turn into a cross "+" enabling you to make connection
between blocks.
To make a connection: left-click while holding down the control key (on
your keyboard) and drag from source port to a destination port.
The connected model is shown below.

A sine signal is generated by the Sine Wave block (a source) and is

displayed by the scope. The integrated sine signal is sent to scope for
display along with the original signal from the source via the Mux, whose
function is to multiplex signals in form of scalar, vector, or matrix into a
bus.

STEP 3: RUNNING SIMULATION

You now can run the simulation of the simple system above by
clicking on the play button (alternatively, you may use key sequence
CTRL+T, or choose Start sub-menu under Simulation menu).
Double click on the Scope block to display of the scope.
INTRODUCTION

SimPowerSystems and other products of the Physical Modeling

product family work together with Simulink® to model electrical,
mechanical, and control systems.

SimPowerSystems operates in the Simulink environment.

Therefore, before starting this user’s guide, you should be familiar with
Simulink. For help with Simulink, see the Simulink documentation. Or, if
you apply Simulink to signal processing and communications tasks (as
opposed to control system design tasks), see the Signal Processing Block
set documentation.

The Role of Simulation in Design

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and
electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working
in this discipline are constantly improving the performance of the
systems.
Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have forced power
system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated
control system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques.
Further complicating the analyst’s role is the fact that the system is often
so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through simulation.

Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other

devices is not the only use of power systems. A common attribute of
these systems is their use of power electronics and control systems to
achieve their performance objectives.

What Is SimPowerSystems
SimPowerSystems is a modern design tool that allows scientists
and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power
systems.
SimPowerSystems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build
a model using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw
the circuit topology rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its
interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This
is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with
the extensive Simulink modeling library. Since Simulink uses
MATLAB® as its computational engine, designers can also use
MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPowerSystems and
Sim Mechanics share a special
Physical Modeling block and connection line interface.

SimPowerSystems Libraries
You can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries
contain models of typical power equipment such as transformers, lines,
machines, and power electronics. These models are proven ones coming
from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power
Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large
North American utility located in Canada, and also on the experience of
École de Technologie Supérieure and Université Laval.
The capabilities of SimPowerSystems for modeling a typical
electrical system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who
want to refresh their knowledge of power system theory, there are also
self-learning case studies.
The SimPowerSystems main library, power lib, organizes its
blocks into libraries according to their behavior. The power lib library
window displays the block library icons and names. Double-click a
library icon to open the library and access the blocks. The main
SimPowerSystems power lib library window also contains the Powergui
block that opens a graphical user interface for the steady-state analysis of
electrical circuits.

Nonlinear Simulink Blocks for SimPowerSystems Models

 The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the power lib library are stored in
a special\block library named powerlib_models. These masked Simulink
models are used by SimPowerSystems to build the equivalent Simulink
model of your circuit. See Chapter 3, “Improving Simulation
Performance” for a description of the powerlib_models library

You must have the following products installed to use SimPowerSystems:

• MATLAB
• Simulink

HARDWARE KIT

HARDWARE OUTPUT
 CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION IMPLEMENTATION

The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. MATLAB was

written originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by
the LINPACK (linear system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system
package) projects. MATLAB is a high-performance language for
technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and
programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a modern
programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures,
contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-
oriented programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool
for teaching and research. MATLAB has many advantages compared to
conventional computer languages (e.g., C, FORTRAN) for solving
technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software
package has been commercially available since 1984 and is now
considered as a standard tool at most universities and industries
worldwide. It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide
variety of computations. It also has easy to use graphics commands that
make the visualization of results immediately available. Specific
applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are
toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory,
simulation, optimization, and several other fields of applied science and
engineering.

Simulink is an environment for simulation and model-based design

for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical
environment and a customizable set of block libraries that let you design,
simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems,
including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing,
and image processing

The performance of proposed system is validated through

simulation study using this MATLAB/SIMULINK software. The
Simulink model is created using library blocks. PV system is developed
using solar cells available in sim-scape toolbox. Then MPPT technique
algorithm is build up step by step.

SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:

To demonstrate the capabilities of the integrated system, a transient

followed by a steady state response is simulated in the
MATLAB/Simulink environment. Figure 8 shows the acceleration of the
induction machine from 0 to about 187 rad/sec (1780 RPM). The figure
also shows the stator current (the inverter output current). A steady-state
torque of about 20 Nm indicates the output power is approximately 3750
W, demonstrating nominal operation at approximately 1C (2.2 A). Figure
9 shows the input and output voltage waveforms of the battery-SC
converter module as well as the battery output current of a three-cell fully
charged (1.0 SOC) battery pack. These waveforms track closely as
expected. Looking more closely, it can be observed that the output
voltage ripple is about 0.05 V, consistent with the design target. Figure 10
shows the input and output voltages of the inverter and the modulation
index required to operate the induction machine. The dc bus voltage is
well below 760 V initially because of the high initial acceleration current
pulling down the battery terminal voltage.

SIMULIMATION DIAGRAM
Results:

FIG: BATTERY WAVEFORMS:

1) SOC
2) CURRENT
3) VOLTAGE
 Fig : dc-dc converter output

FIG: bldc Motor [Link], [Link]

Fig: motor speed

Fig: motor torque

 CONCLUSION
A battery electric vehicle traction system utilizing lithium-ion batteries,
switched capacitor converters, an inverter and an ac induction machine
has been modeled and simulated under various operating conditions,
including transient and steady-state analysis. A similar system with a
conventional boost converter is also simulated for comparison purposes.
The results show that the SC converter topology based system yields
higher efficiency under nominal or light loads, whereas the boost
converter topology based system is more efficient at heavy loads. A
hardware test module was built for efficiency verification and spacing,
thermal, and economics analysis. The SC converter reduces hardware
space required and no additional cooling equipment is necessary, leaving
more room for extra energy storage. From the economic perspective, the
SC converter costs more, but this may be traded off in the long run. The
trade off study will vary depending on user needs. Future work on this
topic includes regenerative braking and battery charging and their
simulation at the system level. In addition, the SC converter can be
integrated with a battery management system for cell balancing.
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