animals

Review
Copra Meal: A Review of Its Production, Properties,
and Prospects
Jan Kathleen M. Punzalan and Kurt A. Rosentrater *

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
* Correspondence: karosent@[Link]

Simple Summary: There has been a growing focus on the utilization of copra meal, the byproduct
of coconut oil production, as an alternative feed ingredient to supplement the growing demands
of the ruminant livestock, poultry, and aquaculture industries. It provides a locally available and
inexpensive source of protein, which is essential in tropical and subtropical regions, where coconut
production is robust while conventional feed ingredients are scarce and prices are often unstable. This
paper presents up-to-date information on the advancements in using copra meal as an animal feed
ingredient and the various methods employed to enhance its nutritional and feeding value. It also
offers a comprehensive overview of the physical and chemical properties of copra meal, emphasizing
the need for further research to fully exploit its potential due to the limited understanding of its
physical properties and the variability in quality resulting from different processing operations. This
review paper also focuses on other potential applications for copra meal, which is crucial given the
substantial global production volume with limited value addition. This could play a significant
role in boosting the profitability of the coconut sector, reducing agricultural waste, and promoting
sustainable agricultural practices.

Abstract: Copra meal, the byproduct of coconut oil production, has been widely available at low cost
but has been underutilized, with huge portions still becoming waste. Extensive research on different
species have been performed to improve its use as an alternative feed ingredient, aiming to reduce
the impact of fluctuating feed prices in some parts of the world where coconut is a major commodity.
As for any biological product, the physical and chemical properties of copra meal play a crucial role
in its use and limitations. In the case of copra meal, studies have found that additional treatments
Citation: Punzalan, J.K.M.;
Rosentrater, K.A. Copra Meal: A
are needed to improve its nutritional composition and make it readily and efficiently available for
Review of Its Production, Properties, ruminant and monogastric animals, poultry, and aquaculture applications. This paper presents a
and Prospects. Animals 2024, 14, 1689. summary of up-to-date information on the physical and chemical characteristics of the product, as
[Link] well as discussions on the various methods employed to improve and optimize its biological value
as animal feed. There have been limited studies that have explored other effective and economical
Academic Editors: Lester O.
means of utilizing copra meal outside the livestock and feed industry. Hence, this paper also aims
Pordesimo and Steven J. Bartle
to provide a lens on future prospects and diverse applications involving copra meal, as well as
Received: 13 May 2024 to present the gaps and challenges that have to be addressed to maximize its product value and
Revised: 31 May 2024 biological potential.
Accepted: 4 June 2024
Published: 5 June 2024
Keywords: copra meal; coconut; ruminants; feed ingredients; value added

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
1. Introduction
This article is an open access article In recent years, the search for a cost-effective and sustainable feed ingredient has led to
distributed under the terms and growing attention towards the use of traditional resources, particularly in the tropical and
conditions of the Creative Commons subtropical regions of the world, where current growth in the agriculture and aquaculture
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// industry is hampered by the geographical limitations in supply and fluctuating prices of
[Link]/licenses/by/ conventional feedstuffs in the global market [1–3]. Feed expenses represent the largest
4.0/).

Animals 2024, 14, 1689. [Link] [Link]

Animals 2024, 14, 1689 2 of 21

overall operating costs, comprising about 50 to 80 percent for livestock, poultry, and
aquaculture operations [4,5].
Among the residual byproducts of the oil industry that have been commonly used
as an additive and partial substitute to feeds is copra meal. The increasing demand for
coconut oil in the global market leads to significant quantities of copra meal produced as a
byproduct of coconut oil production, with a recorded production volume of 1.98 million
metric tons (MMT) in 2023, based on the latest data from the US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) [6]. The remaining oil content offers an inexpensive source of energy and protein
for animals; however, its use at high dietary levels is challenged by the poor amino acid
profile and presence of anti-nutritional factors [7,8]. Extensive studies have been performed
to overcome palatability issues and improve its nutritional and feeding value in different
species through processing treatments and enzymatic supplementation, as well as to
determine the optimum inclusion level without affecting animal performance [8–22].
Despite its significant volume and wide use, overviews are limited to the physical
and chemical properties attributable to copra meal prior to post-processing operations
to develop and utilize it in animal feeds and for other purposes. Hence, this paper aims
to provide a review and summary of up-to-date information regarding its production,
properties, and recent advancements in its use as a feed ingredient and in other agro-
industrial applications. Such characterization is needed as a basis for value-adding activities
and the optimization of the product given the growing demand for the utilization of copra
meal as an alternative feed on a large-scale basis in key production areas in the world.

2. Materials and Methods

To ensure a comprehensive literature review, an extensive search of publications and
previous studies dealing with copra meal, its chemical and physical properties, its use
as an alternative animal feed ingredient for different agriculturally valuable species, and
its value-added applications was conducted across multiple databases, including Google
Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus. Keywords connected to coconut byproducts and other
oilseeds was also included to ensure that potentially relevant articles were captured. Given
the limited studies dealing with the characterization of copra meal, the inclusion criteria did
not specify any given year as the review aimed to capture as much information as possible
on this topic. However, studies involving the inclusion of copra meal as a substitute to
traditional protein sources tested during feed trials highlighted publications from 1990 to
2023 only to cover recent developments in this area. Meanwhile, databases and reports
from the federal government, multilateral agencies, and trade organizations relating to the
industry situation and market trends of the coconut sector were also utilized.

3. Industry Situation
Coconut, dubbed the “tree of life” for its multitude of uses, ranging from the food in-
dustry, pharma- and nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and industrial and engineering applications,
is widely produced in the tropical and subtropical parts of the world.
With the significant increase in the worldwide supply and demand for coconut prod-
ucts and co-products over the past few decades, the coconut industry has played an
important role in the economies of producer countries [23,24]. Coconut production reached
a total of 62.41 million metric tons (MMT) in 2022, derived from the 11.05 million hectares
devoted to coconut plantation, based on the latest data from the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) [25]. Figure 1 shows the 20-year global production and yield of coconut,
with peak values occurring in 2018. There was a slight decrease observed in the overall
production in 2019 and 2020, while the 2021 production showed an increase of 2.1% as
compared to the previous year. Despite the relatively flat trend in the overall yield recorded
in 2022, the global coconut production is forecasted to reach 65.4 MMT by 2026, exhibiting
a conservative 0.5% year-on-year growth from its 2021 levels [26].
 recorded in 2022, the global coconut production is forecasted to reach 65.4 MMT by 2026,
exhibiting a conservative 0.5% year-on-year growth from its 2021 levels [26].
The bulk of the production was derived from Asia and the Pacific Region, comprising
88.7% of the production share. Major producing countries recorded in 2022 included In-
Animals 2024, 14, 1689
donesia (17.19 MMT), the Philippines (14.93 MMT), and India (13.32 MMT), while3 of 21 con-
the
sumption and use of coconut is dispersed throughout the globe [25].

[Link]
Figure Global coconut
coconut production
production andand yield
yield [25].[25].

4. Market Trends
The bulk of the and Supplywas
production Projections
derived from Asia and the Pacific Region, comprising
88.7% Coconut
of the production share. Major
and its byproducts areproducing countries
highly traded recorded in
commodities in the
2022global
included
market.
Indonesia (17.19 MMT), the Philippines (14.93 MMT), and India (13.32 MMT),
More than 50 different forms of coconut products, including unprocessed, semi-pro- while the
consumption and use of coconut is dispersed throughout the globe [25].
cessed, or processed co-products and byproducts, are entering the international market in
[Link]
Market Trends quantities. Aside Projections
and Supply from coconut oil, copra, and fresh coconut, dominating the
global trade, there is an increasing demand for other coconut products, including coconut
Coconut and its byproducts are highly traded commodities in the global market. More
coir, fiber, desiccated coconut, coconut water, coconut sugar, coconut milk, and copra oil
than 50 different forms of coconut products, including unprocessed, semi-processed, or
cake andco-products
processed other solidsand [27–29].
byproducts, are entering the international market in significant
The total
quantities. Asidemarket share ofoil,
from coconut coconut
copra,co-products and byproducts
and fresh coconut, dominating was
theestimated at USD
global trade,
20.24 billion in 2022. The industry is forecasted to grow at a compound
there is an increasing demand for other coconut products, including coconut coir, fiber, annual growth
rate (CAGR)
desiccated of 8.4%
coconut, from 2023
coconut water, tococonut
2030. One factor
sugar, seen in
coconut the and
milk, growing
coprademand
oil cake for
andcoco-
nut-based
other products is the increasing attention to health and preferences for plant-based
solids [27–29].
diets,
Theespecially
total market in the context
share of theco-products
of coconut recent COVID-19 pandemicwas
and byproducts [30,31].
estimated at USD
The International
20.24 billion in 2022. The Coconut
industry is Community
forecasted to (ICC),
growan at intergovernmental
a compound annual organization
growth rate es-
(CAGR)
tablishedof in
8.4% from
1969 2023
under thetoUnited
2030. One factorEconomic
Nations seen in the andgrowing demand for coconut-
Social Commission for Asia and
based products
the Pacific is the increasing
(UN-ESCAP), serves attention
as the peakto health and preferences
industry body for thefordevelopment
plant-based diets,
of the co-
especially in the context
conut industry throughofits themember
recent COVID-19
[Link] [30,31]. consists of 20 major coco-
The organization
The International
nut-producing countriesCoconut
around Community (ICC), an
the globe, which intergovernmental
account for more than organization
90 percent of the
established in 1969 under the United
world’s total coconut production and trade [27].Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the ThePacific
latest(UN-ESCAP),
statistics fromserves
the ICC as on
thethe
peak industry
global trade body for the
of coconut oildevelopment of
for the same period
the coconut industry through its member countries. The organization consists of 20 major
of 2021 and 2022 shows a robust demand for coconut oil, with a 17.4% overall increase
coconut-producing countries around the globe, which account for more than 90 percent of
worldwide as indicated in Table 1. This is despite the movement restrictions in the last
the world’s total coconut production and trade [27].
two years brought about by lockdowns during the pandemic and post-pandemic era and
The latest statistics from the ICC on the global trade of coconut oil for the same period
the tensions since 2021 caused by the Ukraine–Russia war. The global trade of coconut oil
of 2021 and 2022 shows a robust demand for coconut oil, with a 17.4% overall increase
is expectedastoindicated
worldwide be stable,[Link] of the supply
This is despite sourced restrictions
the movement from the Philippines’
in the last and
Indonesia’s production and exports.
two years brought about by lockdowns during the pandemic and post-pandemic era and
the tensions since 2021 caused by the Ukraine–Russia war. The global trade of coconut oil
is expected to be stable, with the majority of the supply sourced from the Philippines’ and
Indonesia’s production and exports.
 Table 1. Coconut oil importation [27].

Volume (‘000 MT)

Importing Country/Region Percent Change (%)
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 2021 2022 4 of 21
European Union (EU) 616 691 12.2%
USA 468 535 14.3%
Table 1. Coconut oil importation [27].
Malaysia 225 360 60.0%
China 174
Volume (‘000 MT)
219 25.9%
Other Country/Region
Importing Countries 516 542 5.0% (%)
Percent Change
2021 2022
World 1999 2347 17.4%
European Union (EU) 616 691 12.2%
USA 468 535 14.3%
As the main input of coconut oil 225
Malaysia production, the360supply of copra is60.0%
directly related
to the stable outlook
China of the coconut oil industry.
174 The global
219 copra production
25.9%reached 6.21
million metric
Other tons (MMT) in 2023, based
Countries 516 on the latest542
report of the United States Depart-
5.0%
World (USDA), a 3.5% increase
ment of Agriculture 1999 from the2347 17.4% The Philip-
2022 level of 6.0 MMT.
pines and Indonesia remained as the top copra producers, as shown in Figure 2, with
recorded production
As the of 2.90
main input MMT and
of coconut 1.69 MMT, respectively
oil production, the supply of[6].copra is directly related
to the stable outlook
Meanwhile, copraofmeal,
the coconut
which isoil
theindustry.
byproductTheofglobal
coconutcopra production reached
oil production, recorded
a6.21 million
trade value metric
of USDtons (MMT) in 2021
160 million 2023,alone,
basedatonanthe latestgrowth
export report rate
of the
of United States
38.4%. The top
Department of Agriculture (USDA), a 3.5% increase from the 2022 level of 6.0 MMT.
exporters are the Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, while the bulk of the imports are The
Philippines
from and Indonesia
India, South remained
Korea, and as In
China. the2018,
top copra producers,
the mean tariff as shown
rate in Figure
for copra was2,7.62%,
with
recorded production of 2.90 MMT and
while that for copra meal was 5.56% [28].1.69 MMT, respectively [6].

7.0

6.0
Copra Production (× 106 MT)

5.0 1.62
1.76 1.75 1.75
1.70
4.0

1.69
3.0 1.68 1.68
1.66 1.67

2.0

1.0

2.50 2.40 2.60 2.57 2.90

0.0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Philippines Indonesia Other Countries

Figure 2. Global copra production [6,32–38].

Figure 2. Global copra production [6,32–38].

The trade of coconut

Meanwhile, oil and
copra meal, its is
which byproducts in the
the byproduct ofinternational market arerecorded
coconut oil production, governed
by the setvalue
a trade standards
of USDof the
160 National
million inInstitute of Oilseed
2021 alone, Production
at an export growth(NIOP),
rate ofthe Federation
38.4%. The
top exporters are the Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, while the
of Oilseed, Fats and Oils (FOSFA), and the ASEAN Vegetable Oil Club (AVOC). Among bulk of the imports
areparameters
the from India,used
SouthtoKorea,
classifyand
theChina.
gradesInand 2018, the mean
standards oftariff
coprarate
arefor
thecopra was 7.62%,
oil content, mois-
while
ture that forand
content, copra meal was and
appearance 5.56% [28].of the product [39]. Additional requirements are
color
The tradeon
set depending of coconut oil andcountry,
the exporting its byproducts
such asinthose
the international
outlined in ISmarket are governed
6220-1971 standard
by the set standards of the National Institute of Oilseed Production (NIOP),
[40] of India and in PNS/BAFS 43:2009 standard [41] of the Philippines. Other restrictionsthe Federation
of Oilseed,
are Fats and
also imposed by Oils (FOSFA), and
the importing the ASEAN
countries, Vegetable
including Oil Club
the limit (AVOC). Among
for aflatoxin thein
regulated
parameters used to classify the grades and standards of copra are the oil content, moisture
content, and appearance and color of the product [39]. Additional requirements are set
depending on the exporting country, such as those outlined in IS 6220-1971 standard [40]
of India and in PNS/BAFS 43:2009 standard [41] of the Philippines. Other restrictions are
also imposed by the importing countries, including the limit for aflatoxin regulated in the
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 5 of 21

EU region [42]. It is crucial to attain the standard quality and grades of copra required for
domestic use and export, since the prices and market access vary significantly based on
these parameters.

5. Copra Meal Production

One of the main traditional products derived from coconut is copra, which refers to the
fresh coconut meat dried to low moisture content ranging from 6 to 8% to concentrate the
oil content and ensure safe storage. The quality of the copra, coconut oil, and copra meal
byproduct is highly influenced by the maturity of the nuts used, the drying method, and
storage. The processing of immature nuts could result in rubbery copra with high moisture
content, while overripe ones result in thinner copra with lower oil content. Meanwhile,
the improper drying and storage of copra often lead to an increased incidence of aflatoxin-
related molds due to high moisture content, which accounts for the majority of postharvest
losses in the coconut oil and copra supply chain [42].
The cheapest and most commonly used drying method employed for copra production
includes sun and kiln drying, but the longer drying time, risks of fungal and aflatoxin
contamination, and variable quality of copra make it more convenient to utilize hot air
using biomass or fuel-driven mechanical dryers [43–45]. Various studies on the use of
solar-powered methods of drying, such as forced convection solar dryers and solar tunnel
dryers, to economically produce high-quality copra show that these have also become
popular in recent years [46,47].
Crushed copra is then used as an input for the dry process of coconut oil produc-
tion. Note that oil production from coconut can be categorized into a wet or dry process
depending on the starting material, with the wet process utilizing undried coconut meat
subsequently processed into a coconut milk emulsion and the dry process involving oil
extraction using copra. Details of the wet method are outlined in Ng et al. [48] and
Divya et al. [49], while an in-depth discussion of the step-by-step procedures of the dry
process, both of which are beyond the scope of this paper, can be found in Punchihewa and
Arancon [42], Seneviratne and Jayathilaka [45], and the World Bank report [50].
Focusing on the dry method, coconut oil can be extracted either mechanically, using an
expeller or hydraulic presser, or through solvent extraction. The mechanical extraction of
dried copra is usually preferred for its cost-efficiency and the safe recovery of the oil. Extrac-
tion using organic solvents, typically n-hexane, yields lower oil recovery and may affect the
quality of the oil due to the residual solvent and high temperatures [43,45,51]. The method
also poses some environmental concerns and human hazards since n-hexane is known
to have flammable and explosive properties [45]. Moreso, a study by Lee and Kim [51]
revealed that mechanically extracted CM tends to have greater ether content as compared
to solvent-extracted ones. On the other hand, studies by Thomas and Scott [52] suggest that
solvent extraction results in CM with improved quality due to the fact that the essential
amino acid, lysine, tends to be more severely destroyed during mechanical extraction.
The general process flow of mechanically extracting copra to produce coconut oil is
illustrated in Figure 3. The resulting byproduct of coconut oil production is copra meal
(CM), interchangeably referred to as “copra cake” or “de-oiled copra”. The remaining oil
content in the product, which amounts to approximately 7% oil depending on the extraction
method used, provides a valuable energy source to supplement expensive imported feeds
in areas where conventional feed ingredients are limited. On average, five coconuts are
needed to produce 1 kg of copra. Each kilogram of copra will then yield 610 g of oil and
370 g of copra meal [50].
 Animals
Animals 2024,
2024, 14,14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1689 6 of 22
6 of 21

Figure 3.
Figure 3. General
General process
processflow
flowofofcoconut
coconutoiloil
production viavia
production mechanical extraction.
mechanical extraction.

6.
6. Copra Meal
Meal as asan anAnimal
AnimalFeed FeedIngredient
Ingredient
In the Asia–Pacific
Asia–PacificRegions, Regions,wherewhere there
there is is
thethe
bulk
bulk production
production of coconut
of coconut products
products
and byproducts,
and byproducts, the use of copra copra meal as an alternative feed ingredient ingredient is is economically
economically ad-
advantageous.
vantageous. It isIt locally
is locally available
available andand provides
provides an inexpensive
an inexpensive source
source of protein
of protein andandenergy.
energy. However, there are a considerable number of limitations
However, there are a considerable number of limitations in the use of copra meal (CM) for in the use of copra meal
(CM) for
animal animal
feed, mostlyfeed,associated
mostly associated
with its with its physicochemical
physicochemical and nutritional
and nutritional charac-
characteristics.
teristics.
Copra meal has long been used for ruminant feeding but has limited applications
Copra meal has
in monogastric, long been
poultry, and used for ruminant
aquaculture dietsfeeding
due tobutitshas limited applications
relatively high crudeinfiber
monogastric, poultry, and aquaculture diets due to its
content [42,53]. Several attempts have been made to address these limitations relatively high crude fiber in
content
the nutri-
[42,53]. Several attempts have been made to address these limitations
tional properties and feeding value through improving the efficiency and quality of the in the nutritional
properties
protein and feeding
extraction valuemeal
of copra through
or byimproving
changing the efficiency andthrough
its composition quality of the protein
various methods,
extraction of copra meal or by changing its composition through
including physical alterations, enzymatic treatments, and fermentation. Key studies con- various methods, includ-
ing physical
ducted on the alterations, enzymatic treatments,
use and development of copra and mealfermentation. Key studies
as a feed ingredient for conducted
agriculturally
on the use and development of copra meal as a feed ingredient for agriculturally valuable
valuable species are summarized in Table 2.
species are summarized in Table 2.
In an effort to establish the extent at which the fiber content of CM affects its nutritional
In an effort to establish the extent at which the fiber content of CM affects its nutri-
value and protein usage in animal diets, Lachance and Molina [53] devised experiments
tional value and protein usage in animal diets, Lachance and Molina [53] devised experi-
to analyze the amino acid content and protein score of a fiber-free coconut protein extract
ments to analyze the amino acid content and protein score of a fiber-free coconut protein
obtained through an enzymatic chemical method and compared it with a commercially
extract obtained through an enzymatic chemical method and compared it with a commer-
produced CM. The results revealed the consistently superior biological value of proteins
cially produced CM. The results revealed the consistently superior biological value of pro-
with a higher amino acid composition for fiber-free extracts as compared to regular CM,
teins with a higher amino acid composition for fiber-free extracts as compared to regular
which
CM, whichis also in line
is also with
in line the
with theprevious
previousfindings
findings of of Rao
[Link]. [54],
[54], indicating
indicating decreased
decreased
protein quality with increased
protein quality with increased fiber [Link] content.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, Sulabo Sulaboetet [Link].
[55][55] suggest
suggest thatthat the lower-quality
the lower-quality aminoaminoacids in acids
coprainare
copra
are likely a consequence of heat damage during the drying
likely a consequence of heat damage during the drying and oil extraction process. Jawor- and oil extraction process.
Jaworski et [Link]
ski et al. [11] [11] specifically tested experimental
tested experimental diets using diets using
copra meal copra meal onpigs.
on weanling weanling
It
pigs. It wasthat
was found found a high thatconcentration
a high concentration of fiber, specifically
of fiber, specifically soluble dietary soluble
fiber, dietary
in CM fiber,
is a in
CM is a deterrent
deterrent factor regarding
factor regarding feed intake
feed intake in pigs. in pigs. Previous
Previous findings
findings by O’Doherty
by O’Doherty and and
McKeon
McKeon [12], who whofocused
focusedon onthe
theinclusion
inclusion ofof
CM CM in in
thethe diets
diets of grower
of grower andand finisher
finisher pigs,pigs,
also
also supported these theseresults,
results,finding
findingthatthatthethe depressive
depressive effects
effects of aofhigh
a high
NDF NDF composition
composition
in
in CM
CMwere weremore
moreprominent
prominentiningrowing
growingpigs pigsthanthanininfinishing
finishingpigs pigs due
due to to
their
theirmore
more devel-
oped hind gut fermentation. As expected, higher concentrations of CM in the swine diet
resulted in decreased organic matter, protein, and energy digestibility, but the experiments
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 7 of 21

also yielded an improved food conversion ratio, leading to potential areas for development
in the formulation of CM to make it more effective in swine feeding.
The potential incorporation of copra meal in aquaculture feed diets was also tested
in various species, particularly in Nile and saline tilapia, milkfish, and black tiger shrimp,
in the studies conducted by Obirikorang et al. [15], Harlina et al. [14], Magbanua and
Ragaza [56], Apines-Amar et al. [13], and Corre et al. [17], respectively. Similar to the trend
observed for other experimental diets for animals using copra meal, the inclusion of CM
resulted in lower feed bulk density. Note that the physical properties of feed, specifically
its bulk density, are crucial in the sinking rates, water stability, and nutrient retention
efficiency of feed pellets in aquaculture applications. A higher concentration of copra meal
resulted in negative effects on fish performance; however, it was notable that the proximate
composition, with the exception ash, of tilapia carcasses fed a CM diet was not statistically
different from that of fish fed using a fish meal-based diet, attributed to the efficiency of the
crude protein, dry matter, and energy content of the product.
The results of the experiments conducted to test the effectiveness and extent of the
partial replacement of conventional feed ingredients with copra meal also revealed the
limitations of the use of CM due to its chemical composition and inherent properties.
However, the notable results provide a significant opportunity to develop a cheap, valuable,
and readily available source of dietary energy and protein for livestock, poultry, and
aquaculture, given that a careful and optimal diet is formulated.
As mentioned, one of the constraints on the use of CM as a feed ingredient is the
presence of anti-nutritional factors, particularly tannin, which hinder the growth of animals
and are even found to be toxic in fish. The effect of varying levels of treated (soaked in tap
water at room temperature for 16 h) and untreated CM in formulated feed diets in terms of
the proximate composition, feed utilization, and protein digestibility of CM was tested by
Mukhopadhyay and Ray [8] on carp fingerlings. Water treatment was found to reduce the
tannin content by 0.9%, resulting in increased CM digestibility.
The effect of fermentation to improve the feeding value of CM was also tested in
laying hens in Dairo and Fasuyi [9] and in saline tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) seeds in
Harlina et al. [14]. The fermentation process resulted in increased levels of crude protein,
an improved amino acid profile, and lower crude fiber content, which resulted in a higher
body weight gain and egg production for laying hens. Meanwhile, fermented CM led
to a higher digestibility level when tested in tilapia as compared to untreated samples.
The additional fermentation step breaks down some of the anti-nutritional content of CM,
including the high dietary fiber.
The inclusion of copra meal in animal diets has shown variable effects on the overall
performance and growth of species across different studies. In poultry applications, the use of
copra meal as an alternative to cereal grains may be limited due to poor growth performance at
high inclusion levels. However, enzyme treatments and fermentation are shown to minimize
the effects on performance characteristics and production due to the improved amino acid
profile [9,10]. Pelleting and crumbling to increase the bulk density of CM-based diet also led
to improved body weight in broilers [7]. Meanwhile, the use of CM as an alternative feed
ingredient was found to maintain the feed efficiency, digestibility, and carcass performance in
pigs, with optimal supplementation varying from 15 to 20% [11,12]. In aquaculture, the use of
copra meal is mainly driven by the reduction in feed costs when supplementing traditional
feed ingredients such as soybean meal and fish meal. Generally, CM is deemed to be more
beneficial when included in the diets of herbivore and omnivore fish species as opposed to
carnivorous ones [1], although treatments such as water soaking and fermentation to improve
digestibility and properties are found to enhance inclusion levels regardless of the species’
diets [8,13–17]. No significant adverse effects were found in terms of the survival rates, feed
conversion efficiency, and carcass composition when reformulating diets in terms of the
protein source at appropriate inclusion levels, as listed in Table 2. The high digestibility of
copra meal, particularly due to the low lignification of its cell walls, suggests that it can be
an efficient source of energy, supporting good growth rates in ruminants [18–20]. Moreover,
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 8 of 21

the provision of copra meal has been associated with improvements in milk production
and quality in dairy cows, as well as enhanced growth rates in beef cattle, indicating its
utility as a valuable supplement in ruminant nutrition [20,57]. However, the variability in
the responses highlights the need for the careful consideration of copra meal’s inclusion
rate and the overall composition of the diet, so as to maximize its benefits while mitigating
any potential drawbacks related to its palatability and feed intake [43]. In the realm of
sustainability, incorporating coconut-based products, such as CM and coconut oil, was found
to reduce the methane and carbon dioxide output from ruminants, deeming them valuable in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the livestock industry [19,21]. There has also been a
specific focus on utilizing CM as a feed component in equine diets due to its low nonstructural
carbohydrate (NSC) levels, which makes it appropriate for horses with metabolic issues that
hinder the processing of starch and sugar [22].
Overall, the inclusion of copra meal in animal feeding can serve as a viable alternative
in the diets of various species that produces results comparable to those of other conven-
tional feed ingredients. However, optimization of treatment processes and the strategic
formulation of diets is needed to improve its feeding value and further increase optimal
inclusion rate. Processing techniques, such as fermentation and enzyme supplementation,
combined with tailored diet formulation based on the nutrient requirements specific for the
species, could significantly improve the amino acid profile, palatability, and digestibility
of copra meal. The nutrient uptake and retention of CM-based diets can also be enhanced
through manufacturing processes, such as pelleting and extrusion, as it improves its physi-
cal properties. This, in turn, would make CM a more cost-effective feed ingredient that can
be used to supplement cereal grains and other traditional energy and protein sources for
animal feeding in regions where there is wide availability of coconut, while conventional
feed ingredients are expensive and have limited availability.

Table 2. Summary of findings on the use of copra meal as a feed ingredient for agriculturally valuable
species.

Species Experimental Conditions Key Results Reference

Control:
Control corn–soybean diet given from
day 1 to day 4
Experimental:
Four basal diets (0, 10, 30, and 50% CM) Significant linear decrease in feed intake (339.0 to
and four enzyme treatments to break 250.4 g; 0% to 50% CM inclusion), weight gain
down main polysaccharide components (300.1 g to 148.5 g), FCR (1.13 to 1.72), DM
Broilers (0, Hemicell® , Allzyme SSF® or a mixture digestibility (80.1% to 64.0%), and AME [10]
of Hemicell, Gamanase® , and (13.33 MJ/kg to 12.21 MJ/kg) with increasing
Allzyme SSF) levels of CM. Addition of enzyme treatment
Parameters measured: improved all parameters, except feed intake.
Mean feed intake, weight gain, FCR and
DM digestibility, nutrient digestibility,
apparent metabolizable energy of the
diets, and jejunal viscosity
Control:
Control diet of soybean meal (SBM) Optimal replacement of 50% soybean meal (SBM)
Experimental: using fermented CM protein with minimal
Experimental diets of fermented effects on the performance of laying hens.
copra meal (CM) as substitute to SBM Feed intake varied from 120.64 g to 124.96 g from
at 0, 25, 50, and 75% level based on 0% to 75% SBM replacement, from 2.07 feed/kg
Laying Hens [9]
protein content eff to 2.18 in terms of feed efficiency, from 72.42%
Parameters measured: to 68.09% in terms of hen-day production, and
Performance characteristics (i.e., feed from 1.78 ₦ 1 /kg to 1.74 ₦ 1 /kg for feed cost per
intake, feed efficiency, hen-day egg. Similar values were obtained for body
production, body weight, feed cost per weight at 1.58 g.
egg) and hematological indices of egg
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 9 of 21

Table 2. Cont.

Species Experimental Conditions Key Results Reference

Control:
Control diet containing corn, SBM, and
4% fish meal Up to 15% supplementation if diets are
Experimental: formulated based on digestible nutrients and
Experimental diets formulated with 5, ME, with no significant effect on gain to feed
Weanling Pigs 10, and 15% CM substituted for corn ratio (from 0.67 in the control diet to 0.64 at 15% [11]
and SBM CM inclusion) but potential decrease in overall
Parameters measured: ADG (from 512 g/day to 464 g/day) and ADFI
Average daily gain (ADG), average (from 765 g/day to 721 g/day).
daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed
efficiency (G:F)

Control: 20% CM inclusion in grower–finisher pig diets

Control diet using barley and 0% CM resulted in mean digestibility coefficients of 87.9
for organic matter, 84.6 for protein, and 85.5 for
Experimental:
energy. The values tended to decrease at
Experimental diets at varying levels of
increased levels of CM. Diets formulated with
CM (20 and 40% for digestibility
20% CM on a least-cost basis exhibited an
experiment; 10 and 20% as direct
Grower and increase in the live weight gain from
replacement for barley and formulated
0.886 kg/day to 0.897 kg/day, from 2.63 to [12]
Finisher Pigs on a least-cost basis for performance
2.48 FCR, and from 734.0 g/kg to 713.0 g/kg in
experiment)
terms of kill-out proportion. Overall, 20%
Parameters measured: replacement of barley with CM formulated on a
Nutrient (OM, protein, energy) least-cost basis had an insignificant effect on the
digestibility; carcass performance overall performance in the combined
(growth rate and kill-out proportion) grower–finisher phase of pigs.

Control:
Control diet with fish meal as the main
protein source
Experimental: 20–30% fish meal replacement using treated CM
Untreated and treated (soaked in tap (to reduce tannin content). Weight gain varies
Indian Major water at room temperature for 16 h) raw from 73.68% using the control diet to 83.58%
copra meal was incorporated in the using treated CM, feed intake from 1.53 g/day to [8]
Carp
experimental diets at 20, 30, and 40% fish 1.50 g/day, SGR from 0.919 %/day to
meal replacement by weight 1.01 %/day, and FCR from 2.27 to 1.94.
Parameters measured:
Growth performance, feed utilization
efficiency, and carcass composition

Control: Optimal inclusion of 5% fermented CM

Control diet with SBM as main equivalent to 12% SBM protein replacement for
protein source superior growth and FCR.
Feeding trial in milkfish using fermented CM
Experimental:
yield 0.69 FCR, 3.70% SGR/day, and 100%
Diets formulated containing 0, 5, 10, 15,
survival within 35-day culture period. Proximate
Milkfish 20, and 25% fermented CM as partial [13]
composition of fish carcass at 5% FCM inclusion
replacement to SBM protein
also produced comparable results with the
Parameters measured: SBM-based control diet, with carcass having
Specific growth rate (SGR) and survival, mean crude protein of 56.5%, 34.0% crude fat,
feed conversion ratio (FCR), and 0.04% crude fiber, 7.55% ash, and 3.45% NFE on
proximate composition of fish carcass a dry matter basis.
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 10 of 21

Table 2. Cont.

Species Experimental Conditions Key Results Reference

Control:
Feed treatment with 0% CM inclusion
and fish meal as main source of protein
Experimental:
Varying concentrations of fermented, 15% optimal level of inclusion of fermented
Saline Tilapia dried, and powdered copra meal copra meal with better total feed digestibility [14]
(15, 30, 45%) were incorporated to the (48.80%) and improved protein content (36.65%).
feed treatments as plant-based source
of protein
Parameters measured:
Feed digestibility and composition
Control:
Control diet with fish meal as main Potential inclusion of 30% unrefined CM with no
protein source negative effects on feed intake. Results yielded
Experimental: reduced feed bulk density of 344.26 g/L and
Nile Tilapia Inclusion of 30% CM in the mean sinking velocity of 7.13 cm/s. Higher feed [15]
experimental diet intake and fecal production was recorded at
Parameters measured: 283.10 g and 372.6 g DM/kg ingested feed,
Feed bulk density, sinking velocity, feed respectively.
intake, fecal production
Control:
Fish meal and soybean meal-based
diet with 0% fermented copra meal
replacement
Optimal SBM replacement of up to 100%
Experimental:
(16% in diet) using fermented copra meal
Replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with
without significant adverse effects on fish
fermented copra meal at varying
Grouper performance and carcass composition. Results [16]
concentrations (25, 50, 75, 100%) with and
yielded 71.1% survival rate, 0.57 FCE, 4.64 g/day
without amino acid (methionine and
feed intake, and 974% weight gain during the
lysine) supplementation
70-day feeding trial.
Parameters measured:
Survival rates, feed conversion efficiency
(FCE), feed intake, weight gain,
carcass composition
Control:
Basal shrimp diet using fish meal as
primary source of protein
Experimental: Up to 40% replacement for fish meal protein
Black Tiger Fermented CM-based diet replacing fish without significant detrimental effect on growth
meal protein at varying levels (0, 10, 20, [17]
Shrimp (SGR = 2.2 %/day), survival (81.8%), and feed
30, and 40%) of the diet efficiency (FCR = 2.1).
Parameters measured:
Specific growth rate (SGR), percent
survival, feed conversion ratio (FCR)
Control:
Control diet using soybean meal (SBM) Up to 50% SBM substitution with CM resulted in
as primary source of protein and comparable performance of goats in terms of
0% copra meal (CM) included feed intake (from 71.4 g/day to 73.7 g/day; at
Experimental: 0 to 50% diet replacement), apparent digestibility
Concentrate mixtures consisted of copra (57.7% in terms of dry matter, 62.4% in terms of
Goats [18]
meal (CM) at varying levels (25%, 50%, organic matter, 56.1% in terms of crude protein,
75%) as replacement for dietary crude and 50.7% in terms of neutral detergent fiber at
protein provided by SBM 50% CM replacement), and body weight gain
Parameters measured: (from 60.0 g/day to 62.5 g/day; from 0 to 50%
Feed intake, apparent digestibility, live diet substitution).
weight change
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 11 of 21

Table 2. Cont.

Species Experimental Conditions Key Results Reference

Control:
Diet consisted of alfalfa hay, corn stover, Similar growth performance at an average
corn grain, ground sorgum, soybean daily gain of 0.23 g/day was observed in lambs
meal, cane molasses, urea, and 0% copra fed with CM-based diets. Feed conversion
meal (CM) forumulated based on the increased from 5.48 to an average of 6.1 for the
nutritional requirements for lambs three treatments.
Experimental: Meanwhile, the gas production volume,
Treatments consisted of CM at 50, 100, particularly that of methane and carbon dioxide,
Sheep [19]
and 150 g/kg DM, along with the same tended to decrease among treatments with CM,
ingredients in the control diet and with the lowest recorded gas production volume
similarly formulated based on the of 153.2 mL/g at a 150 g CM level. This suggests
nutritional requirements for lambs the potential role of utilizing CM-based diets in
Parameters measured: reducing greenhouse gases emissions from the
Average daily gain, feed conversion, gas livestock industry.
production rate
Control:
Basal diet of Imperata cylindrica
native pasture and mixed legumes
(less than 20%)
Experimental:
Supplementation of CM in the diet of Brahman
Diet was supplemented with 2/3 CM for
weaner steers (young male cattle) improved the
bypass protein. Additional experimental
Cattle live weight gain by 96 g/day. Further addition of [20]
diet containing 1/3 molasses for rumen
molasses and urea to CM-supplemented diet
fermentable energy and urea (±3%)
increased the body weight gain by 159 g/day.
for rumen degradable nitrogen was
also tested
Parameters measured:
Live weight gain
Control: Milk yield increased from 12.4 kg/day without
Tropical pasture with no supplement supplement to 13.2 kg/day and 12.7 kg/day for
Experimental: 3 and 6 kg/day CM inclusion, respectively. A
Copra meal incorporated as supplement significant increase of up to 15.8% in milk fat
Dairy Cows to tropical pasture at 3 kg/day and content was also observed. Rumen pH was [57]
6 kg/day levels maintained at 7.1 when CM was added.
Parameters measured: Reduced live weight was also recorded for
Milk yield, composition, rumen pH, supplemented dairy cows at an average of 5 kg
live weight during the 12-week trial.
Control:
Pasture-only control diet consisted of
90% Pennisetum clandestinum and 10%
Trifolium repens, with approximately
7% non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) Average body weight was maintained over the
content on a dry matter (DM) basis 25-day feeding trial at an average of 456 kg.
Experimental: CM-based treatment obtained the lowest
Horses [22]
Pasture supplemented with copra meal post-feeding plasma glucose level of 4.4 nM/L,
(CM) with approximately 11% DM comparable to the 4.2 nM/L peak glucose level
NSC content, pelleted feed (25.3% DM of the control diet.
NSC), and pre-mixed sweetfeed
(33.7% DM NSC)
Parameters measured:
Body weight, plasma glucose response
1 —₦ 128 = USD 1.

7. Properties
As discussed in the previous section, existing studies on copra meal have focused on
its development as a partial substitute and additive for animal feeds. Various publications
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 12 of 21

provide discussions on the proximate analysis of copra meal, as summarized in Table 3,

and how these can be changed through various methods to improve the digestibility and
feeding efficiency. While studies have dealt with the chemical and nutritional properties of
copra meal (CM) as a foundation for the improvement of its biological value, there are still
gaps in the physical characterization of this product that have yet to be understood to obtain
a clearer picture of the interplay of all of its properties in its application, development, and
value addition.

7.1. Chemical Properties

Copra meal consists of relatively high carbohydrate and protein content, as shown in
Table 3. However, a significant amount of the total carbohydrate is regarded as unusable
fiber, which mainly consists of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), generally water-insoluble
non-cellulosic polysaccharides [58]. The predominant NSP in CM is mannan, while traces
of cellulose and galactomannan are also found in significant portions [7].
The nutritional analysis of CM also yields relatively low lysine content, indicating this
as the probable limiting amino acid [53], while others, such as methionine, tryptophan,
and threonine, are deemed insufficient to meet the specifications for feeding applications
in monogastric animals [3,59,60]. These findings indicate that the use of CM as a protein
source is hindered by its low usable energy value, caused by the limited amino acid
concentrations and high dietary fiber content. Although CM was found to have potentially
higher gross energy concentrations than soybean meal and corn in the proximate analysis
performed by Sulabo et al. [55], the elevated dietary fiber content leads to lower digestible
and metabolizable energy. Note that crude fiber is the traditional measure of fiber content
in feed but only accounts for most of the cellulose and some of the lignin components. On
the other hand, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) measures the total amount of the plant cell
wall, including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, hence being more useful in the analysis
of the feeding value of a plant-based product.
Copra meal also contains considerably higher levels of crude fat as compared to other
edible oil cakes, such as soybean, rapeseed, cotton seed, and palm kernel [61]. This high fat
content, composed of short-chain saturated fatty acids, is a result of the residual oil left in
the copra meal after extraction. The fat content is an important parameter directly correlated
to the heating value of a product. Moreover, as emphasized in the study conducted by
Szyszlak-Bargłowicz et al. [62], the significant amount of fat in CM contributes to reducing
the energy consumption when using it as an additive in the pelleting process, since fat
serves as a lubricant that lowers the friction between and among the particles and the
mill. Meanwhile, this inherent characteristic of CM leads to negative effects in terms of the
durability of the product.
The chemical properties of the raw material greatly affect its inherent binding char-
acteristics and will have significant effects on the quality and stability of feeds during
applications [15]. Some studies also cover the analysis of the fecal quality of species as a
function of the feed ingredient, as these solid wastes have direct correlations in assessing
the environmental impact of the product and species within a cradle-to-grave scope.
Listed in the table below is a summary of the chemical properties of copra meal as
found in several published papers that aimed to analyze and improve its use as a feed
ingredient. It can be noted that significant variation exists in the summarized values of
each property, as they are highly dependent on the origin of the raw material analyzed and
the processing operations that the samples have been subjected to.
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 13 of 21

Table 3. Chemical properties of copra meal.

Reported Values, % Dry Basis

Property References
Minimum Maximum Mean S.D.
Dry Matter 87.10 92.90 90.17 2.22 [2,3,8–12,15,21,55,59,60,63,64]
Gross Energy (kCal/kg) 4371 4785 4603 163.41 [3,8,10–12,21,55,60,64]
Digestible Energy (kCal/kg) 3272 4071 3717 266.38 [3,11,22,55,60,64,65]
Metabolizable Energy (kCal/kg) 3110 3903 3554 251.74 [9,11,12,55,60,64–66]
Crude Protein 19.63 24.29 22.94 1.34 [2,3,8–12,15,21,22,53,55,59,60,63,64]
Arginine E 2.13 3.54 2.53 0.54 [3,8–11,55,59,60,64]
Cysteine E 0.27 0.32 0.30 0.02 [3,8,9,55,59,60,64]
Glycine E 0.88 1.01 0.93 0.06 [3,9,55,59,60,64]
Histidine E 0.38 0.78 0.45 0.14 [3,8,9,11,55,59,60,64]
Isoleucine E 0.67 0.92 0.74 0.09 [3,8,9,11,55,59,60,64]
Leucine E 1.27 1.48 1.35 0.08 [3,8,11,55,59,60,64]
Lysine E 0.23 0.63 0.50 0.11 [3,8–12,55,59,60,64]
Methionine E 0.29 0.46 0.36 0.06 [3,8–11,55,59,60,64]
Phenylalanine E 0.46 0.95 0.83 0.16 [3,8,9,11,55,59,60,64]
Threonine E 0.59 0.99 0.70 0.14 [3,8,9,11,55,59,60,64]
Tryptophan E 0.13 0.21 0.16 0.03 [11,55,59,60,64]
Valine E 0.92 1.16 1.03 0.07 [3,8,9,11,55,59,60,64]
Alanine 0.90 0.92 0.91 0.01 [3,9,55,60,64]
Proline 0.65 0.80 0.73 0.08 [3,9,55,60,64]
Tyrosine 0.14 0.63 0.45 0.15 [3,8,9,55,59,60,64]
Serine 0.76 1.07 0.90 0.13 [3,9,55,59,60,64]
Aspartate 1.61 1.84 1.72 0.11 [3,9,55,60,64]
Glutamate 3.60 4.08 3.87 0.25 [3,9,55,60,64]
Total Carbohydrates 45.89 47.35 46.62 1.03 [8,53]
Crude Fiber 6.60 18.21 13.04 3.59 [2,3,8–10,15,21,53,59]
Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) 27.72 29.30 28.78 0.61 [11,21,55,60,64]
Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) 55.76 68.33 59.48 3.93 [10–12,21,55,60,63,64]
Crude Fat 2.28 16.14 9.00 4.05 [2,8–10,12,15,21,22,53,59,60,64]
Ash 5.05 9.10 6.88 1.11 [2,3,8–12,15,21,53,55,63]
Calcium 0.04 0.23 0.12 0.08 [3,11,22,59,60,63,64]
Phosphorous 0.50 0.71 0.59 0.07 [3,11,22,59,60,63,64]
Potassium 1.53 2.00 1.89 0.20 [3,22,59,60,64]
Chlorine 0.03 0.77 0.40 0.30 [22,59,60,64]
Magnesium 0.26 0.36 0.32 0.04 [3,22,59,60,64]
Sodium 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.002 [22,59,60,64]
Sulfur 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.002 [60,64]
Manganese (ppm) 58.70 83.43 72.85 10.31 [3,59,60,64]
Copper (ppm) 26.91 27.17 27.04 0.19 [60,64]
Iron (ppm) 523.14 528.26 525.70 3.62 [60,64]
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 14 of 21

Table 3. Cont.

Reported Values, % Dry Basis

Property References
Minimum Maximum Mean S.D.
Zinc (ppm) 52.74 58.95 54.99 3.45 [3,60,64]
Phytic acid 0.20 0.87 0.49 0.34 [8,11,60,63,64]
Tannin 2.40 [8]
E —essential amino acids.

7.2. Physical Properties

Only a few studies have focused on the physical properties of copra meal, listed in
Table 4, and much of the information provided so far associates these characteristics with
the product’s low feeding value in monogastric and poultry diets.

Table 4. Physical properties of copra meal.

Property Reported Values References

Bulk Density (g/cm3 ) 0.49–0.56 [7,10,11,64]
Water Holding Capacity (g water/g feed) 4.14–4.18 [7,10,11,64]

The hard and crystalline physical features of copra meal are associated with its very
high mannose to galactose ratio. Its gritty appearance and coarse texture, due to the
branched polysaccharides, predominantly the non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) mannan,
as discussed in detail by Knudsen [58], has been found to limit its feeding value due to its
tendency to increase the viscosity of the intestinal contents in monogastric animals. The
high insoluble fiber content also affects the nutrition intake as well as the quality of litter in
poultry applications [7,10].
A study conducted by Sundu et al. [10] revealed that the bulk density and water
holding capacity (WHC) of copra meal greatly affect its quality as an animal feed, with
even potentially greater effects than its chemical characteristics. The low bulk density and
high WHC of CM lead to decreased feed intake in poultry species, which has detrimental
effects on their growth rates. Altering the physical properties of CM through pelleting
and crumbling to increase the bulk density resulted in a higher body weight and gizzard
size in broilers as compared to enzymatically treated CM, and, surprisingly, even in com-
parison to a conventional corn–soy diet. Furthermore, a consequent study conducted
by Sundu et al. [7] covered the effect of the average particle size of CM in poultry diets,
indicating that a larger particle size yielded heavier and larger gizzards due to higher
feed intake and the higher volume of the digesta. In aquaculture feeding, an increase in
shear effects at high screw speeds during feed processing could lead to the mechanical
destruction of starch molecules, thereby further increasing the WHC [67].
Aside from the bulk density being a key parameter in determining the quality of feed
ingredients, it also plays an important role in the transport, handling, and storage efficiency
of biological products. A higher bulk density increases the transport capacity and reduces
the storage space, which have direct impacts on the logistical costs and crumbling-related
losses in pelleted products [62].
These findings indicate a significant need to further understand the physical charac-
teristics of CM—for instance, determining the required bulk density to reach the optimal
growth of species in feeding applications and how this characteristic could possibly provide
other opportunities and breakthroughs in other applications.
Another important area is the analysis of the color of copra meal, since this property is
highly affected by the heat treatment and extraction method that the input material, the
raw copra, was subjected to. Note that, for raw copra, the moisture content and appearance,
indicated through the color, are used as the main parameters in determining the quality
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 15 of 21

and grade of copra and therefore the price. Experiments quantifying the effect of varying
drying air temperatures on these two characteristics were performed on unprocessed copra
by Guarte et al. [68]. However, no study has been carried out to completely analyze the
color of copra meal and consider this as a function of the processing operations performed
and the ways in which it affects other chemical properties. The color has been associated
with the nutritional value of a product and could provide an opportunity to understand
the correlations between its other intrinsic properties, such as drying behavior and heat
capacity [69]. In the experimental setup of Sundu et al. [10], the overheating of CM during
drying or oil extraction, indicated through the very dark brown color of CM samples, was
a potential factor for the low digestibility of CM-based diets. Maillard products could
be developed, reducing the feed digestibility, along with the destruction of nutrients in
the process.
Color and odor, associated with rancidity, are also indicators of the aflatoxin content
of CM, which are known as limiting factors in the quality and acceptability of CM in the
global market. These quality parameters are also known to affect the feed efficiency, as
found in the trials conducted in swine by Schell et al. [70]. In terms of aquaculture feed
applications, it would be critical to examine the physical characteristics, particularly the
hardness, water stability, water absorption index, and water solubility index, as these are
important indicators of the nutrient retention capacity and sinking velocity of feed pellets.
The hardness of feeds is also highly correlated to the animal’s preference, especially in
aquatic species, as studies have found that fish prefer softer pellets than harder ones and
the high concentration of CM in experimental feed diets result in lower feed intake [56].
Note that the inclusion of plant ingredients in feed has significant effects on the physical
properties of the product, since the NSPs have the potential to reduce the expansion and
increase the hardness.
The storage conditions and durations of copra meal have also been proven to greatly
affect the moisture content and odor of the product. The moisture content is known to
significantly influence other physico-chemical properties of biological products. Looking
into the effects of the varying moisture content of copra meal, and quantifying its effect
and how it is correlated with the other measurable characteristics, is a promising area to
pursue because it plays a crucial role in the potential uses of CM in other industries.

8. Opportunities and Value-Added Applications

Analyses of the chemical and physical properties indicate a great opportunity for other
potential applications and the further value addition of the product. As the world moves
towards a more sustainable agri-production system, the growing interest in fully utilizing
agricultural wastes, especially those produced in bulk, is a major concern. For instance,
there is an increasing trend in the use of oil cakes to produce substrates that will serve
as carbon and nitrogen source in manufacturing biochemicals, including enzymes and
antibiotics, through fermentation [71]. Aside from the extensive studies being conducted
to optimize the use of copra meal as an alternative feed ingredient, various researchers
are now seeking to explore the utilization of copra mannan for the production of prebiotic
manno-oligosaccharides (MOS) for food and feed applications [72–78]. Humans, similar to
animals, cannot readily digest copra meal due to its high mannan content. However, the
β-mannanase enzyme can break down the complex mannan polysaccharide into MOS [75].
Various studies have investigated copra meal hydrolysate (CMH), created by hydrolyzing
defatted copra meal with food-grade β-mannanase, as a potential prebiotic to support the
growth of beneficial gut bacteria and enhance gut health [75,76]. The consumption of CMH
was found to improve bowel movements and provide relief from bloating symptoms [76].
Furthermore, studies have shown that CMH promotes the growth of beneficial microbes in
the human intestinal microflora, while reducing the levels of pathogenic bacteria such as
Escherichia coli [75–78]. Moreover, MOS can be potentially used to replace antibiotic growth
promoters and as a mycotoxin and cholesterol binder in poultry diets [74]. Mannans are
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 16 of 21

also widely used in other food industry applications as thickening, stabilizing, and gelling
agents, but have not yet been commercially pursued in the context of copra mannans.
The potential bioconvertibility of copra meal as a substrate for bioethanol production
was tested by Antia et al. [79] at varying concentrations. Since CM contains a significant
amount of mannan polysaccharides, the samples were pretreated with alkali and acids
and through autohydrolysis and additional enzymatic hydrolysis prior to fermentation.
The experimental setup led to a viable ethanol yield as high as 0.47 g/g at a 20% (w/v)
substrate concentration after 48 h of continuous saccharification and fermentation. This
result was comparable to the theoretical yield obtained from other lignocellulosic substrates
at about 0.51 g/g. However, the economic impact of the additional steps of pretreatment
prior to the fermentation proper, which could have detrimental effects on the overall
technical and economic feasibility of the process, has to be further analyzed, especially for
larger-scale production.
Another area that has received significant attention in the past few years is the use of
waste biomass for the production of biofuels. Despite its high energy value, there is limited
available literature exploring the potential use of CM as an energy source, although other
coconut-derived products, such as the husk, shell, frond, fiber, and pulp, have been widely
explored in energy generation, as in the study of Azeta et al. [80]. Among the limited
existing research performed in this field is that of Szyszlak-Bargłowicz et al. [62], which
evaluated the possibility of incorporating copra meal as an additive in the production of
giant miscanthus (Miscanthus giganteus) biomass pellets. Varying levels of CM ranging
from 10 to 100% were added to the biomass blend and the resulting pellets were analyzed
in terms of the energetic and physico-chemical properties. The results revealed that the
increasing levels of CM in the mix resulted in higher heating values and lower energy
consumption in the pelleting process, thereby increasing the energy efficiency (EE) and
energy yield (EY) of the miscanthus pellets. However, the CM additives had detrimental
effects on the mechanical durability and pellet density, which are directly correlated to
the heating applications and logistical risks, respectively. The experimental study was
also limited regarding the energetic properties and was not extended to the suitability
of the resulting pellets to serve as biofuel; hence, the further examination of CM’s actual
performance as a biofuel component must be undertaken. Nevertheless, the improvements
in the densification process and the properties of biomass pellets provide an opportunity
for the potential application of CM as an alternative energy source and they could further
be tested in other types of biomass.
Due to the structural stability, high absorption capacity, and porous structure of
various coconut parts and biomass, their potential use in the adsorption of toxic pollutants
such as heavy metals, industrial dyes, pharmaceutical, and organic contaminants has also
been explored, and the initial findings indicate promising results. The most commonly
used coconut parts in the development of low-cost bio-adsorbents are the coconut shell,
husk, and coir, in their native or modified forms [81]. As more research studies focus
on the development of coconut biomass into environmentally friendly and low-cost bio-
adsorbents, a couple of researchers have tested the possibility of utilizing raw copra and
copra meal for this purpose. CM has been found to be easily modified into bio-adsorbents
due to its soft texture attributed to its high mannan content [82]. The study conducted
by Lee et al. [83] revealed promising results on the use of copra for cadmium adsorption
from water, demonstrating a maximum adsorption capacity of 1.092 mg/g and efficient
removal for up to seven consecutive cycles of adsorption and desorption. Similar studies
on the use of raw copra for the removal of heavy metals were performed by Lee and
Sim [84] for Cd, Cr, and Ni from aqueous solutions, while that of Simarani et al. [85]
tested the feasibility of using grated copra biomass for the removal of dye contaminants
such as methylene blue. For copra meal itself, only one published study, performed by
Saleem et al. [82], has tested the potential application of CM biomass in divalent nickel
ion removal from aqueous solutions, revealing a maximum monolayer NI (II) capacity of
3.77 mg/g. The experimental data fitted the Langmuir isotherm model, which indicates
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 17 of 21

the excellent potential of using a CCM biosorbent to economically and sustainably remove
Ni (II) contaminants from wastewater.
The potential replacement of single-use synthetic polymer-based plastics with cheap
and biodegradable thermoplastics made from coconut meal has been recently studied
by Reddy et al. [86]. Since copra meal, just like other oil meals, is non-thermoplastic in
nature, varying types and ratios of plasticizers were added to enable thermal processing
before the meal was subjected to compression molding and rendered into biofilms. The
use of 5% glycerol produced films with tensile strength of 2.4 MPa and a modulus of
305 MPa, comparable with paper-based plastics. On the other hand, the further addition of
glycerol was found to lower these mechanical parameters due to the inherent hydrophilic
characteristic of the substance. Different oils, including coconut, peanut, and cashew nut
shell liquid, were also tested as plasticizers. However, the results varied considerably
depending on the thermoplastic and hydrophilic properties of the oil used, with coconut
oil providing optimal stability and mechanical properties even at higher humidities. Citric
acid was also tested for the crosslinking of the bioproduct and the results showed excellent
retention, suggesting its possible application for aqueous and semi-aqueous items. Overall,
the possible conversion of copra meal into biothermoplastics shows positive and cost-
effective results with just the compression molding technique, without the need for high-
end chemical modifications, although this is another area for exploration in this field. The
study also provides evidence of the ease of molding copra meal into any shape and form,
so that it can be used for food and non-food handling and packaging, since it is edible
and biodegradable and exhibits good antimicrobial resistance. Note, however, that the
aflatoxin contamination of raw copra meal is among the major concerns, as for any of its
applications, and the quality of the input resources must be ensured should it be used for
this purpose [39,87].
In terms of optimizing the use of CM as an alternative animal feed ingredient through
nutritional improvement, efforts are being shifted towards large-scale production and the
use of fermented copra meal given its positive experimental results, as proven in various
studies. In 2017, the Philippines began the establishment of a pilot plant facility with a
1 MT production capacity for fermented copra meal, called Protein-Enriched Copra Meal
(PECM) [88], followed by the recent commercialization of the product, funded through the
2022 annual budget of the Department of Agriculture of the Philippines. Further study
can consider the effects of an industrial setup on the quality and economics of fermented
copra meal. As Kraikaew et al. [89] observed, increasing the production scale from a 200 g
laboratory scale to a 10 kg industrial capacity within a simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation setup of copra meal resulted in higher protein content but decreased the yield,
attributed to the mixing system and the more efficient oxygen transfer rate in the larger
fermenter tank.

9. Conclusions
With coconut oil production making up a significant portion of the coconut industry,
there is a huge stream of byproducts, particularly copra meal, directly derived from the
process. Copra meal has been widely studied and partially incorporated as an alternative
feed ingredient, but there are still challenges in its utilization, resulting in the bulk of
the volume proceeding downstream as agricultural waste. Understanding the inherent
characteristics and composition of this product is the first step in exploring and opening up
opportunities for value-added applications. As outlined in this paper, there are gaps in the
characterization of copra meal, since chemical and nutritional analyses have been limited
in the context of using it as animal feed, while comprehensive information on its physical
properties is still lacking.
Identifying the prospects and value-adding opportunities for copra meal could pave
the way for a more competitive coconut sector, making the industry more profitable for
coconut farmers and copra processors, especially in tropical countries, where the majority
of production is found. Improvements in the use of copra meal could also contribute to
Animals 2024, 14, 1689 18 of 21

the goal of achieving sustainable agri-production systems in the long run by reducing
the amount of agricultural biomass being wasted and instead converting it into low-cost,
environmentally friendly products.
However, further analyses are needed to cover other byproducts along the coconut
value chain and the wide variations in the quality of the resulting copra meal based on the
processes and technologies employed. Although limited, there have been initial studies that
have looked into these possibilities, some of which have been discussed in this paper, but
other important and emerging applications, such as in human food and industrial products,
or new developments in the methods of component extraction and conversion, should also
be investigated. There is still much more to consider in order to paint a complete picture
of the usability potential of copra meal, elevating its potential to that of other coconut
byproducts and co-products and oil cakes from conventional sources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.A.R. and J.K.M.P.; writing—original draft preparation

J.K.M.P.; writing—review and editing, K.A.R. and J.K.M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were created or analyzed
in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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