Chapter 1
Introduction to Microprocessors
by Barry B. Brey
[email protected]
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
• A processor is the logic circuitry that responds
to and processes the basic instructions that
drive a computer.
• The term processor has generally replaced the
term central processing unit (CPU)
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Microprocessor
• CPU housed in a single silicon chip called
microprocessor.
• Incorporate function of CPU in a single IC
• Set of circuit which connect the CPU with the
rest of the computer.
• Consists of CPU, I/O ckt and memory access
ckt
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Microprocessor
• MP is a programmable digital device.
• Designed with registers, flip-flop’s (FF)
& timing circuits.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
How MP works
• MP has a set of instructions, designed
internally, to manipulate(using with excellence)
data & communicate with peripherals.(mouse,
keyboard, printer etc.)
• These instructions are given to MP by writing
into its memory.
• Writing (or entering) instructions & data is
done through an input device (keyboard).
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
How MP works
• MP reads or translates one instruction at a
time, matches it with its instruction set, &
performs data manipulation indicated by
instruction.
• Result stored in memory or sent to such output
devices as LED or a CRT (cathode ray tube)
terminal.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
How MP works
• MP can respond to external signals.
• It can be interpreted, reset or asked to Wait to
synchronize with slower peripherals.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Mechanical Computing
• The abacus circa 500 B.C. – the first calculator
• Blaise Pascal – the first modern mechanical
adder
• Charles Babbage – the first true computer
• Herman Hollerith – the punched card system
and founder of IBM
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Early electronic computers
• Konrad Zuse – Z3 (relay logic at 5.33 Hz)
– 1936-39, German used for aircraft and missile design during World
War II.
• Alan Turing – Colossus
– 1943, vacuum tube, British military for decoding German
codes in World War II.
• University of Pennsylvania – ENIAC, 1946
– The first general-purpose, programmable electronic
computer.
– 1946, 17000 vacuum tubes, 500 miles of wires, weight 30
tons.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Early milestones
• 1948 – the transistor at Bell Labs
• 1958 – the integrated circuit
• 1961 – RTL digital logic
• 1971 – the microprocessor (4004)
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Early programming
• Countess of Lovelace (1823) wrote programs
for the Analytical Engine
• Machine Language then Assembly Language
• Grace Hopper (1957) develops FLOW-MATIC
• FORTRAN, ALGOL, and RPG
• COBOL
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Modern programming
• Visual BASIC (most common business)
• Visual C/C++ (most common technical)
• JAVA (most common web)
• ADA and PASCAL
• C# (gaining on web)
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Terms
• KIP – Kilo of Instructions per Second
• MIP – Millions of Instructions per Second
• Bit - a binary digit with a value of 1 or 0
• Nibble – 4-bit-wide binary number
• Byte – 8-bit-wide binary number
• Word (16 bits)
• Doubleword (32 bits) Quadword (64 bits)
• Octalword (128 bits)
• K – 1024, 1M – 1024K, 1G – 1024M
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Early Microprocessors
• 4004 the first microprocessor (4-bit) 4K RAM
• 8008 (8-bit)
• 8080 (8-bit) 64K RAM, 2Mhz clock
• 8086 (16-bit) 1M RAM, 5MHz clock
• 80286 (16-bit) 16M RAM, 16MHz clock
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
32-bit Microprocessors
• 80386, 4G RAM, 33 MHz clock
• 80486, 4G RAM, 66 MHz clock
• Pentium, 4G RAM, 66 MHz clock
• Pentium Pro, 64G RAM, 133 MHz clock
• Pentium II, 64G RAM, 233 MHz clock
• Pentium III, 64G RAM, 500 MHz clock
• Pentium 4, 64G RAM, 1.5 GHz clock
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
The P nomenclature
• P1 – 8086/8088 class
• P2 – 80286 class
• P3 – 80386 class
• P4 – 80486 class
• P5 – Pentium class
• P6 – Pentium Pro/Pentium II, Pentium III, and
Pentium 4 class
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Tasks
• μP performs 3 main tasks:
– Data transfer - μP and the memory or I/O
systems.
– Arithmetic and logic operations.
– Program flow via simple decisions
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Power of μP
• Capable of executing billions of millions of
• instructions per second from a program or
software
• stored in the memory system
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
μP-based PC
• μP-based PC Systems consists of
• Memory system
• I/O system
• μP
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Computer System Functions
• CPU (microprocessor) – performs
– arithmetic and logic operations (table 1-4)
– data transfers (to memory or i/o)
– program flow via simple decisions (table 1-5)
• Memory – stores program and data
• I/O – communicates to humans and machines
(figure 1-11)
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Von Neumann Model
• Roots of the modern PC go back to the 1940’s
• John Von Neumann proposed this design:
• – CPU
• – Input
• – Output
• – Working Memory
• – Permanent Memory
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Buses: A common group of wires that
interconnect components in a
computer system.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Buses
• Address Bus – selects a location in the
memory or a specific I/O device
• Data Bus – transfers data between the
microprocessor and the memory or I/O
• Control Bus – selects I/O or memory and
causes a read or a write
• See Table 1-6 for Bus widths and memory sizes
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Control Bus
In most computer systems, there are four
control bus connections:
•MRDC (memory read control)
•MWTC (memory write control)
•IORC (I/O read control)
•IOWC (I/O write control).
•overbar indicates the control signal is active-low;
(active when logic zero appears on control line)
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Buses
• The microprocessor reads a memory location
by sending the memory an address through
the address bus.
• Next, it sends a memory read control signal to
cause the memory to read data.
• Data read from memory are passed to the
microprocessor through the data bus.
• Whenever a memory write, I/O write, or I/O
read occurs, the same sequence ensues.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Intel μP Buses
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Reading from Memory
• Multiple machine cycles are required when reading from memory,
because it responds much more slowly than the CPU. The steps are:
– address placed on address bus
– Read Line (RD) set low
– CPU waits one cycle for memory to respond
– Read Line (RD) goes to 1, indicating that the data is on the data bus
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Memory Organization
• Memory is organized in byte-sized (wide) chunks of
data
• Memory is numbered in bytes
• Memory is number in hexadecimal addresses or
locations
• Modern memory is 64-bits wide containing 8 bytes
per memory physical location.
• Modern DRAM is SLOW! (40 ns per a random access)
• Buffering and double clock edge transfers can speed
memory access times to about 25 MHz
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Microprocessor Internals
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
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Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Memory Organization
• 8086/8088 – 8- or 16-bits in width
• 80286 – 16-bits in width
• 80386/80486 – 32-bits in width
• Pentium/Pentium 4 – 64-bits in width
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
8-bit Data
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
8-bit Data Formats
• In the assembler use:
DATA1 DB 10H
• In C++
char Data1 = 0x10;
or
unsigned char Data2 = 3;
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
16-bit Data
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
16-bit Data Formats
• In the assembler
Data3 DW 1000H
• In C++
short Data3 = 0x1000;
or
_int16 Data4 = 23;
or
unsigned short Data5 = 4;
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
32-bit Data
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
32-bit Data Formats
• In the assembler
DATA6 DD 10002345H
• In C++
int Data6 = 0x10002345;
or
unsigned int Data7 = 34566;
or
UINT Data8 = 344;
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Floating-point Data
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Floating-Point Formats
• In the assembler
DATAA DD 23.4
DATAB DQ -345.0
DATAR DQ 3.5E2
• In C++
float DataC = 23.4;
double DataD = -345;
double DataE = 3.5e2;
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Digits
• Before converting numbers between bases,
digits of a number system must be
understood.
• First digit in any numbering system is always
zero.
• A decimal (base 10) number is constructed
with 10 digits: 0 through 9.
• A base 8 (octal) number; 8 digits: 0 through 7.
• A base 2 (binary) number; 2 digits: 0 and 1.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Digits
• If the base exceeds 10, additional digits use
letters of the alphabet, beginning with an A.
– a base 12 number contains 10 digits: 0 through 9,
followed by A for 10 and B for 11
• Note that a base 10 number does contain a 10
– a base 8 number does not contain an 8
• Common systems used with computers are
decimal, binary, and hexadecimal (base 16).
– many years ago octal numbers were popular
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Number Systems
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Conversions
• Conversion to a number base requires learning
exactly what the weights of each position are worth.
• Once the weights are learned, conversion is a simple
task that can even be accomplished on a calculator.
• To convert a decimal integer to any radix divide by
the radix and keep the remainders as significant
digits in the result
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Conversions (continued)
• To convert a fraction to any radix multiply by
the radix and keep the whole number part of
each result
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Decimal to binary
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Decimal fraction to binary
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Binary to decimal
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Binary fraction to decimal
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Complements
• Twos complements are used to store negative
data in modern computers
• To twos complement a number invert all the
bits and then add 1 to the result
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Hexadecimal-coded Binary
• Binary numbers are often coded in groups of 4
bits to represent hexadecimal numbers.
• 0100 0001 1010 = 41A16
• 3C4516 = 0011 1100 0100 0101
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Brey: The Intel Microprocessors, 7e © 2006 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
