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Why do ionic compounds (like sodium oxide, potassium fluoride) have high melting
and boiling points? <p>Ionic compounds form a <b>giant ionic lattice
structure</b>, held together by <b>strong electrostatic forces of attraction</b>
between oppositely charged ions. These are extremely strong forces which require a
<b>large amount of energy to overcome</b>. This means they have high melting and
boiling points.</p> Bonding
State the typical physical properties of ionic compounds. | <ul><li><b>High melting
and boiling points</b> (due to strong electrostatic forces).</li><li><b>Conduct
electricity only when molten or aqueous</b> (ions are mobile).</li><li><b>Solid at
room temperature</b>.</li><li><b>Brittle</b> (layers of ions shift, causing like
charges to align and repel).</li><li>Generally <b>good solubility in water</b>
(polar water molecules hydrate the ions, overcoming lattice forces).</li></ul>
Bonding
Define <b>ionic bond</b>. | The <b>electrostatic force</b> of attraction between
<b>oppositely charged ions</b> formed by electron [Link]
Define Periodicity. | Periodicity is the regular repeating patterns in the chemical
and physical properties of elements across a period of the Periodic Table.
Bonding
What is a <b>dative/coordinate</b> covalent bond? | A covalent bond where <b>the
shared pair of electrons</b> comes from <b>only one of the bonding atoms</b>.
Bonding
Define metallic bond. | The <b>electrostatic force</b> of attraction between the
<b>positive metal ions</b> and the <b>delocalised electrons</b>. Bonding
State the 3 main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding. |
<ol><li><b>Nuclear charge</b> (number of protons) / Strength of <b>nuclear
attraction</b>: More protons mean stronger attraction to delocalised
electrons.</li><li>Number of <b>delocalised electrons per atom</b>: More
delocalised electrons mean a denser 'sea' and stronger attraction.</li><li><b>Size
of the positive metal ion</b> (ionic radius): Smaller ions allow delocalised
electrons closer to the nucleus, increasing attraction.</li></ol> Bonding
Describe the structure of metals. | Metals form a <b>giant metallic lattice</b>
structure consisting of positive metal ions arranged in a regular pattern
surrounded by a 'sea' of delocalised outer shell [Link]
Define <b>electronegativity</b>. | The <u>(relative) tendency</u> of an atom to
attract a <u>pair of electrons/ the electrons/ electron density</u> in a covalent
bond. Bonding
On what scale is electronegativity measured? | Electronegativity is measured on the
<b>Pauling scale</b> (typically ranges from 0 to 4). Bonding
Explain the trend in electronegativity across a period, specifically mentioning
shielding. | Electronegativity increases across a period. The nuclear charge
increases, but the shielding effect from inner electron shells remains relatively
constant (as electrons are added to the same main shell). This results in a
stronger effective nuclear attraction for the bonding electrons. Bonding
Explain the trend in electronegativity down a group. | Electronegativity decreases
down a group because the atomic radius and shielding effect of inner electrons
increase. The attraction between the nucleus and the bonding electrons is weaker.
Bonding
How is electronegativity difference related to the type of bonding? | A small
electronegativity difference (around 0 to 0.4) indicates a pure covalent bond. An
intermediate difference (around 0.4 to 1.7) indicates a polar covalent bond. A
large difference (greater than 1.7) indicates ionic bonding. (These values are
guidelines, bonding is a continuum). Bonding
What is a <b>polar covalent</b> bond? | A covalent bond between two atoms with
different electronegativities, resulting in an unequal sharing of the bonding
electrons. One atom gains a partial negative charge (\( \delta^- \)), and the other
gains a partial positive charge (\( \delta^+ \)). Bonding
What happens in a polar covalent bond? | It has an <b>unequal distribution</b> of
<b>electrons</b> in the bond and produces a <b>charge separation</b> (a
<b>dipole</b>) with \( \delta^+ \) and \( \delta^- \) [Link]
What is a permanent dipole? | A permanent dipole exists in a polar covalent bond
due to the separation of partial positive and negative charges. Bonding
What is a polar molecule? | A molecule that has a net overall dipole moment due to
the presence of polar bonds arranged asymmetrically. The individual bond dipoles do
not cancel out. Bonding
What is a non-polar molecule? | A molecule that does not have a net overall dipole
moment. This can be because the bonds are non-polar, or because polar bonds are
arranged symmetrically so that the individual bond dipoles cancel out. Bonding
Explain why symmetric molecules with identical polar bonds are non-polar overall. |
The individual bond dipoles are equal in magnitude and are arranged symmetrically
around the central atom. This causes the bond dipoles to <b>cancel out</b>,
resulting in no <b>net</b> dipole moment for the molecule. Bonding
Give an example of a molecule with polar bonds that is non-polar overall, and
explain why. | Carbon dioxide (\( \ce{CO2} \)). The C=O bonds are polar, but the
molecule is linear and symmetrical (O=C=O). The two equal bond dipoles point in
opposite directions and cancel out. Bonding
Give an example of a molecule with polar bonds that is polar overall, and explain
why. | Water (\( \ce{H2O} \)). The O-H bonds are polar. The molecule has a bent
shape (due to two lone pairs on Oxygen). The two O-H bond dipoles do not cancel out
because of the bent geometry, resulting in a net dipole moment. Bonding
Between which particles do Van der Waals forces occur? | Between <b>all molecular
substances</b> and noble gas atoms. They do <b>NOT</b> occur in ionic substances.
Bonding
How do Van der Waals forces arise? | <ol><li>Electrons are constantly moving,
creating instantaneous, temporary dipoles in atoms/molecules.</li><li>These
instantaneous dipoles induce temporary dipoles in neighbouring
atoms/molecules.</li><li>This leads to weak, short-lived electrostatic attraction
between the temporary dipoles.</li></ol> Bonding
What is the main factor affecting the strength of Van der Waals forces? | The
<b>number of electrons</b> in the molecule. More electrons lead to larger temporary
dipoles and stronger Van der Waals forces. Bonding
Explain why the boiling points of halogens increase down the group (F\( _2 \), Cl\(
_2 \), Br\( _2 \), I\( _2 \)). | As you go down the group, the molecules have more
electrons. This leads to stronger Van der Waals forces between molecules, requiring
more energy to overcome. Bonding
How does molecular shape affect Van der Waals forces (in alkanes)? | Longer, less
branched molecules have a <b>larger surface area</b> of contact between molecules,
leading to stronger Van der Waals forces compared to shorter, more branched isomers
with the same number of electrons. Bonding
Where do permanent dipole-dipole forces occur? | Between <b>polar molecules</b>
(molecules with a permanent net dipole moment). Bonding
How do permanent dipole-dipole forces arise? | Electrostatic attractions between
the permanent partial positive charge (\( \delta^+ \)) on one polar molecule and
the permanent partial negative charge (\( \delta^- \)) on a neighbouring polar
molecule. Bonding
How does the strength of permanent dipole-dipole forces compare to Van der Waals
forces? | They are generally stronger than Van der Waals forces between molecules
of comparable size and number of electrons. Bonding
What is hydrogen bonding? | A strong type of permanent dipole-dipole intermolecular
force that occurs between molecules when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a
highly electronegative atom (<b>Nitrogen, Oxygen, or Fluorine</b>) is attracted to
a lone pair of electrons on a nearby Nitrogen, Oxygen, or Fluorine atom in another
molecule. Bonding
What are the conditions required for hydrogen bonding to occur between molecules? |
The molecule must contain a hydrogen atom directly bonded to <b>N, O, or F</b>.
There must also be a <b>lone pair</b> of electrons on a <b>N, O, or F</b> atom in a
neighbouring molecule to which the hydrogen can form a bond. Bonding
Explain why the bond between H and N, O, or F is very polar. | There is a large
electronegativity difference, leading to a significant partial positive charge (\
( \delta^+ \)) on H and a significant partial negative charge (\( \delta^- \)) on
N, O, or F. Bonding
Why are H bonds relatively strong compared to other intermolecular forces? | The
small size of the \( \delta^+ \) H atom and the concentrated lone pair on the
electronegative atom allow for a particularly strong electrostatic attraction.
Bonding
How does the strength of hydrogen bonding compare to other intermolecular forces? |
Hydrogen bonds are significantly stronger than typical Van der Waals forces and
permanent dipole-dipole forces. Bonding
Explain the anomalously high boiling points of H\( _2 \)O, NH\( _3 \), and HF
compared to similar compounds (e.g., H\( _2 \)S, PH\( _3 \), HCl). | Despite having
relatively low molecular masses and therefore weak Van der Waals forces, these
substances have high boiling points because of the presence of strong hydrogen
bonds between their molecules, which require significant energy to break.
Bonding
List the three types of intermolecular forces in order of typical strength (weakest
to strongest). | 1. Van der Waals forces (Induced dipole-induced dipole) <br> 2.
Permanent dipole-dipole forces <br> 3. Hydrogen bonding Bonding
What is a <b>non-polar</b> bond? | When two atoms in a covalent bond have the same
or very similar electronegativity, resulting in equal sharing of the bonding
electrons. Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Linear molecule. | <ul><li>2 bonding
pairs</li><li>0 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry: Linear</li><li>Molecular
shape: Linear</li><li>Bond angle: \(180^\circ\)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of linear molecules. | \( \ce{CO_2, HCN, BeF_2} \)Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Trigonal Planar molecule. | <ul><li>3 bonding
pairs</li><li>0 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry: Trigonal
planar</li><li>Molecular shape: Trigonal planar</li><li>Bond angle: \(120^\
circ\)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of trigonal planar molecules. | \( \ce{BF_3, AlCl_3, SO_3, NO_3^-,
CO_3^{2-}} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Tetrahedral molecule. | <ul><li>4 bonding
pairs</li><li>0 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry:
Tetrahedral</li><li>Molecular shape: Tetrahedral</li><li>Bond angle: \(109.5^\
circ\)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of tetrahedral molecules/ions. | \( \ce{CH_4, SiCl_4, SO_4^{2-},
NH_4^+} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Trigonal Pyramidal molecule. | <ul><li>3 bonding
pairs</li><li>1 lone pair</li><li>Electron pair geometry:
Tetrahedral</li><li>Molecular shape: Trigonal pyramidal</li><li>Bond angle:
approximately \(107^\circ\) (reduced from 109.5° by the lone pair)</li></ul>
Bonding
Examples of trigonal pyramidal molecules/ions. | \( \ce{NH_3, PCl_3, ClO_3^-,
H_3O^+} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Bent (or V-shaped) molecule with 2 lone pairs. |
<ul><li>2 bonding pairs</li><li>2 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry:
Tetrahedral</li><li>Molecular shape: Bent (or V-shaped)</li><li>Bond angle:
approximately \(104.5^\circ\) (reduced from 109.5° by two lone pairs)</li></ul>
Bonding
Examples of bent molecules with 2 lone pairs. | \( \ce{H_2O, H_2S, OCl_2, SCl_2} \)
Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Trigonal Bipyramidal molecule. | <ul><li>5
bonding pairs</li><li>0 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry: Trigonal
bipyramidal</li><li>Molecular shape: Trigonal bipyramidal</li><li>Bond angles: \
(120^\circ\) (equatorial) and \(90^\circ\) (axial)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of trigonal bipyramidal molecules. | \( \ce{PCl_5} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of an Octahedral molecule. | <ul><li>6 bonding
pairs</li><li>0 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry:
Octahedral</li><li>Molecular shape: Octahedral</li><li>Bond angle:
\(90^\circ\)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of octahedral molecules. | \( \ce{SF_6} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a Square Planar molecule. | <ul><li>4 bonding
pairs</li><li>2 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry:
Octahedral</li><li>Molecular shape: Square planar</li><li>Bond angle: \(90^\
circ\)</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of square planar molecules/ions. | \( \ce{XeF_4} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a See-saw molecule. | <ul><li>4 bonding
pairs</li><li>1 lone pair</li><li>Electron pair geometry: Trigonal
bipyramidal</li><li>Molecular shape: See-saw</li><li>Bond angles: approximately
119° (equatorial) and 89° (axial).</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of see-saw molecules/ions. | \( \ce{SF_4, IF_4^+} \) Bonding
Describe the characteristics of a T-shaped molecule. | <ul><li>3 bonding
pairs</li><li>2 lone pairs</li><li>Electron pair geometry: Trigonal
bipyramidal</li><li>Molecular shape: T-shaped</li><li>Bond angles: approximately
88°.</li></ul> Bonding
Examples of T-shaped molecules. | \( \ce{ClF_3} \) Bonding