Aluminium

An overview

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Contents
Articles
Overview 1
Aluminium 1

Isotopes 18
Isotopes of aluminium 18
Aluminium-26 20

Chemistry 22
Aluminium smelting 22
Aluminium recycling 23
Bauxite 26
Bayer process 28
Deville process 30
Hall–Héroult process 30
Thermite reaction 34
Wöhler process 40

Applications and uses 41

Aluminium alloy 41
Aluminium battery 51
Semi-finished casting products 53
Aluminium foil 54
Aluminum wire 59

Metal quality 63
Hydrogen gas porosity 63
Aluminium alloy inclusions 64

Associations 68
The Aluminum Association 68
Institute for the History of Aluminium 69

Companies 70
Alcoa 70
Rio Tinto Alcan 77
 United Company RUSAL 81
List of alumina refineries 86
List of aluminium smelters 91
List of countries by aluminium production 98

References
Article Sources and Contributors 100
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 103

Article Licenses
License 105
 1

Overview

Aluminium
Aluminium

Appearance

Spectral lines of aluminum

General properties

Name, symbol, number aluminium, Al, 13

Pronunciation UK: /ˌæljʉˈmɪniəm/ ( listen) AL-ew-MIN-ee-əm

[1]
US: /əˈluːmɨnəm/ ( listen) or US: /ɑːluˈmɪniəm/ ( listen)
.
Element category other metal

Group, period, block 13, 3, p

Standard atomic weight 26.9815386(13) g·mol

−1

Electron configuration 2
[Ne] 3s 3p
1

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 3 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase solid

Density (near r.t.) 2.70 g·cm−3

Liquid density at m.p. 2.375 g·cm−3

Melting point 933.47 K,660.32 °C,1220.58 °F

Boiling point 2792 K,2519 °C,4566 °F

Heat of fusion 10.71 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 294.0 kJ·mol−1

Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 24.200 J·mol−1·K−1

Vapor pressure
Aluminium 2

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

at 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790

T/K

Atomic properties

Oxidation states [2] [3]

3, 2 , 1
(amphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity 1.61 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies 1st: 577.5 kJ·mol−1

(more)
2nd: 1816.7 kJ·mol−1
−1
3rd: 2744.8 kJ·mol

Atomic radius 143 pm

Covalent radius 121±4 pm

Van der Waals radius 184 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure face-centered cubic

Magnetic ordering [4]

paramagnetic

Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 28.2 nΩ·m

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 237 W·m ·K

−1 −1

Thermal expansion (25 °C) 23.1 µm·m ·K

−1 −1

Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (rolled) 5,000 m·s−1

Young's modulus 70 GPa

Shear modulus 26 GPa

Bulk modulus 76 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.35

Mohs hardness 2.75

Vickers hardness 167 MPa

Brinell hardness 245 MPa

CAS registry number 7429-90-5

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of aluminium

Aluminium 3

iso NA half-life DM DE DP
(MeV)
26
Al trace 7.17×105y β+ 1.17 26
Mg

ε - 26
Mg

γ 1.8086 -

Al 100%
27 27
Al is stable with 14 neutron

Aluminium (or aluminum; see spelling below) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of
chemical elements. It has the symbol Al and its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal
circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the third most abundant element
therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium is too
reactive chemically to occur in nature as a free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.[5]
The chief source of aluminium is bauxite ore.
Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of
passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are
very important in other areas of transportation and building. Its reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or
additive in chemical mixtures, including ammonium nitrate explosives, to enhance blast power.

Characteristics
Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, malleable metal with
appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface
roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is also
insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in water in certain forms.
The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium
alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[6]
Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is
ductile, and easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
Etched surface from a high purity (99.9998%)
aluminium bar, size 55×37 mm Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of
aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is exposed to air,
effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic
reactions with alloyed copper.[6] This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many aqueous salts are
present, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of
approximately 200 mJ/m2.[7]
Aluminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an
important component of silver paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the
200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly
outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.[8]
Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 62% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is
capable of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvins and a critical magnetic
field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).[9]
Aluminium 4

Creation
Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium in either large stars or in supernovae.[10]

Isotopes
Aluminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only 27Al (stable isotope) and 26Al
(radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2×105 y) occur naturally; however, 27Al has a natural abundance above 99.9%. 26Al is
produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found
practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and
meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial
times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales.[11] Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and
meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray
bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth,
atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used
to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at
the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay
of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years
ago.[12]

Natural occurrence
In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic element and the third most abundant
of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[13] Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, however, it is almost never
found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals
in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can be found as a minor phase in low oxygen
fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[14] It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite,
garnet, spinel and turquoise.[15] Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium or cobalt yield the gemstones ruby and
sapphire, respectively.[13] Pure Al2O3, known as corundum, is one of the hardest materials known.[15]
Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not
economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3-2x).
Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.[16] Large
deposits of bauxite occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica but the primary mining areas for the ore are in
Ghana, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Surinam.[17] Smelting of the ore mainly occurs in Australia, Brazil, Canada,
Norway, Russia and the United States.[17] Because smelting is an energy-intensive process, regions with excess
natural gas supplies (such as the United Arab Emirates) are becoming aluminium refiners.

Production and refinement

Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust, it is never found in free, metallic
form, and it was once considered a precious metal more valuable than gold. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, is
reputed to have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others
made do with gold.[18] [19] The Washington Monument was completed, with the 100 ounce (2.8 kg) aluminium
capstone being put in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony. It was the largest single
piece of aluminium cast at the time, when aluminium was as expensive as silver.[20] Aluminium has been produced
in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.
Aluminium 5

Aluminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a high-energy

chemical bond with oxygen. Compared to most other metals, it is
difficult to extract from ore, such as bauxite, due to the energy required
to reduce aluminium oxide (Al2O3). For example, direct reduction with
carbon, as is used to produce iron, is not chemically possible, since
aluminium is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. However there is
an indirect carbothermic reduction possible by using carbon and
Al2O3, which forms an intermediate Al4C3 and this can further yield
aluminium metal at a temperature of 1900–2000°C. This process is still
Bauxite
under development. This process costs less energy and yields less CO2
than the Hall-Héroult process.[21] Aluminium oxide has a melting point
of about 2000 °C (3600 °F). Therefore, it must be extracted by electrolysis. In this process, the aluminium oxide is
dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced to the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is
around 950 to 980 °C (1740 to 1800 °F). Cryolite is found as a mineral in Greenland, but in industrial use it has been
replaced by a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium, sodium, and calcium fluorides:
(Na3AlF6). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite in the Bayer process of Karl
Bayer. (Previously, the Deville process was the predominant refining technology.)

The electrolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride
with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined
alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the cathode is:
Al3+ + 3 e− → Al
Here the aluminium ion is being reduced. The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off, usually
cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.
At the anode, oxygen is formed:
2 O2− → O2 + 4 e−
This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide:
O2 + C → CO2
The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process.
Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present, as the carbon cathodes are
protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Nevertheless, cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical
processes and metal movement. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to
be rebuilt because of cathode wear.
Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot
of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable
economically and/or ecologically. The worldwide average specific
energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per
kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern
smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare
this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of
reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are
typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes; state-of-the-art smelters[22] operate World production trend of aluminium

at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the
smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive, such as South Africa,
Aluminium 6

Ghana, the South Island of New Zealand, Australia, the People's Republic of China, the Middle East, Russia, Quebec
and British Columbia in Canada, and Iceland.[23]
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of
aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia,
Canada, and the USA, reports the British Geological Survey.
Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of
bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina.[24] Australia
produced 62 million tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits Aluminium output in 2005
have some refining problems, some being high in silica but have the
advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.[25]

Recycling
Aluminium is 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities.
Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important facet of the
aluminium industry.
Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only five percent
of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore. However, a significant
part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[26] The
dross can undergo a further process to extract aluminium.
Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing
use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public awareness.
Aluminium recycling code
In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42%
of beverage cans, 85% of construction materials and 95% of transport
vehicles.[27]
Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary
aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of the alloy
injections. Another important use is for extrusion.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful
quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially.[28] The process produces aluminium billets, together with
a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases
(including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;[29]
contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, however,
the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[30]
Aluminium 7

Chemistry

Oxidation state +1
AlH is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Al2O is made by heating the normal
oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1800 °C (3272 °F) in a vacuum.[31]
Al2S can be made by heating Al2S3 with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C (2372 °F) in a vacuum.[31] It quickly
disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner.
AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium. Aluminium halides
usually exist in the form AlX3, where X is F, Cl, Br, or I.[31]

Oxidation state +2
Aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[32] and in stellar absorption
spectra.[33]

Oxidation state +3
Fajans' rules show that the simple trivalent cation Al3+ is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary
compounds such as Al2O3. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate,
cannot be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with
at least six molecules of water of crystallization.
Aluminium hydride, (AlH3)n, can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of hydrogen. It burns
explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution,
but cannot be isolated free from the solvent. Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the
most useful being lithium aluminium hydride, Li[AlH4]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and
hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing
agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.
Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an
aluminium salt. It is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with alkalis. It exists in
various crystalline forms.
Aluminium carbide, Al4C3 is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C (1832 °F). The pale yellow
crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide,
Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.
Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C (1472 °F). It is hydrolysed by water to form
ammonia and aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give
phosphine.
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by
heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its hardness is only exceeded by diamond, boron nitride, and
carborundum. It is almost insoluble in water. Aluminium sulfide, Al2S3, may be prepared by passing hydrogen
sulfide over aluminium powder. It is polymorphic.
Aluminium iodide, AlI3, is a dimer with applications in organic synthesis. Aluminium fluoride, AlF3, is made by
treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It is a macromolecule, which sublimes without
melting at 1291 °C (2356 °F). It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as
[AlF(H2O)5]2+, AlF3(H2O)3, and [AlF6]3−. Of these, [AlF6]3− is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that
aluminium and fluoride, which are both very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral aluminium
hexafluoride complex. When aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1:6 molar ratio, [AlF6]3− is the most
Aluminium 8

common form, even in rather low concentrations.

Organometallic compounds of empirical formula AlR3 exist and, if not also polymers, are at least dimers or trimers.
They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance trimethylaluminium.

Analysis
The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.

Applications

General use
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.[34] Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million
tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).[35] Forecast for 2012 is 42–45 million
tons, driven by rising Chinese output.[36] Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance
and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a
flat surface by physical vapour deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapour deposition or other chemical
means to form optical coatings and mirrors. When so deposited, a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good
reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far
infrared radiation.
Pure aluminium has a low tensile strength, but when combined with thermo-mechanical processing, aluminium
alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties, especially when tempered. Aluminium alloys form
vital components of aircraft and rockets as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium readily forms
alloys with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g., duralumin). Today, almost
all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminium", are actually alloys. For example, the common
aluminium foils are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.[37]
Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:
• Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine
vessels, bicycles etc.) as sheet, tube, castings etc.
• Packaging (cans, foil, etc.)
• Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.)
• A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball
bats, watches.[38]
• Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles etc.
• Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g.
photographic equipment.
• Electrical transmission lines for power distribution Household aluminium foil

• MKM steel and Alnico magnets

• Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.
• Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
• Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.
• Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and thermite.
• Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid to form hydrogen gas.
Aluminium 9

Aluminium compounds
• Aluminium ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2), ammonium
alum is used as a mordant, in water purification and sewage
treatment, in paper production, as a food additive, and in leather
tanning.
• Aluminium acetate is a salt used in solution as an astringent.
• Aluminium borate (Al2O3 B2O3) is used in the production of glass Aluminium-bodied Austin "A40 Sports" (circa
and ceramic. 1951)

• Aluminium borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an additive to jet

fuel.
• Aluminium bronze (CuAl5)
• Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in paint manufacturing, in
antiperspirants, in petroleum refining and in the production of
synthetic rubber.

Aluminium slabs being transported from a

smelter.

• Aluminium chlorohydrate is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of hyperhidrosis.

• Aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones, glass and ceramic.
• Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used: as an antacid, as a mordant, in water purification, in the manufacture of
glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
• Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), alumina, is found naturally as corundum (rubies and sapphires), emery, and is used in
glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for the production of coherent light. Used as a
refractory, essential for the production of high pressure sodium lamps.
• Aluminium phosphate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and paper products,
cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement.
• Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) is used in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a fire extinguisher, in water
purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in fireproofing, and in leather tanning.
• Aqueous aluminium ions (such as found in aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites
such as Gyrodactylus salaris.
• In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the
protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.
Aluminium 10

Aluminium alloys in structural applications

Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in
engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number
system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents
(DIN and ISO).
The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only
as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result
of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge
of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed
structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.
One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue
strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue
limit, meaning that fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very
small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these
loads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to Aluminium foam
heat. Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the
fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used
therefore require some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys,
like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and
casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low melting point, which make them more
susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during
manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses.

The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing
combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled
aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.

Household wiring
Compared to copper, aluminium has about 65% of the electrical conductivity by volume, although 200% by weight.
Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. In the 1960s aluminium was considerably cheaper than
copper, and so was introduced for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures were
not designed to accept aluminium wire. In some cases the greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium
causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal screw connection, eventually loosening the
connection. Also, pure aluminium has a tendency to creep under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the
temperature rises), again loosening the connection. Finally, galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increased
the electrical resistance of the connection.
All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires. Builders then became wary
of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes in new construction. Eventually, newer
fixtures were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. The first generation fixtures
were marked "Al/Cu" and were ultimately found suitable only for copper-clad aluminium wire, but the second
generation fixtures, which bear a "CO/ALR" coding, are rated for unclad aluminium wire. To adapt older assemblies,
workers forestall the heating problem using a properly done crimp of the aluminium wire to a short "pigtail" of
copper wire. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with
aluminium termination.
Aluminium 11

History
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants
and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic.
In 1761 Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine.
In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of
alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum (see
Etymology section, below).

The metal was first produced in 1825 (in an impure form) by Danish
physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous
aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam and yielded a lump of
metal looking similar to tin.[39] Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these
experiments and cited them, but after redoing the experiments of
Ørsted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted
a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride
with potassium and yielded aluminium.[39] Wöhler is generally
credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum), but also
Ørsted can be listed as its discoverer.[40] Further, Pierre Berthier
discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it.[41] The statue of the Anteros (commonly mistaken
Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's for either The Angel of Christian Charity or Eros)
in Piccadilly Circus London, was made in 1893
method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859,
and is one of the first statues to be cast in
chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the aluminium.
considerably more expensive potassium.

(Note: The title of Deville's book is De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication [42] (Paris, 1859). Deville likely
also conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; however, Charles Martin Hall
and Paul Héroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.)
Before the Hall-Héroult process was developed, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various ores.
This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold.[43] Bars of aluminium were exhibited at the Exposition
Universelle of 1855,[44] and Napoleon III was said to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his most
honoured guests.
Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the Washington Monument in 1884, a time when
one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project;[45] aluminium was about the same
value as silver.
The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the
furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.[46] Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult of France
independently developed the Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that made extracting aluminium from minerals
cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity
Aluminium directly. Hall's process,[47] in 1888 with the financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, started the Pittsburgh
Reduction Company today known as Alcoa. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at
Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.[48]
By 1895 the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief
Secretary's Building.
Many navies use an aluminium superstructure for their vessels, however, the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that
gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands
War, led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The Arleigh Burke class was the first such U.S. ship,
being constructed entirely of steel.
Aluminium 12

In 2008 the price of aluminium peaked at $1.45/lb in July but dropped to $0.70/lb by December.[49]

Etymology

Nomenclature history
The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this element is
alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate
electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is from the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London: "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have
procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium,
zirconium, and glucium."[50] [51]
Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1812 book Chemical Philosophy: "This substance appears to
contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with
other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina."[52]
But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, in a review
of Davy's book, objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing
the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."[53]
The -ium suffix conformed to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium,
magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements
were not unknown at the time, as for example platinum, known to Europeans since the sixteenth century,
molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802. The -um suffix is consistent with the universal
spelling alumina for the oxide, as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides
of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.
The spelling used throughout the 19th century by most U.S. chemists ended in -ium, but common usage is less
clear.[54] The -um spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new
electrolytic method of producing the metal 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling, despite his constant use
of the -ium spelling in all the patents[47] he filed between 1886 and 1903.[55] It has consequently been suggested that
the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a
mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in
North America; the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913, though, continued to use the -ium version.
In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications; American
dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a British variant.
The name "aluminum" derives from its status as a base of alum. "Alum" in turn is a Latin word that literally means
"bitter salt".[56]

Present-day spelling
Most countries use the spelling aluminium (with an i before -um). In the United States, this spelling is largely
unknown, and the spelling aluminum predominates.[57] [58] The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum,
whereas the Australian Macquarie Dictionary prefers aluminium.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international
name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their
periodic table includes both.[59] IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although
several IUPAC publications use the spelling aluminum.[60]
Aluminium 13

Health concerns
NFPA 704

Fire diamond for aluminum shot

Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in living cells and presents some toxic effects in
elevated concentrations. Its toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is
particularly increased in patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for
absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization
(osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can
cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with altered function of the blood-brain barrier.[61] A small percentage of
people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms
upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as deodorants or antacids. In those without
allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in
excessive amounts.[62] Although the use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in
general, excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of
aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Studies have shown that
consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption,[63] and maltol
has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue.[64] Furthermore, aluminium
increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory.[65] The
estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as a metalloestrogen.
Because of its potentially toxic effects, aluminium's use in some antiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and
food additives is controversial. Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to
healthy adults,[66] several studies point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal.[67] Aluminium in
food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.[68] Some researchers have expressed concerns that the
aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer,[69] and aluminium has controversially been
implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease.[70] The Camelford water pollution incident involved a number of
people consuming aluminium sulfate. Investigations of the long-term health effects are still ongoing, but elevated
brain aluminium concentrations have been found in post-mortem examinations of victims who have later died, and
further research to determine if there is a link with cerebral amyloid angiopathy has been commissioned.[71]
According to The Alzheimer's Society, the overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not
convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.[72] Nevertheless, some
studies, such as those on the PAQUID cohort,[73] cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.
Some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal.[74] Research in this area has been
inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent. In any event,
if there is any toxicity of aluminium, it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the
element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.[75] [76] Scientific
consensus does not yet exist about whether aluminium exposure could directly increase the risk of Alzheimer's
disease.[72]
Aluminium 14

Effect on plants
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to
plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root
growth and function.[77] [78] [79]
Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore a result of
hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.[80] This concept of "corrected lime potential"[81] to define the degree of base
saturation in soils became the basis for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime
requirement"[82] of soils.[83]
Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organic compounds
that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first
gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is
controlled by a single gene, as for wheat.[84] This is not the case in all plants.

See also
• Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
• Aluminium alloy
• Aluminium battery
• Aluminium foil
• Beverage can
• Institute for the History of Aluminium (IHA)
• List of countries by aluminium production
• Aluminium industry in Russia

External links
• [Link] – Aluminium [85]
• Electrolytic production [86]
• World production of primary aluminium, by country [87]
• Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF [88]
• History of Aluminium (from the website of the International Aluminium Institute) [89]
• Emedicine - Aluminium [90]

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[87] http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ en/ commodities/ minerals/ aluminum/ aluminum_table12. html
[88] http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ commodities/ ?commodity=aluminum& months=300
[89] http:/ / www. world-aluminium. org/ About+ Aluminium/ Story+ of/ In+ history
[90] http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ med/ topic113. htm
 18

Isotopes

Isotopes of aluminium
Aluminium (Al) has multiple isotopes. Only 27Al (stable isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2 × 105 y)
occur naturally, however 27Al has a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. Standard atomic mass is 26.9815386(8) u. 26Al is
produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found
practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and
meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of sediment transport, deposition, and storage, as
well as burial times, and erosion, on 105 to 106 year time scales.
Cosmogenic Aluminium-26 was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after
departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through
space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite
fragments from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age.
Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system.
Most meteoriticists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and
differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[1]

Table

nuclide Z(p) N(n) isotopic mass (u) half-life nuclear representative range of
symbol spin isotopic natural
excitation energy composition variation
(mole fraction) (mole fraction)
21
Al 13 8 21.02804(32)# <35 ns 1/2+#

22
Al 13 9 22.01952(10)# 59(3) ms (3)+

23
Al 13 10 23.007267(20) 470(30) ms 5/2+#

23m
Al ~0.35 s #79

24
Al 13 11 23.9999389(30) 2.053(4) s 4+

24m
Al 425.8(1) keV 131.3(25) ms 1+

25
Al 13 12 24.9904281(5) 7.183(12) s 5/2+

26
Al 13 13 25.98689169(6) 7.17(24)E+5 a 5+

26m
Al 228.305(13) keV 6.3452(19) s 0+

27
Al 13 14 26.98153863(12) STABLE 5/2+ 1.0000

28
Al 13 15 27.98191031(14) 2.2414(12) min 3+

29
Al 13 16 28.9804450(13) 6.56(6) min 5/2+

30
Al 13 17 29.982960(15) 3.60(6) s 3+
Isotopes of aluminium 19

31
Al 13 18 30.983947(22) 644(25) ms (3/2,5/2)+

32
Al 13 19 31.98812(9) 31.7(8) ms 1+

32m
Al 955.7(4) keV 200(20) ns (4+)

33
Al 13 20 32.99084(8) 41.7(2) ms (5/2+)#

34
Al 13 21 33.99685(12) 56.3(5) ms 4-#

35
Al 13 22 34.99986(19) 38.6(4) ms 5/2+#

36
Al 13 23 36.00621(23) 90(40) ms

37
Al 13 24 37.01068(36) 10.7(13) ms 3/2+

38
Al 13 25 38.01723(78) 7.6(6) ms

39
Al 13 26 39.02297(158) 7.6(16) ms 3/2+#

40
Al 13 27 40.03145(75)# 10# ms [>260
ns]
41
Al 13 28 41.03833(86)# 2# ms [>260 ns] 3/2+#

42
Al 13 29 42.04689(97)# 1 ms
[2]

Notes
• Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins
with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
• Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values
denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use
expanded uncertainties.

References
• Isotope masses from Ame2003 Atomic Mass Evaluation [3] by G. Audi, A.H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and
O. Bersillon in Nuclear Physics A729 (2003).
• Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC
Technical Report) [4]. Pure Appl. Chem. Vol. 75, No. 6, pp. 683–800, (2003) and Atomic Weights Revised (2005)
[5]
.
• Audi, Bersillon, Blachot, Wapstra. The Nubase2003 evaluation of nuclear and decay properties [6], Nuc. Phys. A
729, pp. 3–128 (2003).
• National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Information extracted from the NuDat 2.1
database [7] (retrieved Sept. 2005).
• David R. Lide (ed.), Norman E. Holden in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 85th Edition, online
version. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida (2005). Section 11, Table of the Isotopes.
[1] Robert T. Dodd, Thunderstones and Shooting Stars, pp. 89-90. ISBN 0-674-89137-6.
[2] http:/ / al-aluminium. info/ isotopes. html
[3] http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ index. html
[4] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2003/ 7506/ 7506x0683. html
[5] http:/ / www. iupac. org/ news/ archives/ 2005/ atomic-weights_revised05. html
[6] http:/ / amdc. in2p3. fr/ web/ nubase_en. html
[7] http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/
Isotopes of aluminium 20

External links
• Aluminum isotopes data from The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project's ([Link]
Al_iso.htm)

Aluminium-26
Aluminium-26

Full table

General

Name, symbol Aluminium-26,26Al

Neutrons 13

Protons 13

Nuclide data

Natural 0%
abundance

Half-life 7.17 × 105 years

Spin 5+

Aluminium-26, 26Al, is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the modes
beta-plus or electron capture, both resulting in the stable nuclide magnesium-26. The half life of 26Al is 7.17 × 105
years. This is far too short for any but a very minute amount of the primordial atoms of the isotope to survive to the
present, but small amounts of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms by cosmic ray protons.
Aluminium-26 also emits gamma rays and X-rays.[1] Because it is radioactive it should be stored behind at least 2 in.
of lead and special tools should be used for transfer, use, and storage. Contact with 26Al may result in radiological
contamination.[2]

Dating of Meteorites
Aluminium-26 can be used to calculate the terrestrial age of meteorites. After the break up of the meteorite parent
body, it will be bombarded by cosmic rays, which will saturate it in aluminium-26. After falling to earth, 26Al
production ceases, which means that the amount of 26Al in the sample can calculate the date the meteorite fell to
earth.

Occurrence in the interstellar medium

The gamma emission at 1809 keV was the first observed gamma emission from the galactic center. The observation
was made by the HEAO-3 satellite in 1984.[3] [4]
Aluminium-26 21

History
Before 1954, the measured half life of aluminium-26 was determined to be 6.3 seconds.[5] After theoretical evidence
occurred that this could be the half-life of the metastable state of aluminium-26 the ground stated was produced by
bombardment of magnesium-26 and magnesium-25 with deuterons in the cyclotron of the University of
Pittsburgh.[6] The first half-life was determined to be in the range of 106 years.

References
[1] "Nuclide Safety Data Sheet Aluminum-26" (http:/ / hpschapters. org/ northcarolina/ NSDS/ 26AlPDF. pdf). [Link]. .
[2] "Nuclide Safety Data Sheet Aluminum-26" (http:/ / hpschapters. org/ northcarolina/ NSDS/ 26AlPDF. pdf). National Health& Physics
Society. . Retrieved 2009-04-13.
[3] HEAO 3 discovery of Al-26 in the interstellar medium (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1984ApJ. . . 286. . 578M). .
[4] Kohman, T. P. (1997). "Aluminum-26: A nuclide for all seasons". Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 219: 165.
doi:10.1007/BF02038496.
[5] Hollander, J. M.; Perlman, I.; Seaborg, G. T.. "Table of Isotopes". Reviews of Modern Physics 25: 469–651.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.25.469.
[6] "Long-Lived Radioactive Aluminum 26". Physical Reviews 96 (6): 1711–1712. 1954. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.96.1711.
 22

Chemistry

Aluminium smelting
Aluminium smelting is the process of
extracting aluminium from its oxide
alumina, generally by the Hall-Héroult
process. Alumina is extracted from the
ore Bauxite by means of the Bayer
process at an alumina refinery.
View of the Point Henry smelter, from across Corio Bay
This is an electrolytic process, so an
aluminium smelter uses prodigious
amounts of electricity; they tend to be located very close to large power stations, often hydro-electric ones, and near
ports since almost all of them use imported alumina.

Layout of an aluminium smelter

An aluminium smelter consists of a large number of pots, steel containers lined with carbon, in which the electrolysis
takes place; smelting is run as a batch process, with the aluminium metal deposited at the bottom of the pots and
periodically drained off. Power must be constantly available, since the pots have to be repaired at significant cost if
the liquid metal solidifies.
The anodes are made of carbon, generally derived from pitch.
A typical smelter contains about 300 pots, each of which produces about a ton of aluminium a day, though the
largest proposed smelters are up to five times that capacity.

Environmental issues of aluminium smelters

The process produces a quantity of fluoride waste: perfluorocarbons and hydrogen fluoride as gases, and sodium and
aluminium fluorides and unused cryolite as particulates. This can be as small as 0.5 kg per ton of aluminium in the
best plants in 2007, up to 4 kg per ton of aluminium in older designs in 1974. Unless carefully controlled, these
fluorides tend to be very toxic to vegetation around the plants.
The Soderburgh process which bakes pitch to form the electrodes produces significant emissions of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons as the pitch is baked .
The linings of the pots end up contaminated with cyanide-forming materials; Alcoa has a process for converting
spent linings into aluminium fluoride for reuse and synthetic sand usable for building purposes and inert waste..
Aluminium smelting 23

Example aluminium smelters

• Alcan Lynemouth Aluminium Smelter, powered by the coal-fired Lynemouth Power Station in North East
England
• Anglesey Aluminium, powered by Wylfa nuclear power station in north-west Wales (shut down as of 30/09/09)
• The Valco aluminium smelter in Ghana, powered by the Akosombo Dam hydro-electric dam
• Fjarðaál in Iceland, to be powered by the Kárahnjúkar dam
• Jharsuguda in Orissa, India, to be powered by its own 1215 MW coal-fired power station.
• Alcoa's Point Henry smelter near Geelong, Australia, powered by its own brown coal fueled power station and
grid electricity.

See also
• List of aluminium smelters

Aluminium recycling
Aluminium recycling is the process by which scrap aluminium can be reused
in products after its initial production. The process involves simply re-melting
the metal, which is far less expensive and energy intensive than creating new
aluminium through the electrolysis of aluminium oxide (Al2O3), which must
first be mined from bauxite ore and then refined using the Bayer process.
Recycling scrap aluminum requires only 5% of the energy used to make new
aluminium.[1] For this reason, approximately 31% of all aluminium produced
in the United States comes from recycled scrap.[2]

A common practice since the early 1900s and extensively capitalized during
World War II, aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile
activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium
beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness.[3]
Sources for recycled aluminium include aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, computers, cookware, gutters, siding,
wire, and many other products that require a strong light weight material, or a material with high thermal
conductivity. As recycling does not damage the metal's structure, aluminium can be recycled indefinitely and still be
used to produce any product for which new aluminium could have been used.[4]

Advantages
The recycling of aluminium generally produces significant cost
savings over the production of new aluminium even when the cost
of collection, separation and recycling are taken into account.[5]
Over the long term, even larger national savings are made when
the reduction in the capital costs associated with landfills, mines
and international shipping of raw aluminium are considered.

The environmental benefits of recycling aluminium are also

enormous. Only around 5% of the CO2 is produced during the
Baled cans ready for transport
Aluminium recycling 24

recycling process compared to producing raw aluminium (and an

even smaller percentage when considering the complete cycle of
mining and transporting the aluminium).[5] Also, open-cut mining
is most often used for obtaining aluminium ore, which destroys
large sections of the world's natural land. Producing a can from
recycled aluminum requires 95% less energy than it would to
produce a can from virgin materials.[6]

Process
Shredded aluminium beverage cans
Aluminium beverage cans are usually recycled in the following
basic way:[7]
1. Cans are first divided from municipal waste, usually through an eddy current separator
2. Cans are cut into little, equal pieces to lessen the volume and make it easier for the machines which separate
them.
3. Pieces are cleaned chemically/mechanically.
4. Pieces are blocked to minimise oxidation losses when melted. (The surface of aluminium readily oxidizes back
into aluminium oxide when exposed to oxygen.[8] )
5. Blocks are loaded into the furnace and heated to 750 °C ± 100 °C to produce molten aluminium.
6. Dross is removed and the dissolved hydrogen is degassed. (Molten aluminium readily disassociates hydrogen
from water vapor and hydrocarbon contaminants.) This is typically done with chlorine and nitrogen gas.
Hexachloroethane tablets are normally used as the source for chlorine. Ammonium perchlorate can also be used,
as it decomposes mainly into chlorine, nitrogen, and oxygen when heated.[9]
7. Samples are taken for spectroscopic analysis. Depending on the final product desired, high purity aluminium,
copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, and/or magnesium is added to alter the molten composition to the proper alloy
specification. The top 5 aluminium alloys produced are apparently 6061, 7075, 1100, 6063, and 2024.[10]
8. The furnace is tapped, the molten aluminium poured out, and the process is repeated again for the next batch.
Depending on the end product it may be cast into ingots, billets, or rods, formed into large slabs for rolling,
atomized into powder, sent to an extruder, or transported in its molten state to manufacturing facilities for further
processing.[11]

Ingot production using reverberatory furnaces

The scrap aluminium is separated into a range of categories i.e. irony aluminum (engine blocks etc.), alloy wheels,
"clean aluminium" Depending on the specification of the required ingot casting will depend on the type of scrap used
in the start melt. Generally the scrap is charged to a reverberatory furnace (other methods appear to be either less
economical and/ or dangerous) and melted down to form a "bath". the molten metal is tested using spectroscopy on a
sample taken from the melt to determine what refinements are needed to produce the final casts. After the
refinements have been added the melt may be tested several times to be able to fine tune the batch to the specific
standard
Once the correct "recipe" of metal is available the furnace is tapped and poured into ingot moulds, usually via a
casting machine. The melt is then left to cool, stacked and sold on as cast silicon aluminium ingot to various
industries for re-use.
Aluminium recycling 25

Secondary aluminium recycling

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful
quantities of aluminium which can be extracted industrially.[12] The process produces aluminium billets, together
with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of
gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia) which spontaneously ignites on contact with
air[13] ; contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties,
however, the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[14]

See also
• Environmental issues with mining

External links
• [Link] [15] - an organization promoting aluminum recycling and the rehabilitation of
damaged ecosystems.
• [Link] [16] - Recycled Aluminum in Manufacturing
• Secondary Aluminum Smelters of the World [17] - A list of companies who produce secondary aluminum (i.e.,
recycled or remelted from scrap metal)

References
[1] Recycling | The price of virtue | [Link] (http:/ / www. economist. com/ opinion/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=9302727)
[2] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ aluminum/ mcs-2008-alumi. pdf [Link]
[3] Schlesinger, Mark (2006). Aluminum Recycling (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DtX1nbel49kC). CRC Press. p. 248.
ISBN 9780849396625. .
[4] WasteOnline: Metals aluminium and steel recycling (http:/ / www. wasteonline. org. uk/ resources/ InformationSheets/ metals. htm)
[5] International Aluminum Institute (http:/ / www. world-aluminium. org/ cache/ fl0000181. pdf)
[6] Recycling Aluminum Cans - Fun Facts (http:/ / www. professorshouse. com/ your-home/ environmentally-friendly/ recycling-aluminum-cans.
aspx)
[7] [Link]: How Is An Aluminum Can Recycled? (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ News_and_Stats/
CansForHabitat_org/ Aluminum_Recycling/ How_Is_An_Aluminum_Can_Recycled_/ How_Is_An_Aluminum_Can_Recycled_. htm)
[8] [Link]: Melting Practice (http:/ / www. metalwebnews. com/ howto/ furnace2/ melting. html)
[9] [Link]: Aluminum Casting Problems (http:/ / www. key-to-metals. com/ Article83. htm)
[10] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Aluminium_alloy
[11] Alcoa Primary Aluminum - North America: Products (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ primary_na/ en/ products/ products. asp)
[12] Hwang, J.Y., Huang, X., Xu, Z. (2006), Recovery of Metals from Aluminium Dross and Salt cake, Journal of Minerals & Materials
Characterization & Engineering. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp 47-62
[13] Why are dross & saltcake a concern? (http:/ / www. ohiolandfills. org/ faq/ aluminium-dross-saltcake/ )
[14] Dunster, A.M., Moulinier, F., Abbott, B., Conroy, A., Adams, K., Widyatmoko, D.(2005). Added value of using new industrial waste
streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt. DTI/WRAP Aggregates Research Programme STBF 13/15C. The Waste and
Resources Action Programme
[15] http:/ / www. youcanchangetheplanet. org
[16] http:/ / www. thomasnet. com/ articles/ custom-manufacturing-fabricating/ manufacturing-aluminum-extrusions
[17] http:/ / www. lightmetalage. com/ producers. php
Bauxite 26

Bauxite
Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. This form of rock
consists mostly of the minerals gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite
γ-AlO(OH), and diaspore α-AlO(OH), in a mixture with the two iron
oxides goethite and hematite, the clay mineral kaolinite, and small
amounts of anatase TiO2. Bauxite was named after the village Les
Baux in southern France, where it was first recognized as containing
aluminum and named by the French geologist Pierre Berthier in 1821.

Bauxite formation Bauxite with an American penny

Lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) are distinguished from karst

bauxites (carbonate bauxites). The early discovered carbonate bauxites
occur predominantly in Europe and Jamaica above carbonate rocks
(limestone and dolomite), where they were formed by lateritic
weathering and residual accumulation of intercalated clays or by clay
dissolution residues of the limestone.

The lateritic bauxites are found mostly in the countries of the

[Link] were formed by lateritization (see laterite) of various
silicate rocks such as granite, gneiss, basalt, syenite, and shale. In
Bauxite with core of unweathered rock
comparison with the iron-rich laterites, the formation of bauxites
demands even more intense weathering conditions in a location with
very good drainage. This enables the dissolution of the kaolinite and the precipitation of the gibbsite. Zones with
highest aluminium content are frequently located below a ferruginous surface layer. The aluminium hydroxide in the
lateritic bauxite deposits is almost exclusively gibbsite.

Production trends
In 2007, Australia was one of the top producers of bauxite with almost
one-third of the world's production, followed by China, Brazil, Guinea,
and India. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known
reserves of its bauxite ore are sufficient to meet the worldwide
demands for aluminum for many centuries, Increased aluminium
recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric Bauxite output in 2005
power in producing aluminum, will considerably extend the world's
bauxite reserves.

The following table is ranked by total proven bauxite reserves.

Bauxite 27

(x1000 tonne, Numbers for 2008 estimated)

Country Mine production Reserves Reserve
base
2007 2008

Guinea 18,000 18,000 7,400,000 8,600,000

Australia 62,400 63,000 5,800,000 7,900,000

Vietnam 30 30 2,100,000 5,400,000

Jamaica 14,600 15,000 2,000,000 2,500,000

Brazil 24,800 25,000 1,900,000 2,500,000

Guyana 1,600 1,600 700,000 900,000

India 19,200 20,000 770,000 1,400,000

China 30,000 32,000 700,000 2,300,000

Greece 2,220 2,200 600,000 650,000

Iran - [1] - -
500

Suriname 4,900 4,500 580,000 600,000

Kazakhstan 4,800 4,800 360,000 450,000

Venezuela 5,900 5,900 320,000 350,000

Russia 6,400 6,400 200,000 250,000

United States NA NA 20,000 40,000

Other countries 7,150 6,800 3,200,000 3,800,000

World total (rounded) 202,000 205,000 27,000,000 38,000,000

Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2009 [2]

Processing
Bauxite is usually strip mined (surface
mining) because it is almost always
found near the surface of the terrain,
with little or no overburden.
Approximately 95% of the world's
bauxite production is processed first
into alumina, and then into aluminum
by electrolysis. Bauxite rocks are
typically classified according to their Bauxite being loaded at Cabo Rojo, Dominican Republic, to be shipped elsewhere for
intended commercial application: processing; 2007.
metallurgical, abrasive, cement,
chemical, and refractory.

Usually, bauxite ore is heated in a pressure vessel along with a sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to
200 Celsius. At these temperatures, the aluminum is dissolved as an aluminate (the Bayer process). After separation
of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded
with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide. The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminum oxide, Al2O3, by heating.
This mineral becomes molten at a temperature of about 1000 Celsius, when the mineral cryolite is added as a flux.
Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of
Bauxite 28

electrolysis, which is called the Hall-Heroult process after its American and French discoverers in 1886.
Before Hall and Heroult discovered their process that uses cryolyte and electricity, aluminum was separated from its
ore - in small quantities - by heating the ore with metallic sodium or potassium in a vacuum. However, those two
metals were themselves produced by electrolysis, and the entire procedure was quite complicated and expensive. The
Hall-Heroult process greatly simplified the process of refining aluminum and made it economical to produce
aluminum from bauxite in very large quantities.

References
• Bardossy, G. (1982): Karst Bauxites. Bauxite deposits on carbonate rocks. Elsevier Sci. Publ. 441 p.
• Bardossy, G. and Aleva, G.J.J. (1990): Lateritic Bauxites. Developments in Economic Geology 27, Elsevier Sci.
Publ. 624 p. ISBN 0-444-988

External links
• USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite [3]
• Mineral Information Institute [4]

References
[1] http:/ / www. bgs. ac. uk/ mineralsuk/ commodity/ world/ home. html
[2] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bauxite/ mcs-2009-bauxi. pdf
[3] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bauxite/
[4] http:/ / www. mii. org/ Minerals/ photoal. html

Bayer process
The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite to produce alumina.
Bauxite, the most important ore of aluminium, contains only 30-54% alumina, Al2O3, the rest being a mixture of
silica, various iron oxides, and titanium dioxide.[1] The alumina must be purified before it can be refined to
aluminium metal. In the Bayer process, bauxite is digested by washing with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, at 175 °C. This converts the alumina to aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, which dissolves in the hydroxide
solution according to the chemical equation:
Al2O3 + 2 OH− + 3 H2O → 2 [Al(OH)4]−
The other components of bauxite do not dissolve. The solution is clarified by filtering off the solid impurities. The
mixture of solid impurities is called red mud, and presents a disposal problem. Next, the hydroxide solution is
cooled, and the dissolved aluminium hydroxide precipitates as a white, fluffy solid. Then, when heated to 1050°C
(calcined), the aluminium hydroxide decomposes to alumina, giving off water vapor in the process:
2 Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O
A large amount of the alumina so produced is then subsequently smelted in the Hall–Héroult process in order to
produce aluminium.
Bayer process 29

History
The Bayer process was invented in 1887 by Karl Bayer. Working in Saint Petersburg, Russia to develop a method
for supplying alumina to the textile industry (it was used as a mordant in dyeing cotton), Bayer discovered in 1887
that the aluminium hydroxide that precipitated from alkaline solution was crystalline and could be easily filtered and
washed, while that precipitated from acid medium by neutralization was gelatinous and difficult to wash.
A few years earlier, Louis Le Chatelier in France developed a method for making alumina by heating bauxite in
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, at 1200°C, leaching the sodium aluminate formed with water, then precipitating
aluminium hydroxide by carbon dioxide, CO2, which was then filtered and dried. This process was abandoned in
favor of the Bayer process.
The process began to gain importance in metallurgy together with the invention of the electrolytic aluminium
process invented in 1886. Together with the cyanidation process invented in 1887, the Bayer process marks the birth
of the modern field of hydrometallurgy.
Today, the process is virtually unchanged and it produces nearly all the world's alumina supply as an intermediate in
aluminium production.

See also
• Hall–Héroult process
• Aluminium separation

References
[1] Harris, Chris; McLachlan, R. (Rosalie); Clark, Colin (1998). Micro reform – impacts on firms: aluminium case study. Melbourne: Industry
Commission. ISBN 0-646-33550-2.

• Habashi, F. (2005). "A short history of hydrometallurgy". Hydrometallurgy 79: 15–22.

doi:10.1016/[Link].2004.01.008.
Deville process 30

Deville process
The Deville process was the first industrial process used to produce alumina from bauxite.
The Frenchman Henri Sainte-Claire Deville invented the process in 1859. It is sometimes called the
Deville-Pechiney process. It is based on the extraction of alumina with sodium carbonate.
The first stage is the calcination of the bauxite at 1200°C with sodium carbonate and coke. The alumina is converted
in sodium aluminate. Iron oxide remains unchanged and silica forms a polysilicate.
In the second stage sodium hydroxide solution is added, which dissolves the sodium aluminate, leaving the
impurities as a solid residue. The amount of sodium hydroxide solution needed depends upon the amount of silica
present in the raw material. The solution is filtered off; carbon dioxide is bubbled through the solution, causing
aluminium hydroxide to precipitate, leaving a solution of sodium carbonate. The latter can be recovered and reused
in the first stage.
The aluminium hydroxide is calcined to produce alumina.
The process was used in France at Saindres until 1923 and in Germany and Great Britain until the outbreak of the
Second World War.[1]
It has now been replaced by the Bayer process.

References
[1] G.A. Baudart (January 1955). "Histoire française de l'alumine". Revue de l'aluminium 217: 35.

Translated from the French Wikipedia article "Extraction de l'alumine".

Hall–Héroult process
The Hall–Héroult process is the major industrial process for the production of aluminium. It involves dissolving
alumina in molten cryolite, and electrolysing the solution to obtain pure aluminium metal.

Process
Aluminium cannot be produced by the electrolysis of an aluminium salt dissolved in water because of the high
reactivity of aluminium. An alternative is the electrolysis of a molten aluminium compound.
In the Hall–Héroult process alumina, Al2O3 is dissolved in an industrial carbon-lined vat of molten cryolite,
Na3AlF6, called a "cell". Aluminium oxide has a melting point of over 2000 °C (3630 °F) while pure cryolite has a
melting point of 1012 °C (1854 °F). With a small percentage of alumina dissolved in it, cryolite has a melting point
of about 1000 °C (1830 °F). Some Aluminium fluoride, AlF3 is also added into the process to reduce the melting
point of the cryolite-alumina mixture.
The molten mixture of cryolite, alumina, aluminium floride is next electrolyzed by passing a direct electric current
through it. The electrochemical reaction causes liquid aluminium metal to be deposited at the cathode as a
precipitate, while the oxygen from the alumina combines with carbon from the anode to produce carbon dioxide,
CO2. The electric voltage across each electrolytic cell in the factory is just three to five volts, but a very high direct
current is needed to pass through the cells in order to support the electrochemical reaction. In current electrochemical
cells for refinining aluminium, the current through each cell can range from 220 kA[1] to 340 kA.[2] The oxidation of
the carbon anode reduces the required voltage across each cell, increasing the electrical efficiency, at a cost of
continually replacing the carbon electrodes with new ones, and also the cost of releasing carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Hundreds of Hall-Heroult cells are usually connected electrically in series, and they are supplied with
Hall–Héroult process 31

direct current from a single set of rectifiers that the convert the alternating current (AC) supplied to the factory into
direct current (DC). The very high electric current is supplied to the cells through heavy, low electrical resistance
metal busbars made of pure aluminium or copper. The cells are electrically heated to reach the operating temperature
with this current, and the anode regulator system varies the current passing through the cell by raising or lowering
the anodes and changing the cell's resistance. If needed any cell can be bypassed by shunt busbars.
The liquid aluminium is taken out with the help of a siphon operating
with a vacuum, in order to avoid having to use extremely high
temperature valves and pumps. The liquid aluminium then may be
transferred in batches or via a continuous hot flow line to a location
where it is cast into aluminium ingots. The aluminium can either be
cast into the form of final cast-aluminium products, or the ingots can
be sent elsewhere such as a rolling mill for being pressed into sheets,
or the a wire-drawing mill for producing aluminium wires and cables.

While solid cryolite is denser than solid aluminium at room

temperature, the liquid aluminium product is denser than the molten
Hall-Heroult Industrial Cell/Pot
cryolite at temperatures around 1000 celsius, and the aluminium sinks
to the bottom of the electrolytic cell, where it is periodically
collected.[3] The tops and sides of the cells are covered with layers of solid cryolite which also act as thermal
insulation. The unavoidable electric resistance within each cell produces sufficient heat to keep the cryolite-alumina
mixture molten.

With the percentage of aluminium dissolved in each cell being depleted by the electrolysis in the molton cryolite,
additional alumina is continually dropped into the cells to maintain the required level of alumina. Whenever a solid
crust forms across the surface of the molten cryolite-alumina, this crust is broken from time to time to allow the
added alumina to fall into the molten cryolite and dissolve there.
The electrolysis process produces exhaust which escapes into the fume hood and is evacuated. The exhaust is
primarily CO2 produced from the anode consumption and hydrogen fluoride (HF) from the cryolite & flux. HF is a
highly corrosive and toxic gas, even etching glass surfaces. The gases are either treated or vented into the
atmosphere; the former involving neutralization of the HF to its sodium salt, sodium fluoride. The particulates are
also captured and reused using electrostatic or bag filters. The remaining CO2 is usually vented into the atmosphere.
The very large electric current passing through the electrolytic cells generates a powerful magnetic field, and can this
can stir the molten aluminium with magneto-hydrodynamic forces in properly-designed cells. The stirring of the
molten aluminium in each cell typically increases its performance, but the purity of the aluminium is reduced, since
it gets mixed with small amounts of cryolite and aluminium fluoride. If the cells are designed for no stirring, they
can be operated with static pools of molten aluminium so that the impurities either rise to the top of the metallic
aluminium, or else sink to the bottom, leaving high-purity aluminium in the middle.
Aluminium smelters are usually sited where inexpensive hydroelectric power is available. For some European
smelters, the electric power produced by hydroelectric plants in countries such as Norway, Switzerland, and Austria
is transmitted by high-voltage power lines to such places as Denmark, Sweden, Germany, and Italy to be used by
aluminium and magnesium factories. Since aluminium factories require nearly-uniform supplies of electric current,
they make the most of nearly-constant supplies of electric power, and these are also available close to many
hydroelectric power plants. To give an example of such use of hydroelectric power, the three main regions for
aluminium production in North America have always been in the Tennessee River Valley of the Southeastern United
States, the Columbia River Valley of Washington State and Oregon, and the St. Lawrence River Valley of
southeastern Canada and the Northeastern United States.
Hall–Héroult process 32

Many decades ago, before the existence of the Tennessee Valley Authority, aluminium companies such as Alcoa
even built their own hydroelectric dams and powerhouses in the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and
Tennessee.

History
The Hall–Héroult process was discovered independently and almost simultaneously in 1886 by the American
chemist Charles Martin Hall[4] and the Frenchman Paul Héroult. In 1888, Hall opened the first large-scale aluminium
production plant in Pittsburgh, which would eventually evolve into the Alcoa corporation.
In 1997 the Hall–Héroult process was designated an ACS National Historical Chemical Landmark in recognition of
the importance of the commercialization of aluminium.[5]

Development
The Hall–Héroult process is used all over the world and is the only method of aluminium smelting currently used in
the industry. Today, there are two primary technologies using the Hall–Héroult process: Söderberg and prebake.
Söderberg uses a continuously created anode made by addition of pitch to the top of the anode. The lost heat from
the smelting operation is used to bake the pitch into the carbon form required for reaction with alumina. Prebake
technology is named after its anodes, which are baked in very large gas-fired ovens at high temperature before being
lowered by various heavy industrial lifting systems into the electrolytic solution. In both technologies, the anode,
attached to a very large electrical bus, is slowly used up by the process because the oxygen generated by the
electrolytic process can oxidize the carbon anode. Prebake technology tends to be slightly more efficient, but is more
labor intensive. Prebake technology is becoming preferred in the industry because of the various pollutant emissions
related to the creation of the anode from liquid pitch.

The legacy of the Hall–Héroult process

Although aluminium is one of the most commonly occurring metallic elements on Earth, before the invention of the
Hall–Héroult process, it had been very difficult to extract from its ores. It was extracted by heating the ores in a
vacuum with pure sodium or potassium, both of which were expensive to obtain, requiring electrolysis.
This made the little pure aluminium that had been produced in the 19th Century (and none before that) more valuable
than gold or platinum. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the French crown jewels at the Exposition
Universelle of 1855, and Emperor Napoleon III of France was said to have reserved his few sets of aluminium dinner
plates and eating utensils for his most honored guests.
Also, the pyramidal cap at the tip of the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., was made of pure aluminium
that was obtained before the time of Hall and Héroult. At the time of the Washington Monument's completion,
metallic aluminium was as expensive as silver.[6]
However, the invention of the Hall–Héroult process and the development of large sources of electric power for
aluminium factories lead to production of aluminium (and incidentally of magnesium) as an inexpensive commodity.
These developments came about just at the time of the great expansion in the use of electric power in homes and
factories, and also for the development of metal airplanes, of which the production by the tens of thousands requires
large amounts of aluminium and aluminium-magnesium alloys.
Hall–Héroult process 33

See also
• Bayer process
• Aluminium: Production and refinement

References
• Grjotheim, U and Kvande, H., Introduction to Aluminium Electrolysis. Understanding the Hall-Heroult Process
[7]
, Aluminium Verlag GmbH, (Germany), 1993, pp. 260.

External links
• Hall-Héroult process description [8]

References
[1] DUBAL 2003 installed cell amperage for D20 cells (http:/ / www. dubal. ae/ productsandsales/ newtechnologies. aspx)
[2] ABB Aluminium Smelter Project Qatalum PL1 and 2 in Qatar (http:/ / www. abb. com/ cawp/ seitp161/
126078ad865eca46c12573c600434598. aspx)
[3] This is advantageous because the aluminium is always protected from oxidation by atmospheric oxygen by the layer of molten cryolite.
[4] US400664 (http:/ / patft. uspto. gov/ netacgi/ nph-Parser?patentnumber=400664) (1889-04-02) Charles Martin Hall, Process of Reducing
Aluminium from its Fluoride Salts by Electrolysis.
[5] A National Historic Chemical Landmark: Production Of Aluminum Metal By Electrochemistry - Charles Martin Hall Solves The Aluminum
Challenge (http:/ / acswebcontent. acs. org/ landmarks/ landmarks/ cmh/ index. html)
[6] George J. Binczewski (1995). "The Point of a Monument: A History of the Aluminum Cap of the Washington Monument" (http:/ / www. tms.
org/ pubs/ journals/ JOM/ 9511/ Binczewski-9511. html). JOM 47 (11): 20–25. .
[7] http:/ / www. csa. com/ partners/ viewrecord. php?requester=gs& collection=TRD& recid=199501420050MD& recid=199501P10015AI
[8] http:/ / www. aluminumsmeltingprocess. com
Thermite reaction 34

Thermite reaction
Thermite is a pyrotechnic composition of a
metal powder and a metal oxide, which
produces an aluminothermic reaction known
as a thermite reaction. Most varieties are
not explosive, but can create short bursts of
extremely high temperatures focused on a
very small area for a short period of time.

Thermites can be a diverse class of

compositions. The fuels are often
aluminium, magnesium, calcium, titanium,
zinc, silicon, and boron. The oxidizers can
be boron(III) oxide, silicon(IV) oxide,
chromium(III) oxide, manganese(IV) oxide, A thermite mixture using iron (III) oxide
iron(III) oxide, iron(II,III) oxide, copper(II)
oxide, and lead(II,III,IV) oxide.[1]

The most common thermite is aluminium-iron(III) oxide.

Reaction
The aluminium reduces the oxide of another metal,
most commonly iron oxide, because aluminium is
highly reactive:
Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3 + heat
The products are aluminium oxide, free elemental iron
[2]
, and a large amount of heat. The reactants are
commonly powdered and mixed with a binder to keep
the material solid and prevent separation.
The reaction is used for thermite welding, often used to
join rail tracks. Other metal oxides can be used, such as
chromium oxide, to generate elemental metal. Copper
thermite, using copper oxide, is used for creating A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide
electric joints in a process called cadwelding:
3CuO + 2Al → 3Cu + Al2O3 + Heat
Some thermite-like mixtures are used as pyrotechnic initiators such as fireworks.
Thermites with nanosized particles are described through a variety of terms, such as metastable intermolecular
composites, superthermite[3] nanothermite,[4] and nanocomposite energetic materials.[5] [6]
Thermite reaction 35

Nano-thermite or "super thermite" is classed as an

explosive. A mixture of thermite and sulfur produces
thermate which lowers the melting point of the iron it
contacts when reacting by forming a eutectic system.
This is useful in cutting through steel.

A thermite reaction taking place on a cast iron skillet

History
The thermite (thermit) reaction was discovered in 1893 and patented in 1895 by German chemist Hans
Goldschmidt.[7] Consequently, the reaction is sometimes called the "Goldschmidt reaction" or "Goldschmidt
process". Dr. Goldschmidt was originally interested in producing very pure metals by avoiding the use of carbon in
smelting, but he soon realized the value in welding.
The first commercial application was the welding of tram tracks in Essen, in 1899. Evonik, formerly Degussa, a
corporate descendant of Goldschmidt's firm, is still today one of the world's largest producers of welding thermite.[8]

Types
Red iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3, commonly known as rust) is the most common iron oxide used in thermite. Magnetite
also works. Other oxides are occasionally used, such as MnO2 in manganese thermite, Cr2O3 in chromium thermite,
or copper(II) oxide in copper thermite, but only for highly specialised purposes. All examples use aluminium as the
reactive metal. Fluoropolymers can be used in special formulations, Teflon with magnesium or aluminium being a
relatively common example. Magnesium/teflon/viton is another pyrolant of this type.
In principle, any reactive metal could be used instead of aluminium. This is rarely done, however, because the
properties of aluminium are ideal for this reaction. It is by far the cheapest of the highly reactive metals; it also forms
a passivation layer making it safer to handle than many other reactive metals. The melting and boiling points of
aluminium also make it ideal for thermite reactions. Its relatively low melting point (660 °C, 1221 °F) means that it
is easy to melt the metal, so that the reaction can occur mainly in the liquid phase[9] and thus proceeds fairly quickly.
At the same time, its high boiling point (2519 °C (4566 °F)) enables the reaction to reach very high temperatures,
since several processes tend to limit the maximum temperature to just below the boiling point.[10] Such a high
boiling point is common among transition metals (e.g., iron and copper boil at 2887 °C (5229 °F) and 2582 °C
(4680 °F) respectively), but is especially unusual among the highly reactive metals (cf. magnesium and sodium
which boil at 1090 °C (1990 °F) and 883 °C (1621 °F) respectively). Further, the low density of the aluminium oxide
formed as a result of the reaction tends to cause it to float on the iron, reducing contamination of the weld.
Although the reactants are stable at room temperature, they burn with an extremely intense exothermic reaction when
they are heated to ignition temperature. The products emerge as liquids due to the high temperatures reached (up to
2500 °C (4500 °F) with iron(III) oxide)—although the actual temperature reached depends on how quickly heat can
escape to the surrounding environment. Thermite contains its own supply of oxygen and does not require any
external source of air. Consequently, it cannot be smothered and may ignite in any environment, given sufficient
initial heat. It will burn well while wet and cannot be easily extinguished with water, although enough water will
Thermite reaction 36

remove heat and stop the reaction. Small amounts of water will boil before reaching the reaction. Although thermite
is used to for welding underwater, in a haphazard ignition of thermite underwater, the molten iron produced will
extract oxygen from water and generate hydrogen gas in a single-replacement reaction. This gas may, in turn, burn
by combining with oxygen in the air.

Ignition
Metals are capable of burning under the right conditions, similar to the combustion process of wood or gasoline. In
fact, rust is the result of oxidation of steel or iron at very slow rates. A thermite reaction is a process in which the
correct mixture of metallic fuels are combined and ignited. Ignition itself requires extremely high temperatures.
Ignition of a thermite reaction normally requires only a simple child's sparkler or easily obtainable magnesium
ribbon, but may require persistent efforts, as ignition can be unreliable and unpredictable. These temperatures cannot
be reached with conventional black powder fuses, nitrocellulose rods, detonators, pyrotechnic initiators, or other
common igniting substances. Even when the thermite is hot enough to glow bright red, it will not ignite as it must be
at or near white-hot to initiate the reaction. It is possible to start the reaction using a propane torch if done correctly.
The torch can preheat the entire pile of thermite which will make it explode instead of burning slowly when it finally
reaches ignition temperature.
Often, strips of magnesium metal are used as fuses. Because metals burn without releasing cooling gases, they can
potentially burn at extremely high temperatures. Reactive metals such as magnesium can easily reach temperatures
sufficiently high for thermite ignition. Magnesium ignition remains popular among amateur thermite users, mainly
because it can be easily obtained.
The reaction between potassium permanganate and glycerol or ethylene glycol is used as an alternative to the
magnesium method. When these two substances mix, a spontaneous reaction will begin, slowly increasing the
temperature of the mixture until flames are produced. The heat released by the oxidation of glycerine is sufficient to
initiate a thermite reaction. However, this method can also be unreliable and the delay between mixing and ignition
can vary greatly due to factors such as particle size and ambient temperature.
Apart from magnesium ignition, some amateurs also choose to use sparklers to ignite the thermite mixture. These
reach the necessary temperatures and provide enough time before the burning point reaches the sample. However,
this can be a dangerous method, as the iron sparks, like the magnesium strips, burn at thousands of degrees and can
ignite the thermite even though the sparkler itself is not in contact with it. This is especially dangerous with finely
powdered thermite.
Similarly, finely-powdered thermite can be ignited by a regular flint spark lighter, as the sparks are burning metal (in
this case, the highly-reactive rare-earth metals lanthanum and cerium). Therefore it is unsafe to strike a lighter close
to thermite.
A stoichiometric mixture of finely powdered iron(III) oxide and aluminium may be ignited using ordinary red-tipped
book matches by partially embedding one match head in the mixture, and igniting that match head with another
match, preferably held with tongs in gloves to prevent flash burns.
Thermite reaction 37

Civilian uses
Thermite reactions have many uses. Thermite is not an
explosive; instead it operates by exposing a very small
area of metal to extremely high temperatures. Intense
heat focused on a small spot can be used to cut through
metal or weld metal components together both by
melting metal from the components, and by injecting
molten metal from the thermite reaction itself.
Thermite may be used for repair by the welding
in-place of thick steel sections such as locomotive
axle-frames where the repair can take place without
removing the part from its installed location.
Thermite can be used for quickly cutting or welding Thermite reaction proceeding for a railway welding. Shortly after
steel such as rail tracks, without requiring complex or this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap
heavy equipment. However, defects such as slag
inclusions and holes are often present in such welded
junctions and great care is needed to operate the
process successfully. Care must also be taken to ensure
that the rails remain straight, without resulting in
dipped joints, which can cause wear on high speed and
heavy axle load lines.

A thermite reaction, when used to purify the ores of

some metals, is called the thermite process, or
aluminothermic reaction. An adaptation of the reaction,
used to obtain pure uranium, was developed as part of
the Manhattan Project at Ames Laboratory under the
direction of Frank Spedding. It is sometimes called the
Ames process. Residues of ceramic molds for thermite welding like these, left by
railway workers, can be found along tracks
Copper thermite is used for welding together thick
copper wires for the purpose of electrical connections.
It is used extensively by the electrical utilities and
telecommunications industries (exothermic welded
connections).

Military uses
Thermite hand grenades and charges are typically used
by armed forces in both an anti-materiel role and in the
partial destruction of equipment, the latter being
common when time is not available for safer or more
thorough methods. Because standard iron-thermite is
difficult to ignite, burns with practically no flame and
has a small radius of action, standard thermite is rarely The violent effects of thermite
Thermite reaction 38

used on its own as an incendiary composition. It is more usually employed with other ingredients added to enhance
its incendiary effects. Thermate-TH3 is a mixture of thermite and pyrotechnic additives which have been found to be
superior to standard thermite for incendiary purposes. Its composition by weight is generally 68.7% thermite, 29.0%
barium nitrate, 2.0% sulfur and 0.3% binder (such as PBAN). The addition of barium nitrate to thermite increases its
thermal effect, produces a larger flame, and significantly reduces the ignition temperature. Although the primary
purpose of Thermate-TH3 by the armed forces is as an incendiary anti-materiel weapon, it also has uses in welding
metal components.
A classic military use for thermite is disabling artillery pieces, and has been used commonly for this purpose since
World War II. Thermite can permanently disable artillery pieces without the use of explosive charges and therefore
can be used when silence is necessary to an operation. There are several ways to do this. By far the most destructive
method is to weld the weapon shut by inserting one or more armed thermite grenades into the breech and then
quickly closing it. This makes the weapon impossible to load. An alternative method is to insert an armed thermite
grenade down the muzzle of the artillery piece, fouling the barrel. This makes the piece very dangerous to fire. Yet
another method is to use thermite to weld the traversing and elevation mechanism of the weapon, making it
impossible to aim properly.
Thermite was also used in both German and Allied incendiary bombs during World War II. Incendiary bombs
usually consisted of dozens of thin thermite-filled canisters (bomblets) ignited by a magnesium fuse. Incendiary
bombs destroyed entire cities due to the raging fires that resulted from their use. Cities that primarily consisted of
wooden buildings were especially susceptible. These incendiary bombs were utilized primarily during night time air
raids. Bomb sights could not be used at night, creating the need to use munitions that could destroy targets without
the need for precision placement.

Hazards
Thermite usage is hazardous due to the extremely high temperatures produced and the extreme difficulty in
smothering a reaction once initiated. The thermite reaction releases dangerous ultra-violet (UV) light requiring that
the reaction not be viewed directly, or that special eye protection (for example, a welder's mask) be worn. Small
streams of molten iron released in the reaction can travel considerable distances and may melt through metal
containers, igniting their contents. Additionally, flammable metals with relatively low boiling points such as zinc,
whose boiling point of 907 °C (1665 °F) is about 1370 °C (2500 °F) below the temperature at which thermite burns,
could potentially boil superheated metal violently into the air if near a thermite reaction, where it could then burst
into flame as it is exposed to oxygen.
Preheating of thermite before ignition can easily be done accidentally, for example by pouring a new pile of thermite
over a hot, recently-ignited pile of thermite slag. When ignited, preheated thermite can burn almost instantaneously,
releasing a much greater amount of light and heat energy than normal and causing burns and eye damage at what
would normally be a reasonably safe distance.
The thermite reaction can take place accidentally in industrial locations where abrasive grinding and cutting wheels
are used with ferrous metals. Using aluminium in this situation produces a mixture of oxides which is capable of a
violent explosive reaction.[11]
Mixing water with thermite or pouring water onto burning thermite can cause a steam explosion, spraying hot
fragments in all directions.
Thermite's main ingredients were also utilized for their individual qualities, specifically reflectivity and heat
insulation, in a paint coating or dope for the Hindenburg, possibly contributing to its fiery destruction. This was a
theory put forward by former NASA scientist Addison Bain, and later tested in small scale by the scientific
reality-TV show MythBusters with semi-inconclusive results (it wasn't proven to be the thermite reaction's fault but
instead was conjectured to be a mix between that and the hydrogen filling the Hindenburg).[12] The MythBusters also
tested the veracity of a video found on the Internet, whereby a quantity of thermite was allowed to drop onto a block
Thermite reaction 39

of ice of similar mass, causing a sudden explosion. They were able to confirm the results, and Jamie Hyneman
conjectured this was due to the thermite mixture aerosolizing, perhaps in a cloud of steam, causing it to burn even
faster. They found chunks of ice as far as 150 feet (46 m) from the point of explosion. Jamie voiced skepticism to
another theory explaining the phenomenon: that the reaction somehow separated the hydrogen and oxygen in the
water and ignited them.

See also
• Metastable intermolecular composite (nano-thermite)
• Pyrotechnic composition
• Thermate
• Nano-thermite
• ALICE (propellant)

References

Further reading
• L. L. Wang, Z. A. Munir and Y. M. Maximov (1993). "Thermite reactions: their utilization in the synthesis and
processing of materials". Journal of Materials Science 28 (14): 3693–3708. doi:10.1007/BF00353167.
• M. Beckert (2002). "Hans Goldschmidt and the aluminothermics". Schweissen und Schneiden 54 (9): 522–526.
• "DEGUSSA page on thermite" [13].

External links
• Thermite Pictures & Videos (Including Exotic Thermite) [14]
• Video - steel casting with thermite [15]
• History of thermite [16]

References
[1] Pyrotechnic Chemistry — Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q1yJNr92-YcC& pg=RA2-PA19& lpg=RA2-PA19&
dq="titanium+ boron"+ pyrotechnic& source=bl& ots=vq1tIRhY3w& sig=AjDQ00zbGuakV40DKLAkCPRtJUo& hl=en& sa=X&
oi=book_result& resnum=29& ct=result#PRA2-PA20,M1). [Link]. . Retrieved 2009-09-15.
[2] Demo Lab: The Thermite Reaction (http:/ / www. ilpi. com/ genchem/ demo/ thermite/ index. html)
[3] Low-Cost Production of Nanostructured Super-Thermites (http:/ / www. navysbir. com/ n08_1/ N081-020. htm),
[4] Development of Nanothermite Composites with Variable Electrostatic Discharge Ignition Thresholds (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley.
com/ journal/ 117861834/ abstract?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0)
[5] "Reaction Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Nanothermite Propellants" (http:/ / ci. confex. com/ ci/ 2005/ techprogram/ P1663. HTM).
[Link]. . Retrieved 2009-09-15.
[6] Generation of fast propagating combustion and shock waves with copper oxide/aluminum nanothermite composites (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/
getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=APPLAB000091000024243109000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)
[7] H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of
metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
[8] History of the Evonik company: http:/ / history. evonik. com/ sites/ geschichte/ en/ chemicals/ history/ goldschmidt/ pages/ default. aspx .
[9] or rather, where the solid oxide particles meet the liquid metal
[10] i.e., loss of fuel and heat due to vaporization
[11] "Fireball from Aluminium and Grinding Dust" (http:/ / www. hanford. gov/ rl/ ?page=542& parent=506). [Link]. 2001-09-21. .
Retrieved 2009-09-15.
[12] The Best Science Show on Television? (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 11/ 21/ science/ 21myth. html)
[13] http:/ / www. degussa-history. com/ geschichte/ en/ inventions/ thermite/
[14] http:/ / www. amazingrust. com/ Experiments/ how_to/ Thermite_pics-videos. html
[15] http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Samples/ 026. 17/ index. video. s12. html
[16] http:/ / www. degussa-history. com/ geschichte/ en/ inventions/ thermite. html
Wöhler process 40

Wöhler process
The Wöhler process was the former way in which aluminium was extracted from its ore. However with the advent
of more efficient means of electrolysis, this process all but become extinct. It involved the reduction of anhydrous
aluminium chloride with potassium, and produced powdered aluminium.
In 1827, Friedrich Wöhler refined a process discovered by Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish chemist, who first
produced impure aluminium in 1825. This allowed him to establish the specific gravity of aluminium in 1845.
 41

Applications and uses

Aluminium alloy
Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium is the predominant metal. Typical alloying elements are copper,
zinc, manganese, silicon, and magnesium. There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought
alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of
aluminium is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils and extrusions. Cast aluminium alloys yield
cost effective products due to the low melting point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than
wrought alloys. The most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al-Si, where the high levels of silicon (4-13%)
contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and
components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required.[1]
Aluminium alloy surfaces will keep their apparent shine in a dry environment due to the formation of a clear,
protective oxide layer. In a wet environment, Galvanic corrosion can occur when an aluminium alloy is placed in
electrical contact with other metals with a more negative corrosion potential than aluminium.
Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Many organizations publish more
specific standards for the manufacture of aluminium alloy, including the Society of Automotive Engineers standards
organization, specifically its aerospace standards subgroups,[2] and ASTM International.

Engineering use

Overview
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by
a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO). Selecting the right
alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength, ductility, formability, workability, weldability and
corrosion resistance to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in
Ref.[3] Aluminium is used extensively in modern aircraft due to its high strength to weight ratio.

Aluminium alloys versus steels

Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of around 70 GPa, which is about one third the elastic modulus
of steel. For a given load, a part made of an aluminium alloy will therefore show greater elastic deformation than a
steel part of identical geometry. Though there are aluminium alloys with higher tensile strengths than commonly
used steels, simply replacing steel parts with aluminium alloy equivalents may lead to problems. With new products,
design choices are often governed by the special manufacturing technologies that apply to aluminium. Extrusions are
particularly important in this regard, owing to the ease of which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al-Mg-Si series,
can be extruded from complex profiles.
In general, stiffer and lighter designs can be achieved with aluminium alloys than is feasible with steels. For
instance, consider the bending of a thin-walled tube: the second moment of area is inversely related to the stress in
the tube wall, i.e. stresses are lower for larger values. The second moment of area is proportional to the cube of the
radius times the wall thickness, thus increasing the radius (and weight) by 26% will lead to a halving of the wall
stress. For this reason, bicycle frames made of aluminium alloys make use of larger tube diameters than steel or
titanium in order to yield the desired stiffness and strength. In automotive engineering, cars made of aluminium
alloys employ space frames made of extruded profiles to ensure rigidity. This represents a radical change from the
Aluminium alloy 42

common approach for current steel car design, which depend on the body shells for stiffness, that is a unibody
design.
Aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines, particularly in cylinder blocks and crankcases due to the
weight savings that are possible. Since aluminium alloys are susceptible to warping at elevated temperatures, the
cooling system of such engines is critical. Manufacturing techniques and metallurgical advancements have also been
instrumental for the successful application in automotive engines. In the 1960s, the aluminium cylinder heads and
crankcase of the Corvair earned a reputation for failure and stripping of threads, which is not seen in current
aluminium cylinder heads.
An important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their lower fatigue strength compared to steel. In controlled
laboratory conditions, steels display a fatigue limit, which is the stress amplitude below which no failures occur.
Aluminium alloys are therefore sparsely used in parts that require high fatigue strength in the high cycle regime
(more than 107 stress cycles).

Heat sensitivity considerations

Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure
involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red.
Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore require some expertise, because no visual signs reveal how
close the material is to melting.
Aluminium also is subject to internal stresses and strains when it is overheated; the tendency of the metal to creep
under these stresses tends to result in delayed distortions. For example, the warping or cracking of overheated
aluminium automobile cylinder heads is commonly observed, sometimes years later, as is the tendency of welded
aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses of the welding process. Thus, the
aerospace industry avoids heat altogether by joining parts with adhesives or mechanical fasteners. Adhesive bonding
was used in some bicycle frames in the 1970s, with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly,
loosening the adhesive and collapsing the frame.
Stresses in overheated aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling it—in
effect annealing the stresses. Yet these parts may still become distorted, so that heat-treating of welded bicycle
frames, for instance, can result in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe,
the cooled parts may be bent into alignment. Of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), that
bending will require enormous force.
Aluminium's intolerance to high temperatures has not precluded its use in rocketry; even for use in constructing
combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled
aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region; in fact the extremely
high thermal conductivity of aluminium prevented the throat from reaching the melting point even under massive
heat flux, resulting in a reliable lightweight component.

Household wiring
Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared with copper in the 1960s, aluminium was
introduced at that time for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been
designed to accept aluminium wire. But the new use brought some problems:
• The greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the
dissimilar metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection.
• Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature
rises), again loosening the connection.
• Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection.
Aluminium alloy 43

All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in some fires. Builders then became
wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes, in new construction. Yet newer
fixtures eventually were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were
marked "Al/Cu", but they now bear a "CO/ALR" coding.
Another way to forestall the heating problem is to crimp the aluminium wire to a short "pigtail" of copper wire. A
properly done high-pressure crimp by the proper tool is tight enough to reduce any thermal expansion of the
aluminium. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium
terminations.

Alloy designations
Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems. Wrought aluminium is identified with a four
digit number which identifies the alloying elements.
Cast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal point. The digit in the hundreds place indicates
the alloying elements, while the digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot).

Temper designation
The temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially a one to
three digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are:[4] [5]
-F
As fabricated
-H
Strain hardened (cold worked) with or without thermal treatment
-H1
Strain hardened without thermal treatment
-H2
Strain hardened and partially annealed
-H3
Strain hardened and stabilized by low temperature heating
Second digit
A second digit denotes the degree of hardness
-HX2 = 1/4 hard
-HX4 = 1/2 hard
-HX6 = 3/4 hard
-HX8 = full hard
-HX9 = extra hard
-O
Full soft (annealed)
-T
Heat treated to produce stable tempers
-T1
Cooled from hot working and naturally aged (at room temperature)
Aluminium alloy 44

-T2
Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and naturally aged
-T3
Solution heat treated and cold worked
-T4
Solution heat treated and naturally aged
-T5
Cooled from hot working and artificially aged (at elevated temperature)
-T51
Stress relieved by stretching
-T510
No further straightening after stretching
-T511
Minor straightening after stretching
-T52
Stress relieved by thermal treatment
-T6
Solution heat treated and artificially aged
-T7
Solution heat treated and stabilized
-T8
Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
-T9
Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
-T10
Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and artificially aged
-W
Solution heat treated only.
Note: -W is a relatively soft intermediary designation that applies after heat treat and before aging is completed. The
-W condition can be extended at extremely low temperatures but not indefinitely and depending on the material will
typically last no longer than 15 minutes at ambient temperatures.
 Aluminium alloy 45

Wrought alloys
The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each
alloy is given a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.
• 1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and can be work
hardened.
• 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel. Formerly
referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs.
• 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work-hardened.
• 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as silumin.
• 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, derive most of their strength from work hardening. It is suitable for
cryogenic applications and low temperature work. However is susceptible to corrosion above 60°C.
• 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to machine, and can be precipitation hardened, but
not to the high strengths that 2000, and 7000 can reach.
• 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths of any aluminium
alloy.
• 8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys.

Wrought aluminium alloy composition limits (% weight)

Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn V Ti Bi Ga Pb Zr Al
Limits††

Each Total

1060 0.25 0.35 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 99.6 min

1100 0.95 Si+Fe 0.05-0.20 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15 99.0 min

2014 0.50-1.2 0.7 3.9-5.0 0.40-1.2 0.20-0.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder

2024 0.50 0.50 3.8-4.9 0.30-0.9 1.2-1.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder

2219 0.2 0.30 5.8-6.8 0.20-0.40 0.02 0.10 0.05-0.15 0.02-0.10 0.10-0.25 0.05 0.15 remainder

3003 0.6 0.7 0.05-0.20 1.0-1.5 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

3004 0.30 0.7 0.25 1.0-1.5 0.8-1.3 0.25 0.05 0.15 remainder

3102 0.40 0.7 0.10 0.05-0.40 0.30 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

4043 4.5-6.0 0.80 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

5052 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 2.2-2.8 0.15-0.35 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

5083 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.40-1.0 4.0-4.9 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder

5086 0.40 0.50 0.10 0.20-0.7 3.5-4.5 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder

5154 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 3.10-3.90 0.15-0.35 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

5356 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 4.50-5.50 0.05-0.20 0.10 0.06-0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

5454 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.50-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

5456 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.50-1.0 4.7-5.5 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

6005 0.6-0.9 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.40-0.6 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6005A† 0.50-0.9 0.35 0.30 0.50 0.40-0.7 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6060 0.30-0.6 0.10-0.30 0.10 0.10 0.35-0.6 0.5 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6061 0.40-0.8 0.7 0.15-0.40 0.15 0.8-1.2 0.04-0.35 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
 Aluminium alloy 46

6063 0.20-0.6 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.45-0.9 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6066 0.9-1.8 0.50 0.7-1.2 0.6-1.1 0.8-1.4 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

6070 1.0-1.7 0.50 0.15-0.40 0.40-1.0 0.50-1.2 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder

6082 0.7-1.3 0.50 0.10 0.40-1.0 0.60-1.2 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6105 0.6-1.0 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.45-0.8 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6162 0.40-0.8 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.7-1.1 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

6262 0.40-0.8 0.7 0.15-0.40 0.15 0.8-1.2 0.04-0.14 0.25 0.15 0.40-0.7 0.40-0.7 0.05 0.15 remainder

6351 0.7-1.3 0.50 0.10 0.40-0.8 0.40-0.8 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

6463 0.20-0.6 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.45-0.9 0.05 0.05 0.15 remainder

7005 0.35 0.40 0.10 0.20-0.7 1.0-1.8 0.06-0.20 4.0-5.0 0.01-0.06 0.08-0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

7072 0.7 Si+Fe 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.8-1.3 0.05 0.15 remainder

7075 0.40 0.50 1.2-2.0 0.30 2.1-2.9 0.18-0.28 5.1-6.1 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

7079 0.3 0.40 0.40-0.80 0.10-0.30 2.9-3.7 0.10-0.25 3.8-4.8 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder

7116 0.15 0.30 0.50-1.1 0.05 0.8-1.4 4.2-5.2 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.15 remainder

7129 0.15 0.30 0.50-0.9 0.10 1.3-2.0 0.10 4.2-5.2 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.15 remainder

7178 0.40 0.50 1.6-2.4 0.30 2.4-3.1 0.18-0.28 6.3-7.3 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder

†
Manganese plus chromium must be between 0.12-0.50%.
††
This column lists the limits that apply to all elements, whether a table column exists for them or not, for which no other limits are specified.

Cast alloys
The Aluminium Association (AA) has adopted a nomenclature similar to that of wrought alloys. British Standard and
DIN have different designations. In the AA system, the second two digits reveal the minimum percentage of
aluminium, e.g. 150.x correspond to a minimum of 99.50% aluminium. The digit after the decimal point takes a
value of 0 or 1, denoting casting and ingot respectively.[1] The main alloying elements in the AA system are as
follows:
• 1xx.x series are minimum 99% aluminium
• 2xx.x series copper
• 3xx.x series silicon, copper and/or magnesium
• 4xx.x series silicon
• 5xx.x series magnesium
• 7xx.x series zinc
• 8xx.x series lithium
Aluminium alloy 47

Minimum tensile requirements for cast aluminium alloys[6]

Alloy type Temper Tensile strength (min) Yield strength (min) [ksi] Elongation in 2 in [%]
[ksi]
ANSI UNS

201.0 A02010 T7 60.0 50.0 3.0

204.0 A02040 T4 45.0 28.0 6.0

242.0 A02420 O 23.0 N/A N/A

T61 32.0 20.0 N/A

A242.0 A12420 T75 29.0 N/A 1.0

295.0 A02950 T4 29.0 13.0 6.0

T6 32.0 20.0 3.0

T62 36.0 28.0 N/A

T7 29.0 16.0 3.0

319.0 A03190 F 23.0 13.0 1.5

T5 25.0 N/A N/A

T6 31.0 20.0 1.5

328.0 A03280 F 25.0 14.0 1.0

T6 34.0 21.0 1.0

355.0 A03550 T6 32.0 20.0 2.0

T51 25.0 18.0 N/A

T71 30.0 22.0 N/A

C355.0 A33550 T6 36.0 25.0 2.5

356.0 A03560 F 19.0 9.5 2.0

T6 30.0 20.0 3.0

T7 31.0 N/A N/A

T51 23.0 16.0 N/A

T71 25.0 18.0 3.0

A356.0 A13560 T6 34.0 24.0 3.5

T61 35.0 26.0 1.0

443.0 A04430 F 17.0 7.0 3.0

B443.0 A24430 F 17.0 6.0 3.0

512.0 A05120 F 17.0 10.0 N/A

514.0 A05140 F 22.0 9.0 6.0

520.0 A05200 T4 42.0 22.0 12.0

535.0 A05350 F 35.0 18.0 9.0

705.0 A07050 T5 30.0 5.0

17.0†

707.0 A07070 T7 37.0 1.0

30.0†

710.0 A07100 T5 32.0 20.0 2.0

712.0 A07120 T5 34.0 4.0

25.0†
Aluminium alloy 48

713.0 A07130 T5 32.0 22.0 3.0

771.0 A07710 T5 42.0 38.0 1.5

T51 32.0 27.0 3.0

T52 36.0 30.0 1.5

T6 42.0 35.0 5.0

T71 48.0 45.0 5.0

850.0 A08500 T5 16.0 N/A 5.0

851.0 A08510 T5 17.0 N/A 3.0

852.0 A08520 T5 24.0 18.0 N/A

†
Only when requested by the customer

Named alloys
• Alclad Aluminium sheet formed from high-purity aluminium surface layers bonded to high strength aluminium
alloy core material
• Birmabright (aluminium, magnesium) a product of The Birmetals Company, basically equivalent to 5251
• Duralumin (copper, aluminium)
• Magnalium
• Magnox (magnesium, aluminium)
• Silumin (aluminium, silicon)
• Titanal (aluminium, zinc, magnesium, copper, zirconium) a product of Austria Metall AG. Commonly used in
high performance sports products, particularly snowboards and skis.
• Y alloy, Hiduminium, R.R. alloys: pre-war nickel-aluminium alloys, used in aerospace and engine pistons, for
their ability to retain strength at elevated temperature.

Applications

Aerospace alloys

Scandium-Aluminum

The addition of scandium to aluminium creates nanoscale Al3Sc

precipitates which limit the excessive grain growth that occurs in the
heat-affected zone of welded aluminium components. This has two
beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than
are formed in other aluminium alloys[7] and the width of
precipitate-free zones that normally exist at the grain boundaries of
age-hardenenable aluminium alloys is reduced.[7] Scandium is also a
potent grain refiner in cast aluminum alloys, and atom for atom, the
most potent strengthener in aluminum, both as a result of grain Parts of the Mig–29 are made from Al-Sc
[7]
alloy.
refinement and precipitation strengthening. However, titanium alloys,
which are stronger but heavier, are cheaper and much more widely
used.[8]

The main application of metallic scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry
components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% (by weight) of scandium. They were used in the Russian
military aircraft Mig 21 and Mig 29.[7]
Aluminium alloy 49

Some items of sports equipment, which rely on high performance materials, have been made with
scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats [9] , lacrosse sticks, as well as bicycle[10] frames and
components. U.S. gunmaker Smith & Wesson produces revolvers with frames composed of scandium alloy and
cylinders of titanium. [11]

List of aerospace Aluminum alloys

The following aluminium alloys are commonly used in aircraft and other aerospace structures:[12]
• 7075 aluminium
• 6061 aluminium
• 6063 aluminium
• 2024 aluminium
• 5052 aluminium
Note that the term aircraft aluminium or aerospace aluminium usually refers to 7075.[13] [14]
The following list of aluminium alloys are currently produced, but less widely used:
• 2090 aluminium
• 2124 aluminium
• 2195 aluminium - Al-Li alloy, used in Space Shuttle Super Lightweight external tank
• 2219 aluminium
• 2324 aluminium
• 6013 aluminium
• 7050 aluminium
• 7055 aluminium
• 7150 aluminium
• 7475 aluminium

Marine alloys
These alloys are used for boat building and shipbuilding, and other marine and salt-water sensitive shore
applications.[15]
• 5052 aluminium
• 5083 aluminium
• 5086 aluminium
• 6061 aluminium
• 6063 aluminium

Automotive alloys
6111 aluminium is extensively used for automotive body panels.

References
[1] I. J. Polmear, Light Alloys, Arnold, 1995
[2] SAE aluminium specifications list (http:/ / www. sae. org/ servlets/ product?PROD_TYP=STD& PARENT_BPA_CD=AERO&
TECH_CD=ALUMI), accessed Oct 8, 2006. Also SAE Aerospace Council (http:/ / www. sae. org/ about/ board/ committees/ arsp. htm),
accessed Oct 8, 2006.
[3] R.E. Sanders, Technology Innovation in aluminium Products, The Journal of The Minerals, 53(2):21–25, 2001. Online ed. (http:/ / www. tms.
org/ pubs/ journals/ JOM/ 0102/ Sanders-0102. html)
[4] "Sheet metal material" (http:/ / www. precisionsheetmetal. com/ home/ materials. htm). . Retrieved 2009-07-26.
[5] Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003). Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.). Wiley. p. 133.
ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Aluminium alloy 50

[6] ASTM B 26 / B 26M — 05

[7] Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM 55: 35. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6.
[8] ed. by James A. Schwarz ... (2004-03-31). James A. Schwarz, Cristian I. Contescu, Karol Putyera (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=aveTxwZm40UC& pg=PA2274). CRC Press. p. 2274. ISBN 0824750497. .
[9] Bjerklie, Steve (2006). "A batty business: Anodized metal bats have revolutionized baseball. But are finishers losing the sweet spot?". Metal
Finishing 104: 61. doi:10.1016/S0026-0576(06)80099-1.
[10] "Easton Technology Report : Materials / Scandium" (http:/ / www. eastonbike. com/ downloadable_files_unprotected/ r& d_files/ R& D-03
Scandium. pdf). [Link]. . Retrieved 2009-04-03.
[11] "Small Frame (J) - Model 340PD Revolver" (http:/ / www. smith-wesson. com/ webapp/ wcs/ stores/ servlet/
ProductDisplay?storeId=10001& catalogId=11101& langId=-1& productId=14765& tabselected=tech& isFirearm=Y&
parent_category_rn=15704). Smith & Wesson. . Retrieved 2008-10-20.
[12] Fundamentals of Flight, Shevell, Richard S., 1989, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-339060-8, Ch 18, pp 373-386.
[13] "Aluminum in Aircraft" (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ TheIndustry/ TransportationMarket/ Aircraft/ default.
htm). . Retrieved 2009-04-21.
[14] Wagner, PennyJo (Winter 1995). "Aircraft aluminum" (http:/ / nlites. com/ article_aircraft_aluminum. htm). . Retrieved 2009-04-21.
[15] Boatbuilding with aluminium, Stephen F. Pollard, 1993, International Marine, ISBN 0-07-050426-1

External links
• Aluminium alloys for die casting according to the Japanese Standards, China National Standards, U.S. Standards
and German Standards ([Link]
804_aluminum_alloys_for_die_casting.pdf)
• Aluminium alloys for chill casting and low pressure casting according to the Japanese, Chinese, American and
German industrial standard ([Link]
803_aluminum_alloys_for_chill_casting_and_low_pressure_casting.pdf)
• Aluminium alloys for extrusion according to the German Standards ([Link]
[Link]/org/med_645/805_aluminum_alloys_for_extrusion.pdf)
• The Aluminium Association's chemical composition standards for wrought aluminium ([Link]
org/Content/NavigationMenu/TheIndustry/IndustryStandards/[Link])
Aluminium battery 51

Aluminium battery
specific energy [1]
1300 (practical), 6000/8000 (theoretical) W·h/kg

energy density N/A

specific power 200 W/kg

Nominal cell voltage 1.2 V

Aluminium batteries or aluminum batteries are commonly known as aluminium-air batteries or Al-air batteries,
since they produce electricity from the reaction of oxygen in the air with aluminium. They have one of the highest
energy densities of all batteries, but they are not widely used because of previous problems with cost, shelf-life,
start-up time and byproduct removal, which have restricted their use to mainly military applications. An electric
vehicle with aluminium batteries could have potentially ten to fifteen times the range of lead-acid batteries with a far
smaller total weight[1] , at the cost of substantially increased system complexity.
Al-air are primary batteries, i.e. non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium anode is consumed by its reaction with
atmospheric oxygen at a cathode immersed in a water-based electrolyte to form hydrated aluminium oxide, the
battery will no longer produce electricity. However, it may be possible to mechanically recharge the battery with
new aluminium anodes made from recycling the hydrated aluminium oxide. Such recycling will be essential if
aluminium-air batteries are to be widely adopted.

Electrochemistry
The anode oxidation half-reaction is Al + 3OH− → Al(OH)3 + 3e− + −2.31 V.
The cathode reduction half-reaction is O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH− + +0.40 V.
The total reaction is 4Al + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Al(OH)3 + 2.71 V.
About 1.2 volts potential difference is created by these reactions, and is achievable in practice when potassium
hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Saltwater electrolyte achieves approximately 0.7 volts per cell.

Commercialization

Issues
Aluminium as a "fuel" for vehicles has been studied by Yang and Knickle [1] . They concluded the following:
The Al/air battery system can generate enough energy and power for driving ranges and acceleration similar to
gasoline powered cars...the cost of aluminum as an anode can be as low as US$ 1.1/kg as long as the reaction
product is recycled. The total fuel efficiency during the cycle process in Al/air electric vehicles (EVs) can be
15% (present stage) or 20% (projected), comparable to that of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEs)
(13%). The design battery energy density is 1300 Wh/kg (present) or 2000 Wh/kg (projected). The cost of
battery system chosen to evaluate is US$ 30/kW (present) or US$ 29/kW (projected). Al/air EVs life-cycle
analysis was conducted and compared to lead/acid and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) EVs. Only the Al/air EVs
can be projected to have a travel range comparable to ICEs. From this analysis, Al/air EVs are the most
promising candidates compared to ICEs in terms of travel range, purchase price, fuel cost, and life-cycle cost.
There are some technical problems still to solve though to make Al-air batteries suitable for powering electric
vehicles. Anodes made of pure aluminium are corroded by the electrolyte, so the aluminium is usually alloyed with
tin or other proprietary elements. The hydrated alumina that is created by the cell reaction forms a gel-like substance
at the anode and reduces the electricity output. This is an issue that is being addressed in the development work on
Aluminium battery 52

Al-air cells. For example, additives have been developed which form the alumina as a powder rather than a gel. Also
alloys have been found to form less of the gel than pure aluminium.
Modern air cathodes consist of a reactive layer of carbon with a nickel-grid current collector, a catalyst (e.g. cobalt),
and a porous hydrophobic PTFE film that prevents electrolyte leakage. The oxygen in the air passes through the
PTFE then reacts with the water to create hydroxide ions. These cathodes work well but they can be expensive.
Traditional Al-air batteries had a limited shelf life[2] because the aluminium reacted with the electrolyte and
produced hydrogen when the battery was not in use - although this is no longer the case with modern designs. The
problem can be avoided by storing the electrolyte in a tank outside the battery and transferring it to the battery when
it is required for use.
These batteries can be used as reserve batteries in telephone exchanges, as a backup power source. Al-air batteries
could be used to power laptop computers and cell phones and are being developed for such use.

Aluminum based batteries

Different types of aluminium batteries had been investigated:
• Aluminium-chlorine battery was patented by United States Air Force in the 1970s and designed mostly for
military applications. They use aluminium anodes and chlorine on graphite substrate cathodes. Required elevated
temperatures to be operational.
• Aluminium-iodine secondary cell has been investigated by some Chinese researchers.
• Aluminium-sulfur batteries worked on by American researchers with great claims, although it seems that they are
still far from mass production. It's unknown if they are rechargeable.
• Al-Fe-O, Al-Cu-O and Al-Fe-OH batteries were proposed by some researchers for military hybrid vehicles.
Corresponding practical energy densities claimed are 455, 440, and 380 Wh/kg[3]

See also
• Zinc-air battery

External links
• Simple homemade aluminum-air battery [4]
• Aluminum Air Fuel Cell Becoming Commercially Viable [5]

References
[1] Design and analysis of aluminium/air battery system for electric vehicles" Shaohua Yang, Harold Knickle Journal of Power Sources 112
(2002) 162–173. (http:/ / cat. inist. fr/ ?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=14442338)
[2] Aluminium/air batteries (http:/ / www. ectechnic. co. uk/ ALUMAIR. HTML)
[3] (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10595& page=23)
[4] http:/ / exo. net/ ~pauld/ activities/ AlAirBattery/ alairbattery. html
[5] http:/ / aluminum. org/ AM/ Template. cfm?Section=Home& template=/ CM/ HTMLDisplay. cfm& ContentID=15793
Semi-finished casting products 53

Semi-finished casting products

Semi-finished casting products are intermediate castings produced in a foundry that need further processing before
being a finished good. There are four types: ingots, billets, blooms, and slabs.[1]

Ingot
Ingots are large rough castings designed for storage and transportation.
The shape usually resembles a rectangle or square with generous
fillets. They are tapered, usually with the big-end-down.[2]

An aluminum ingot

Billet
A billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section,
with an area less than 36 sq in (230 cm2). Billets are created directly
via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via rolling an ingot.[1]
[2] [3]
Billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing. Final
products include bar stock and wire.[4] Steel billets
Centrifugal casting is also used to produce short circular tubes as
billets, usually to achieve a precise metallurgical structure. They are commonly used as cylinder sleeves where the
inner and outer diameters are ground and machined to length. Because their size is not modified significantly, they
are not always classified as semi-finished casting products.

Bloom
Blooms are similar to billets except the cross-sectional area is greater than 36 sq in (230 cm2).[1] Blooms are usually
further processed via rotary piercing, structural shape rolling and profile rolling. Common final products include
structural shapes, rails, rods, and seamless pipes.[4]

Slab
A slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in cross-section. It is created directly from continuous casting or
indirectly by rolling an ingot.[1] Slabs are usually further processed via flat rolling, skelping, and pipe rolling.
Common final products include sheet metal, plates, strip metal, pipes, and tubes.[4]
Semi-finished casting products 54

An oxygen gas torch cutting a slab Steel slabs

References
[1] Glossary (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5nzO7lLPF), ArcelorMittal, archived from the original (http:/ / www. arcelormittal. com/ index.
php?lang=en& page=34) on 03-04-2010, , retrieved 03-04-2010.
[2] Definition of standard mill terms (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5nzOUAsA3), archived from the original (http:/ / www. summitsteel. com/
term. htm) on 03-04-2010, , retrieved 03-04-2010.
[3] Titanium Metal Glossary (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5nzP6WseK), archived from the original (http:/ / www. westerntitanium. com/
glossary. html) on 03-04-2010, , retrieved 03-04-2010.
[4] Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, p. 383,
ISBN 0-471-65653-4.

Aluminium foil
Aluminium foil is aluminium prepared in
thin metal leafs, with a thickness less than
0.2 mm (0.008 in), although much thinner
gauges down to 0.006 mm are commonly
used.[1] In the USA, foils are commonly
gauged in mils. The foil is extremely
pliable, and can be bent or wrapped around
objects with ease. However, thin foils are
fragile and easily damaged, and are often
laminated to other materials such as plastics
or paper to make them more useful. It
replaced tin foil in the mid 20th century.

Annual production of aluminium foil was

approximately 800,000 tonnes in Europe[1]
and 600,000 tonnes (1.3 billion lb) in the Large roll of aluminium foil, with micrometer showing a thickness of 0.0005
USA in 2003.[2] Approximately 75% of inches (0.013 mm)
aluminium foil is used for packaging of
foods, cosmetics, and chemical products, and 25% used for industrial applications (e.g. thermal insulation, cables
and electronics).[2]

In North America, aluminium foil is known as aluminum foil, and sometimes alternatively as al-foil or alu-foil. It is
also often called Reynolds wrap after Reynolds Metals, the leading manufacturer in North America. In the United
Kingdom it is, informally, widely called tin foil, for historical reasons. Metallised films are sometimes mistaken for
aluminium foil, but are actually polymer films coated with a thin layer of aluminium.
Aluminium foil 55

History

Before aluminium foil

Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its
aluminium counterpart. In the late nineteenth century and early
twentieth century, tin foil was in common use, and some people
continue to refer to the new product by the old name. Tin foil is much
stiffer than aluminium foil. It tends to give a slight tin taste to the food
wrapped in it, which is one major reason it has largely been supplanted
by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.
The first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin
foil.
Household aluminium foil

The first aluminium foil

Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, "Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie.
and Emmishofen"[3] was opened in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J.G. Neher & Sons, the
aluminium manufacturers, started in 1886 in SchaffhausenSwitzerland, , at the foot of the Rhine Falls - capturing the
falls' energy to produce aluminium. Neher's sons together with Dr. Lauber discovered the endless rolling process and
the use of aluminium foil as a protective barrier in December 1907.
The first use of foil in the United States was in 1913 for wrapping Life Savers, candy bars, and gum.[4] Processes
evolved over time to include the use of print, color, lacquer, laminate and the embossing of the aluminium.

Manufacture
Aluminium foil is produced by rolling sheet ingots cast from molten aluminium, then re-rolling on sheet and foil
rolling mills to the desired thickness, or by continuously casting and cold rolling. To maintain a constant thickness in
aluminium foil production, beta radiation is passed through the foil to a sensor the other side. If the intensity
becomes too high, then the rollers adjust, increasing the thickness. If the intensities become too low and the foil has
become too thick, the rollers apply more pressure, causing the foil to be made thinner.
The continuous casting method is much less energy intensive and has become the preferred process.[5] For
thicknesses below 0.025 mm (0.001 in), two layers are usually put together for the final pass and afterwards
separated which produces foil with one bright side and one matte side.[6] The two sides in contact with each other are
matte and the exterior sides become bright, this is done to reduce tearing, increase production rates, control
thickness, and get around the need for a smaller diameter roller.[6]
Some lubrication is needed during the rolling stages; otherwise the foil surface can become marked with a
herringbone pattern. These lubricants are sprayed on the foil surface before passing through the mill rolls. Kerosene
based lubricants are commonly used, although oils approved for food contact must be used for foil intended for food
packaging.
Aluminium becomes work hardened during the cold rolling process and is annealed for most purposes. The rolls of
foil are heated until the degree of softness is reached, which may be up to 340 °C for 12 hours. During this heating,
the lubricating oils are burned off leaving a dry surface. Lubricant oils may not be completely burnt off for hard
temper rolls, which can make subsequent coating or printing more difficult.
Aluminium foil 56

Properties
Aluminium foils thicker than 0.025 mm (0.001 in) are impermeable to oxygen and water. Foils thinner than this
become slightly permeable due to minute pinholes caused by the production process.
Aluminium foil has a shiny side and a matte side. The shiny side is produced when the aluminium is rolled during
the final pass. It is nearly impossible to produce rollers with a gap fine enough to cope with the foil gauge, therefore,
for the final pass, two sheets are rolled at the same time, doubling the thickness of the gauge at entry to the rollers.
When the sheets are later separated, the inside surface is dull, and the outside surface is shiny. This difference in the
finish has led to the perception that favouring a side has an effect when cooking. While many believe that the
different properties keep heat out when wrapped with the matte finish facing out, and keep heat in with the matte
finish facing inwards, the actual difference is imperceptible without instrumentation.[7] The reflectivity of bright
aluminium foil is 88% while dull embossed foil is about 80%.[4]

Uses

Packaging
As aluminium foil acts as a complete barrier to light and oxygen (which cause fats to oxidise or become rancid),
odours and flavours, moisture, and bacteria, it is used extensively in food and pharmaceutical packaging. Aluminium
foil is used to make long life packs (aseptic packaging) for drinks and dairy products which enables storage without
refrigeration. Aluminium foil laminates are also used to package many other oxygen or moisture sensitive foods, and
tobacco, in the form of pouches, sachets and tubes, and as tamper evident closures. Aluminium foil containers and
trays are used to bake pies and to pack takeaway meals, ready snacks and long life pet foods.
Aluminium foil is widely sold into the consumer market, often in rolls of 500 mm width and several metres in
length.[8] It is used for wrapping food in order to preserve it, for example when storing leftover food in a refrigerator
(where it serves the additional purpose of preventing odour exchange), when taking sandwiches on a journey, or
when selling some kinds of take-away or fast food. Tex-Mex restaurants in the United States, for example, typically
provide take-away burritos wrapped in aluminium foil.

Insulation
Aluminium foil is also widely used for thermal insulation (barrier and reflectivity), heat exchangers (heat
conduction) and cable liners (barrier and electrical conductivity). Foils in special alloys are even used for structural
honeycomb components for aircraft. Aluminium foil's heat conductive qualities make it a common accessory in
hookah smoking: a sheet of perforated aluminium foil is frequently placed between the coal and the tobacco,
allowing the tobacco to be heated without coming into direct contact with the burning coal.
Aluminium foil 57

EMF shielding
The typical shielding effectiveness of aluminium foil for a 100 MHz Spectrum is 80 dB per standard mil. It will
block all broadcast radio waves when completely surrounding the receiver and absorb free standing waves when
grounded.

Cooking
Aluminium foil is also used for barbecuing more delicate foods such as mushrooms and vegetables; food is wrapped
in foil then placed on the grill, preventing loss of moisture that may result in a less appealing texture.
As is the case with all metallic items, aluminium foil reacts to being microwaved. This is due to the effect of electric
fields of the microwaves causing a build up of charge to form between the sharp points in the aluminium; if enough
charge accumulates it will discharge to a different place on the foil, creating a spark (i.e., arcing). Due to frequent
use in food services, this commonly leads to kitchen fires. The design of modern microwave ovens has been
corrected so microwave energy cannot be reflected back into the magnetron, and aluminium packages designed for
microwave heating are available.[9]

Art and decoration

Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and
crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium,
normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours
through anodization. Anodizing creates an oxide layer on the
aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts,
depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to
create an inexpensive gold foil that actually contains no gold, and
many other bright metallic colours. These foils are sometimes used in
distinctive packaging.
Aluminium foil decoration

Geochemical sampling
Foil is used by organic/petroleum geochemists for protecting rock samples taken from the field and in the lab, where
the sample is subject to biomarker analysis. While plastic or cloth bags are normally used for a geological sampling
exercise, cloth bags are permeable and may allow organic solvents or oils (such as oils imparted from the skin) to
taint the sample, and traces of the plastics from plastic bags may also taint the sample. Foil provides a seal to the
ingress of organic solvents and does not taint the sample. Foil is also used extensively in geochemical laboratories to
provide a barrier for the geochemist, and for sample storage.

Polishing steel
A simple and inexpensive way to remove rust from and polish steel surfaces by hand is to rub it with aluminium foil
dipped in water. The aluminium foil is softer than steel, and will not scratch the surface. As heat is generated by
rubbing friction, the aluminium will oxidize to produce aluminium oxide. Aluminium has a higher reduction
potential than iron, and will therefore leach oxygen atoms away from any rust on the steel surface. Aluminium oxide
is harder than steel, and the microscopic grains of aluminium oxide produced creates a fine metal polishing
compound that smoothes the steel surface to a bright shine.
Aluminium foil 58

Ribbon microphones
The material use in many ribbon microphones is aluminium leaf or "imitation silver leaf" as it is sometimes called.
This is pure aluminium and is around 0.6-2.0 micrometres thick. It is in fact virtually the same material that the BBC
used on Coles ribbons, with the exception that they also hand beat the leaf even more. They did this by sandwiching
the ribbon between toilet paper and beating with a ball peen hammer. This "cold forges" the leaf. Corrugations must
also be imparted into the ribbon, Coles used 25 per inch (1 mm cycle), RCA 44BX has 19 per inch (0.7 mm cycle)
and is around 2 inches (50 mm) long. RCA 77 has 13 corrugations per inch (0.5 mm cycle). RCA ribbon material is
around 1 - 1.5 micrometers (0.00005 inch). The new Nady ribbon plus AEA both clearly advertise the fact they use 2
micrometre aluminium ribbon in their mics.

Environmental issues
The extensive use of aluminium foil has been criticized by some environmentalists because of the high resource cost
of extracting aluminium, primarily as a result of the large amount of electricity used to process bauxite ore.
However, this cost is greatly reduced via recycling, reduced energy requirements during transport due to lighter
weight packages, and the fact that many foods that would otherwise perish can be protected over long periods
without refrigeration. Many aluminium foil products can be recycled at around 5% of the original energy cost,[10]
although many aluminium laminates are not recycled due to difficulties in separating the components and low yield
of aluminium metal.

See also
• Tin foil hat
• List of common misnomers

External links
• European Aluminium Foil Association [11]
• Aluminium Association (USA) [12]
• Photos of the Aluminium Foiled Apartment [13]
• Aluminium Foil [14] from How Products Are Made, vol. 1, Thomson Gale (2005).

References
[1] European Aluminium Foil Association (http:/ / www. alufoil. org/ eng/ alufoil_343. html)
[2] Aluminum Association (USA) (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ ContentGroups/ Tech_Q_and_A/
New_Aluminum_Foil_Manual_Covers_It_All. htm)
[3] http:/ / inventors. about. com/ library/ inventors/ blaluminum. htm
[4] Hanlon, J. (1992). 1st ed. Handbook of Package Engineering, Lancaster, PA and Technomic Publishing: ISBN 0-87762-924-2. Chapter 3
Films and Foils.
[5] Robertson, G. (2006). 2nd ed. Food Packaging, Principles and Practise, Boca Raton, FL, Taylor & Francis Group: ISBN 0-8493-3775-5.
Chapter 7 Metal Packaging Materials.
[6] Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003). Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.). Wiley. p. 386.
ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
[7] "Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. reynoldspkg. com/ reynoldskitchens/ en/ faq_detail. asp?info_page_id=743& prod_id=1789&
cat_id=1337). . Retrieved 2009-12-24.
[8] Examples of products (http:/ / www. reynoldspkg. com/ reynoldskitchens/ en/ product_category. asp?cat_id=1337)
[9] Huss G. (1997) Microwaveable Packaging and Dual-Ovenable Materials in The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, 2nd ed, eds
Brody A. Marsch K. New York, John Wiley and Sons
[10] Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate. "Action Plan, page 5, table 2: 4.2 vs. 0.19" (http:/ / asiapacificpartnership. org/
english/ tf_aluminium. aspx). .
[11] http:/ / www. alufoil. org
[12] http:/ / www. aluminum. org
Aluminium foil 59

[13] http:/ / imagireal. com/ gallery/ foiled

[14] http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-1/ Aluminum-Foil. html

Aluminum wire
Aluminum wire (also spelled aluminium wire) is a type of wiring used in houses and power grids.

History

Usage within utilities

Since the early 1900s, utility companies have been using aluminium wire for transmission of electricity within their
power grids. It has advantages over the older copper wire in that it is lighter, more flexible, and less expensive.
Aluminium wire in power grid applications was very successful and is still used today.
The latest market to embrace aluminium is building wire due to the rapidly rising price of copper. Electrical
contractors have switched from copper to aluminium alloy building wire using the new 8000 alloy as specified by
the National Electrical Code (NEC). Contractors are using larger sizes of aluminium building wire for low voltage
feeders where the savings over copper is significant due the higher weight. Aluminium building wire will have half
the weight of copper even though the aluminium conductor must have 50% greater area than copper to carry the
same current. The aluminium conductors used for building wire may be compacted in such a way that the overall
diameter of the aluminium wire is approximately the same as copper.

Increased copper prices

In the mid 1960s when the price of copper spiked, aluminium wire was manufactured in sizes small enough to be
used in homes. One thing that was known at the time was that aluminium wire requires a larger wire gauge than
copper to carry the same current. For example, a standard 15-amp branch circuit wired with No. 14 gauge copper
requires No. 12 gauge aluminium.
When first used in branch circuit wiring, aluminium wire was not installed any differently than copper. Typical
connections from electrical wire to electrical devices, also called terminals, are usually made by wrapping the wire
around screw terminals and tightening the screw. Over time, many of these terminations to aluminium wire began to
fail due to improper connection techniques and dissimilar metals. These connection failures generated heat under
electrical load and resulted in overheated connections.
In the late '60s, a device specification known as CU/AL was created that specified standards for devices intended for
use with aluminium wire. Because of more rigorous testing, larger screw terminals were designed to hold the wire
more suitably. Unfortunately, CU/AL switches and receptacles failed to work well enough with aluminium wire, and
a new specification called CO/ALR (meaning copper-aluminium, revised) was created. These devices employ screw
terminals that are designed to act as a similar metal to aluminium and to expand at a similar rate. CO/ALR applies
only to standard light switches and receptacles; CU/AL is the standard marking for circuit breakers and larger
equipment.
Aluminum wire 60

ACM wire
Aluminum conductors materials (ACMs) companies solved the problems faced with the AA-1350 series. They
proposed a new series of aluminum, now known as the 8000 series (major constituents being Iron and Silicon),
which addressed the specific needs of the building wire market.
The first 8000 series electric conductor alloy, that is still widely used, was developed and patented by “Aluminum
Company of America” (patent filed in ´69 and given in ´72). This alloy, along with the AA-8030 (patented by Olin in
the ’73) and AA-8176 (patented by Southwire in ’75 and ’80) alloys, perform mechanically in a similar way to
copper. Unlike the AA-1350 series, these 8000 series alloys retain their UTS after the standard current cycle test or
the CCST (Current Cycle Submersion Test, both tests are descibed in ANSI C119.4:2004); they have a great
elongation percent (depending on the grade of annealing, the AA-8176 may reach up to 30%, according to patent No.
RE28419); suffer a lower springback effect; and posses a higher Y.S. (19.8 KSI for a coldworked AA-8076 wire,
according to patent No. 3697260).
This alloys of wire, when used with proper CO/ALR devices and aluminum-rated twist-on connectors, can be just as
safe as copper wiring. It is, however, extremely rare in branch circuit wiring. Most likely, a home with aluminum
wiring that was installed prior to 1972 has the older 1350 series alloy. This alloy was specifically designed for power
transmission purposes. Due to the lack of the mechanical properties aforementioned, most 1350 alloys were not
suitable for use in branch circuitry.

Problems with aluminum wires

Aluminum wires have been implicated in house fires in which people have been killed.[1] [2] There were several
possible reasons why these connections failed. The two core reasons were improper installation and the difference
between the coefficient of expansion between aluminum wire and the terminations used in the 1960s.

Aluminium oxidation
Most metals (with a few exceptions, such as gold) oxidize freely when exposed to air. Aluminium oxide is not an
electrical conductor, but rather an electrical insulator. Consequently, the flow of electrons through the oxide layer
can be greatly impeded. However, since the oxide layer is only a few nanometers thick, the added resistance is not
noticeable under most conditions. When aluminium wire is terminated properly, the mechanical connection breaks
the thin, brittle layer of oxide to form an excellent electrical connection. Unless this connection is loosened, there is
no way for oxygen to penetrate the connection point to form further oxide.

Coefficient of expansion
Aluminium's coefficient of expansion varies significantly from the metals common in devices, outlets, switches, and
screws that were used before the mid-1970s. Many terminations of aluminium wire installed in the 1960s and 1970s
continue to operate with no problems. However, many connections were not made properly when installed. Since the
aluminium and steel both expand and contract at different rates under thermal load, these loose connections began to
grow progressively looser over time. Likewise, a connection made with too much torque causes damage to the wire.
Over time, this cycle results in the connection loosening slightly, overheating, and allowing intermetallic
steel/aluminium alloying to occur between the conductor and the screw terminal. This results in a high-resistance
junction, leading to additional overheating. Although many believe that oxidation was the issue, studies have shown
that oxidation was not significant in these cases.
Aluminum wire 61

Joining aluminium and copper wires

Another issue is the joining of aluminium wire to copper wire. As aluminium and copper are dissimilar metals,
galvanic corrosion can occur in the presence of an electrolyte and these connections can become unstable over time.
Special connectors have been designed for the purpose of joining aluminium to copper wire, such as the Marrette
No. 63 and No. 65 and the Ideal Twister No. 65. These twist-on wire connectors use a special antioxidant paste to
prevent corrosion of the connection. Lug type connectors similar to those used for larger gauge
aluminium-aluminium and aluminium-copper connections are now available for branch circuit size wiring. These
would appear to make a more reliable connection on the aluminium wire with its higher coefficient of expansion
than wire nut-type connectors. These may have the same problem with enclosure space as the COPALUM system
(described under "Upgrading aluminium-wired homes")or the AlumiConn connectors. A listed connector should
always be used for connecting aluminium to copper wire.
Although aluminium wire smaller than 8AWG is not used in new house wiring, lots of aluminium wires are used all
over North America. The larger sizes offer excellent options for terminations, since the most common termination in
larger sizes is a dual-rated lug made of an aluminium alloy. Properly terminated aluminium wiring should be
regarded as safe, since long-term installations have proven its reliability. Aluminium wire is often used in residential
applications for service entrance and large branch circuit loads such as ranges and air-conditioning units.

Hazard insurance
In some states, home hazard insurance will not cover homes with aluminum wiring, and some insurance companies
that claim to cover it charge a higher premium than for homes with copper wiring. Reputable and knowledgeable
insurers should recognize the difference between AA-8000 series aluminum building wire and that used prior to
1972.

Upgrading aluminum-wired homes

There are several "upgrades" that are commonly done to homes with pre-1974 aluminum branch circuit wiring:
• Ensuring that all devices are rated for use with aluminum wire. Many are not, since they do not meet the CO/ALR
specification.
• "Pigtailing", which involves splicing a short length of copper to the original aluminum wire for use with devices
not CO/ALR rated.
• COPALUM, a sophisticated crimping system that creates a cold weld between copper and aluminum wire, and is
regarded to be a permanent, maintenance-free repair. These connections are sometimes too large to be installed in
existing enclosures. Surface enclosures or larger enclosures may be installed to remedy this problem.
• Completely rewiring the house with copper instead.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission does not recommended the use of pigtailing, as laboratory testing has
shown that this method does not effectively mitigate the risk, and in some cases, may increase the risk of fire. The
only CPSC approved methods of upgrading aluminium wired homes are the COPALUM method, which must be
done using special tools and by electricians certified in its use, or by completely rewiring the home with copper.
Aluminum wire 62

References
• Friedman, Daniel & Jesse Aronstein. (1996). Reducing The Fire Hazard in Aluminum-Wired Homes [3]. The
Home Inspection & Construction Information Website]. Accessed on October 7, 2005.
• Hunter, Christel. (2006). Aluminum Building Wire Installation and Terminations. [4]. Accessed on August 10,
2006.
[1] (http:/ / www. heimer. com/ information/ aluminum_wiring. html)
[2] http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ electrical-wiring/ part2/ section-16. html
[3] http:/ / www. inspectapedia. com/ aluminum/ alreduce. htm
[4] http:/ / www. iaei. org/ subscriber/ magazine/ 06_a/ hunter. html

• Repairing Aluminium Wiring, Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1994, [Link]

PUBS/[Link]
 63

Metal quality

Hydrogen gas porosity

Hydrogen gas porosity is an aluminium casting defect under the form of a porosity or void in an aluminium casting
caused by a high level of hydrogen gas (H2) dissolved in the aluminium at liquid phase. Because the solubility of
hydrogen in solid aluminium is much smaller than in liquid aluminium, when the aluminium freezes, the dissolved
hydrogen gas creates porosity in solid aluminium.
Aluminum smelters and aluminum foundries want to produce high quality aluminum and shape castings with
minimum porosity. This can be obtained by reducing the amount of hydrogen in the liquid aluminium alloy.

The hydrogen problem

Hydrogen forms whenever molten aluminium comes into contact with water vapor, and easily dissolves into the
melt. The gas tends to come out of the solution and forms bubbles when the melt solidifies.
The detrimental effects arising from the presence of an excess of dissolved hydrogen in aluminium are numerous.
Hydrogen causes porosity in aluminum products leading to many casting defects, reduced mechanical properties like
fatigue and lower corrosion resistance. Several methods are used to reduce the amount of dissolved hydrogen from
the melt, such as furnace fluxing prior to the casting process or using in-line degasing equipment[1] during the
casting process.

Direct hydrogen measurement

An on-line method of measuring hydrogen in aluminum is then required to characterize and optimize the process,
which helps ensure the quality of outgoing products and monitors the performance of these degassing processes.
Traditional laboratory methods, such as hot extraction, are too expensive for routine quality assurance, and too slow
for effective process control. The Reduced Pressure Test (RPT) is often used on the foundry floor. The RPT is a
semi-quantitative method with limited accuracy that provides an indication of the hydrogen level.

Hydrogen analyzer
An hydrogen analyzer[2] can be used for direct measurement of hydrogen in liquid aluminium. Direct monitoring of
hydrogen is possible using an on-line quantitative measurement technology based on a closed-loop gas recirculation
method though a porous ceramic probe.
Since its introduction in 1989, this gas recirculation method has been used more and more by all major aluminum
producers [3] .

Operation principle
The closed loop recirculation is a proven method of directly monitoring hydrogen in molten aluminium. A small
volume of carrier gas, usually nitrogen, is brought in contact with the melt by means of an immersed probe, and is
continuously recirculated in the closed loop until its hydrogen content reaches equilibrium with the vapor pressure of
H2 in the melt. The H2 concentration in the gas is measured and converted into a reading of the gas concentration in
the metal. This method is fast, reproducible and accurate, and can be used “on-line” on the cast shop floor.
The amount of H2 in the gas loop of the instrument is determined by a thermal conductivity sensor, which provides
high reproducibility and a broad measurement range.
Hydrogen gas porosity 64

References
[1] Bernd Prillhofer, Holm Böttcher, DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A NEW IMPELLER
FOR METAL TREATMENT IN CASTING/HOLDING FURNACES, Light Metals 2009, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
[2] Peter D. Waite, IMPROVED METALLURGICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE ALCAN COMPACT DEGASSER, Light Metals 1998,
The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 1998, pp 791-796
[3] In Situ Hydrogen Measurements in Liquid Al-Si foundry Alloys, Florence Paray, McGill University

Aluminium alloy inclusions

An inclusion is a solid particle in liquid aluminium alloy. It is usually non-metallic and can be of different nature
depending on its source.

Problems related to inclusions

Inclusions can create problems in the casting when they are large and in too high concentration. Here are examples
of problems related to inclusions:
• Pinholes in light gauge foil
• Flange cracks in Beverage containers
• Surface streaks in bright automotive trim and lithographic material
• Breakage in wire drawing operation
• Increased tool wear and tear
• Increased porosity
• Loss of pressure tightness of engine blocks
• Poor machinability
• Cosmetic defect in apparent surfaces

Inclusion types

Oxide films
In contact with ambient air, liquid aluminium reacts with the oxygen
and form an oxide film layer (gama-Al2O3). This layer becomes
thicker with time. When aluminium is moved, this oxide film gets
mixed inside the melt.

Aluminium carbides
In primary aluminium production, aluminium carbides (Al4C3)
Spinel and magnesium oxide inclusions as seen
originates from the reduction of alumina where carbon anodes and under microscope from a PoDFA sample
cathodes are in contact with the mix. Later in the process, any carbon
tools in contact with the liquid aluminium can react and create carbides.
Aluminium alloy inclusions 65

Magnesium oxides
In aluminium alloys containing magnesium, magnesium oxides (MgO), cuboids (MgAl2O4-cuboid) and
metallurgical spinel (MgAl2O4-spinel) can form. They result from the reaction between magnesium and oxygen in
the melt. More of them will form with time and temperature.
Spinel can be highly detrimental because of its big size and high hardness.

Refractory materials
Particles of refractory material in contact with aluminium can detach and become inclusions. We can find graphite
inclusions (C), alumina inclusions (alpha-Al2O3), CaO, SiO2, …
After some time, graphite refractory in contact with aluminium will react to create aluminum carbides (harder and
more detrimental inclusions).
In aluminium alloy containing magnesium, the magnesium reacts with some refractories to create rather big and hard
inclusions similar to spinels.
Unreacted refractory particles coming from the degradation of refractory materials which comes in contact with the
melt.

Chlorides
Chloride inclusions (MgCl2, NaCl, CaCl2, …) are a special type of inclusion as they are liquid in liquid metal. When
aluminium solidifies, they form spherical voids similar to hydrogen gas porosity but the void contains a chloride
crystal formed when aluminium became colder.

Fluxing salt
Fluxing salt, like chlorides are also liquid inclusions. They come from flux treatments added to the melt for cleaning.

Intentionally added inclusions

Titanium boride (TiB2) is intentionally added to the melt for grain refinement to improve mechanical properties.
Phosphorus is added to the melt hypereutectic alloys for modification of the silicon phase for better mechanical
properties. This creates a AlP inclusions.
Boron treatment inclusions ( (Ti, V)B2 ) form when boron is added to the melt to increase conductivity by
precipitating vanadium and titanium.

Less frequently found inclusions

The following inclusion types can also be found in aluminium alloys: alumina needles (Al2O3), nitrides (AlN), iron
oxides (FeO), manganese oxides (MnO), fluorides (Na3AlF6, NaF, CaF2, …), aluminium borides (AlB2, AlB12),
borocarbides (Al4C4B).
Bone ash (Ca3(PO4)2) sometimes added to patch cracks in the through can be found as inclusions in the melt.

Inclusion measurement
Several methods exist to measure the inclusion content in liquid aluminium[1] . The most common methods are
PoDFA, Prefil, K-Mold and LiMCA. Measuring the inclusions is of great help to understand the impact of furnace
preparation, alloying practice, feedstock mix, settling time, and similar parameters on melt cleanliness.
Aluminium alloy inclusions 66

PoDFA
The PoDFA method provides information on the composition and concentration of the inclusions in molten
aluminum. PoDFA is widely used for process characterization and optimization, as well as product improvement. It
allows to quickly and accurately assess the effects of various operating practices on metal cleanliness or identify
filtration efficiency.
The PoDFA method was developed by Rio Tinto Alcan in the 70s. The metallographic analysis method has been
optimized for over the years on a wide variety of alloys.
The measurement principle is the following: A predetermined quantity of liquid aluminum is filtered under
controlled conditions using a very fine porosity filter. Inclusions in the melt are concentrated at the filter surface by a
factor of about 10,000. The filter, along with the residual metal, is then cut, mounted and polished before being
analyzed under an optical microscope by a trained PoDFA metallographer.

Prefil
The Prefil method[2] is similar to PoDFA but, in addition to the
metallographic analysis, Prefil provides also a immediate feedback on
metal cleanliness from the metal flowrate through the filter. Because
everything about the filtration is well controlled (pressure, metal
temperature, ...), the only parameter affecting the filtration speed is the
inclusion content. One can determine the cleanliness level from the
filtration curve (weight of metal filtered as a function of time).

K-Mold
K-Mold is a fracture test method. Liquid metal is cast into a mold
containing notches. Once solidified, the resulting bar is bent to expose
a fracture surface. The visual observation of inclusions on the fracture Pressure Filtration Melt Cleanliness Analyzer:
is used to determine a K-value for the melt and compared to a preset Prefil-Footprinter for inclusion measurement in
standard. This method is rather imprecise and therefore only suitable liquid aluminium

when metal contents large inclusions and inclusion clusters.[3]

LiMCA
The LiMCA method[4] measures the total concentration and size distribution of inclusions present in aluminum
alloys. Its measuring principle is based on an objective and user-independent method. The LiMCA CM system can
characterize the cleanliness of a melt at time intervals in the order of one minute. It can therefore monitor, in
real-time, the evolution of cleanliness along a cast as a function of process parameters and melt-handling practices.
The heart of the LiMCA measuring system consists of a closed glass tube (electrically insulating material) bearing a
small orifice at its bottom. The tube is positioned in liquid metal. By creating a vacuum inside the tube, the metal
with the suspended inclusions to be detected is forced through the small orifice. Two electrodes are necessary: one
inside the tube and the other outside. Both electrodes are immersed in the liquid metal. A constant electrical current
is applied between the electrodes. The current flows through the liquid metal by the small orifice in the tube. When
an inclusion enters the orifice, it displaces its volume of conducting fluid, temporarily rising electrical resistance.
The increase of resistance generates a voltage pulse. The magnitude of the voltage pulse is a function of the volume
of the particle. The duration of the pulse is related to the transit time of the inclusion. The voltage pulses are
amplified and their amplitude measured digitally. The size distribution and total concentration are displayed in
real-time on a computer screen.
Aluminium alloy inclusions 67

Inclusion removal
In order to get a good quality product, removing the inclusion becomes necessary. Liquid metal filtration through a
ceramic media is an efficient way to clean the metal. Different types of ceramic media are used in-line in foundries,
such as, ceramic foam filters, porous tube filters, bonded ceramic filters, and deep bed filters.

See also
• Non-metallic inclusions for inclusions in steel
• Hydrogen gas porosity

References
[1] Doutre, D., Gariepy, B., Martin, J.P. and Dube, G., "Aluminum Cleanliness Monitoring: Methods and Applications in Process Development
and Quality Control, Light Metals, pp 1 1 79-1196 (1985)
[2] NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS IN THE SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AEROSPACE
ALLOYS, Bernd Prillhofer, Helmut Antrekowitsch, Holm Böttcher, Phil Enright, Light Metals 2008
[3] O. Majidi, S.G. Shabestari, and M.R. Aboutalebi, "Study of fluxing temperature in molten aluminum refining process", Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, Volume 182, Issues 1-3, 2 February 2007, Pages 450-455
[4] Guthrie, R. and Doutre, D.A., "On-Line Measurements of Inclusions in Liquid Metals, " Refining and Alloying of Liquid, Aluminum and
Ferro Alloys, pp 145-164 (Aug 1985)
 68

Associations

The Aluminum Association

Type 501(c)(6) non-profit organization

Industry Aluminum production

Aluminum fabrication
Aluminum recycling

Headquarters Arlington, Virginia, U.S.

Key people J. Stephen Larkin, President

The Aluminum Association is a trade association for the aluminum production, fabrication and recycling industries,
and their suppliers.[1] The Association is a 501(c)(6) non-profit organization based in Arlington, Virginia, United
States.[2] [3] [4] (The Association was based in Washington, D.C. until c. 2005.[5] )
Pursuant to seven ANSI H35 standards, The Aluminum Association registers and publishes specifications describing
the composition, mechanical properties and nomenclature of aluminum alloys in the United States.[6] These alloys
are identified by the abbreviation "AA", for example AA 6061-T6.

References
[1] "MissionStatement" (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ AM/ Template. cfm?Section=Mission_and_Vision& Template=/ CM/ HTMLDisplay.
cfm& ContentID=27137), The Aluminum Association website (Arlington, VA, U.S.A.), 2008, , retrieved 2009-08-10, "The Aluminum
Association, based in Arlington, Virginia, works globally to aggressively promote aluminum as the most sustainable and recyclable
automotive, packaging and construction material in today’s market."
[2] Williams, Carol A. (2006-08-07), "Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax: The Aluminum Association, Inc., 2005" (http:/ /
dynamodata. fdncenter. org/ 990_pdf_archive/ 130/ 130428020/ 130428020_200512_990O. pdf) (PDF), Foundation Center 990 Finder
website, , retrieved 2009-08-10
[3] Bowden, Karen (2007-08-17), "Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax: The Aluminum Association, Inc., 2006" (http:/ /
dynamodata. fdncenter. org/ 990_pdf_archive/ 130/ 130428020/ 130428020_200612_990O. pdf) (PDF), Foundation Center 990 Finder
website, , retrieved 2009-08-10
[4] Larkin, J. Stephen (2008-08-13), "Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax: The Aluminum Association, Inc., 2007" (http:/ /
dynamodata. fdncenter. org/ 990_pdf_archive/ 130/ 130428020/ 130428020_200712_990O. pdf) (PDF), Foundation Center 990 Finder
website, , retrieved 2009-08-10
[5] Williams, Carol A. (2005-05-23), "Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax: The Aluminum Association, Inc., 2004" (http:/ /
dynamodata. fdncenter. org/ 990_pdf_archive/ 130/ 130428020/ 130428020_200412_990O. pdf) (PDF), Foundation Center 990 Finder
website, , retrieved 2009-08-10
[6] "Industry Standards" (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ TheIndustry/ IndustryStandards/ default. htm), The Aluminum
Association website (Arlington, VA, U.S.A.), 2008, , retrieved 2009-08-10, "The structure for this communication system is defined by seven
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) H35 Standards, some of which authorize The Aluminum Association to administer the
registration of chemical composition limits and mechanical properties, with accompanying assignment of alloy and temper designations."
Institute for the History of Aluminium 69

Institute for the History of Aluminium

The Institute for the History of Aluminium (French: Institut pour l’histoire de l’aluminium) is a French
non-profit organisation. Founded in 1986, its aims are to foster multidisciplinary study of the history of aluminium in
its technical, economic, industrial, commercial and cultural aspects and to protect the aluminium industry's heritage.
The IHA edits the Cahiers d'histoire de l'aluminium and an electronic newsletter. It provides support for students
who are interested in the history of aluminium through research grants. Access to its specialised library and archives
is open to researchers in the reading room of the IHA in Gennevilliers (Paris suburbs).

External links
• Official Website [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. histalu. org/ english/ iha-rubrique. php?rub=2
 70

Companies

Alcoa

Type [1]
Public (NYSE: AA )
Dow Jones Industrial Average
component

Industry Aluminum

Founded Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. (1888)

Founder(s) Charles Martin Hall

Headquarters New York, New York

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Area served Worldwide

Key people Alain J. P. Belda

(Chairman)
Klaus Kleinfeld
(CEO), (President) & (Director)

Revenue [2]
▲ US$26.9 Billion (FY 2008)

Operating [2]
▲ US$1.23 billion (FY 2008)
income

Net income [2]

▼ US$-74.0 million (FY 2008)

Total assets ▲ US$ 38.803 billion (2007)

Total equity ▲ US$ 16.016 billion (2007)

Employees 87,000 (2009)

Subsidiaries Reynolds Metals

Halco Mining
Kawneer
Howmet Castings

Website [3]
[Link]
[4] [5]
References:

Alcoa, Inc. (NYSE: AA [1]) (from ALuminum Company Of America) is the world's third largest producer of
aluminum, behind Rio Tinto Alcan and Rusal.[6] From its operational headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
Alcoa conducts operations in 44 countries. In May 2007 Alcoa made a $27 billion hostile takeover bid for Alcan, a
former subsidiary, aiming to unite the two companies and form the world's largest aluminum producer. The takeover
bid was withdrawn after Alcan announced a friendly takeover by Rio Tinto in July 2007.
Alcoa 71

Among Alcoa's other businesses are fastening systems, building products (Kawneer), Howmet Castings, and
electrical distribution systems for cars.[7] The sale of the packaging unit was announced on December 21, 2007[8]
and closed in the first quarter of 2008.

History
In 1886, Charles Martin Hall, a graduate of Ohio's Oberlin College, discovered the process of smelting aluminum,
almost simultaneously with Paul Héroult in France. He realized that by passing an electrical current through a bath of
cryolite and aluminum oxide, the then semi-rare metal aluminum remained as a byproduct. This discovery, now
called the Hall-Héroult process, is still the only process used to make aluminum worldwide.
Probably fewer than ten sites in the United States and Europe produced any aluminum at the time. In 1887, Hall
made an agreement to try his process at the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company plant in Lockport, New York
but it was not used and Hall left after one year. On Thanksgiving Day 1888, with the help of Alfred E. Hunt, he
started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company with an experimental smelting plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. In 1891, the company went into production in New Kensington, Pennsylvania. In 1895 a third site
opened at Niagara Falls. By about 1903, after a settlement with Hall's former employer, and while its patents were in
force, the company was the only legal supplier of aluminum in the US.[9] [10]
"The Aluminum Company of America"—became the firm's new name in 1907. The acronym "Alcoa" was coined in
1910, given as a name to two of the locales where major corporate facilities were located (although one of these has
since been changed), and in 1999 was adopted as the official corporate name.
In 1938, the Justice Department charged Alcoa with illegal monopolization, and demanded that the company be
dissolved. The case of United States v. Alcoa was settled 6 years later.
Alcoa established an 8% stake in China's state-run aluminum industry and has formed a strategic alliance with
Aluminium Corporation of China (Chalco), China's largest aluminum producer, at its Pingguo facility. Alcoa sold
this stake on September 12, 2007.[11]
Alcoa has also acquired two facilities in Russia, at Samara and Belaya Kalitva. Alcoa recently launched an offer to
purchase the remaining 18% of the Belaya Kalitva plant from minority shareholders, giving it complete ownership in
the facility.
In 2004, Alcoa's specialty chemicals division was sold to Rhône Group, who then changed the name to Almatis, Inc..
In 2005, Alcoa began construction in Iceland on Alcoa Fjarðaál, a state-of-the-art aluminum smelter and the
company's first greenfield smelter in more than 20 years, albeit under heavy criticism by local and international
NGOs related to a controversial dam project exclusively dedicated to supplying electricity to this smelter. Alcoa also
signed a memorandum of understanding with the government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago to build a
low-emissions aluminum smelter and related facilities there. However, there has been strong objection of this by the
residents of the area of the proposed smelter sparking protests and marches [Link], Alcoa is working with
the government of Ghana on the development of the aluminum industry in that country. Furthermore, Alcoa has
completed or is undergoing primary aluminum expansion projects in Brazil, Jamaica, and Pinjarra, Western
Australia.
In 2006, Alcoa relocated its top executives from its headquarters in Pittsburgh to New York City. Although the
company's principal office is located in New York City, the company's operational headquarters are still located at its
Corporate Center in Pittsburgh. Alcoa employs approximately 2,000 people at its Corporate Center in Pittsburgh and
60 at its principal office in New York.[12]
Alcoa was named one of the top three most sustainable corporations in the world at the World Economic Forum in
Davos, Switzerland.
On 8 May 2008, Klaus Kleinfeld was appointed new CEO of ALCOA substituting Alain Belda.
Alcoa 72

Environmental record
The Political Economy Research Institute ranks Alcoa 15th among corporations emitting airborne pollutants in the
United States. The ranking is based on the quantity (13 million pounds in 2005) and toxicity of the emissions.[13] In
April 2003, Alcoa Inc. agreed to spend an estimated $330 million to install a new coal-fired power plant with
state-of-the-art pollution controls to eliminate the vast majority of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions
from the power plant at Alcoa's aluminum production facility in Rockdale, Texas. The settlement was the ninth case
the Bush administration pursued to bring the coal-fired power plant industry into full compliance with the Clean Air
Act. Alcoa was unlawfully operating at the Rockdale facility since it overhauled the Rockdale power plant without
installing necessary pollution controls and without first obtaining proper permits required by "New Source Review"
program of the Clean Air Act.[14] In February 1999, Alcoa cleaned soils and sediment contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and lead at the York Oil federal Superfund site in Moira, New York in accordance
with the Environmental Protection Agency. The site, a former waste oil recycling storage facility, accepted waste oil
from a number of companies, including Alcoa. The facility was improperly managed and operated and, as a result,
soils on the York Oil Property and nearby wetlands sediments and groundwater were contaminated. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Superfund Unilateral Order on December 31, 1998
requiring Alcoa to excavate, treat and dispose of the contaminated wetlands sediments.[15]

Alcoa in Ghana
Alcoa's affiliate in Ghana, the Volta Aluminum Company, was completely closed between May 2003 and early
2006, due to problems with its electricity supply.[16] [17]

Alcoa in Iceland
By the middle of September, over 50% of the Alcoa Fjarðaál smelter construction in Iceland has been finished. The
total workforce on site is 1,750 people, of which 80% are of Polish origin. It was expected to be on line by 2007.
Alcoa and the government of Iceland have signed an agreement on instigating a thorough feasibility study for a new
250,000 tpy (Tons Per Year) smelter in Bakki by Húsavík in Northern Iceland. In order to power Alcoa's new
smelters in Iceland, tracts of wilderness are being flooded to provide hydroelectric energy. Alcoa does not own the
kárahnjúkar powerplant.

Alcoa in the United Kingdom

Kitts Green, Birmingham, England
Established shortly before World War II, the facility at Kitts Green, Birmingham has produced many aluminium
products. Throughout the 1960s, 70s and 80s the plant became focused on flat-rolled products for the aerospace
industry.[18] As of 2007 the plant employed approx 530 employees.
Swansea, South Wales
On November 21, 2006, Alcoa announced that it planned to close the Waunarlwydd works in Swansea, with the loss
of 298 jobs. Production ceased at the Swansea plant on January 27, 2007 and it has since been sold by Alcoa.[19]

Alcoa in Australia
Alcoa operates bauxite mines, alumina refineries and aluminum smelters through Alcoa World Alumina and
Chemicals, which is a joint venture between Alumina Limited and Alcoa. Alcoa operates two bauxite mines in
Western Australia - the Huntly and Willowdale mines. Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals owns and operates
three alumina refineries in Western Australia: Kwinana, Pinjarra and Wagerup. The Wagerup expasion plans have
been put on hold due to the Global Financial Crisis. Two aluminum smelters are also operated in the state of Victoria
Alcoa 73

at Portland and Point Henry. Alcoa Australia Rolled Products a 100% Alcoa Inc. venture, operates two rolling mills.
The Point Henry Rolling mill in Victoria and the Yennora rolling mill in N.S.W. have a combined rolling capacity of
approx. 200,000 tonnes. Alcoa uses 12,600 GW or 28% of Victoria's electricity annually.[20]
Alcoa's Western Australian Wagerup plant has a troubled history in the context of claims that pollution from the
plant has had an adverse impact on the health of members of the adjacent local community [21] [22] [23] .

Alcoa in the United States

Alcoa created a plant just outside of Maryville, TN in Blount County, Tennessee, which was the biggest provider of
aluminum in the South. The area needed housing for workers, so Alcoa built many houses. The area eventually
turned into a city and the wife of Alcoa hydro engineer James Rickey came up with the name Alcoa as an acronym
for Aluminum Company of America. The name Alcoa was, therefore, created specifically to name the town Alcoa,
Tennessee, which was founded in 1919. Over time, the name Alcoa was unofficially used to reference the company
as well. The Aluminum Company of America officially changed its name to Alcoa, Inc. in 1999.
Alcoa maintains several Research and Development Centers in the United States. The largest one, Alcoa Technical
Center, is located East of its Pittsburgh Headquarters at Alcoa Center, PA. The "Tech Center" is as large as some
college campuses, has its own Zip Code and maintains an extensive intellectual and physical resource for innovation.
Alcoa's extensive safety program continuously improves safety at the Tech Center. After Paul O'Neill became Alcoa
CEO in 1987, Alcoa became one of the safest companies in the world, despite the aluminum industry's inherent
risks.[24]
The Physical plant of the Tech Center is situated in a rural area and has managed to cultivate a large wooded area
which acts as a nature preserve, sheltering deer and other wildlife. It is not uncommon to see Deer and other wildlife
freely circulating through the environs of the Tech Center at all hours of the day.

Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals

Alcoa owns and operates the majority of its alumina refineries through its 60% share of Alcoa World Alumina and
Chemicals.

Alcoa primary aluminum smelters

Alcoa has interests in 25 primary aluminum smelters in 8 countries.

Alcoa smelters[25] [26]

Country Location Equity Plant Total Nameplate capacity (kt per Alcoa's Capacity (kt per
ownership year) year)

Australia Point Henry 100% 190 190

Australia Portland 55% 358 197

Brazil Poços de Caldas 100% 96 96

Brazil São Luís (Alumar) 60% 447 268

Canada Baie Comeau* 100% 385 385

Canada Bécancour 75% 413 310

Canada Deschambault 100% 260 260

Iceland Fjarðaál 100% 344 344

Italy Fusina 100% 44 44

Italy Portovesme 100% 150 150

Alcoa 74

Norway Lista 100% 150 150

Norway Mosjøen 100% 188 188

Spain Avilés 100% 93 93

Spain La Coruña 100% 87 87

Spain San Cibrao 100% 228 228

United Alcoa, TN** 100% 215 215

States

United Badin, NC** 100% 60 60

States

United Evansville, IN (Warrick)* 100% 309 309

States

United Ferndale, WA (Intalco)* 100% 279 279

States

United Frederick, MD 100% 195 195

States (Eastalco)**

United Massena (East Plant), 100% 125 125

States NY**

United Massena (West Plant), NY 100% 130 130

States

United Mount Holly, SC 50% 229 115

States

United Rockdale, TX** 100% 267 267

States

United Wenatchee, WA*** 100% 184 184

States

*One idle potline

**Temporarily curtailed
***Two idle potlines

See also
• Alumina
• List of alumina refineries
• Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
• Alcoa, Tennessee
• Alcoa Power Generating Inc.
• List of aluminum smelters
Alcoa 75

External links
• Official website [27]
• Alcoa Video and Audio on MarketWatch [28]
• Top Companies of the Decade [29] From Business Week magazine
• The Bad Neighbor: Alcoa's Dirty Dealings in Texas [30] From Dollars & Sense magazine.
• Russia dethrones US metals king [31]
• Something in the Air - The Clash Between a Giant Industry that makes an essential product and a small
community dogged by illness and struggling for survival [32]
• Protesters plan to lodge Supreme Court writ over Alcoa smelter [33]
• Alcoa expands despite toxins [34]

References
[1] http:/ / www. nyse. com/ about/ listed/ quickquote. html?ticker=aa
[2] Alcoa's annual income statement via Wikinvest
[3] http:/ / alcoa. com
[4] "It all starts with dirt" (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ global/ en/ about_alcoa/ dirt. asp). Alcoa, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-08-07.
[5] "Alcoa, Inc." (http:/ / finance. google. com/ finance?q=AA). Google Finance. . Retrieved 2008-08-07.
[6] "Gimme Smelter" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ business/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=9517201). The Economist. 2007-07-19. . Retrieved
2007-10-15.
[7] Alcoa "About Alcoa" (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ global/ en/ about_alcoa/ overview. asp/ About). Alcoa, Inc.. Alcoa. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
[8] Alcoa, Inc.. "Form 8-K" (http:/ / www. sec. gov/ Archives/ edgar/ data/ 4281/ 000119312507270909/ d8k. htm). United States Securities and
Exchange Commission. . Retrieved 2007-12-31.
[9] Hachez-Leroy, Florence (2006) (PDF). Aluminum industry: a Heritage for Europe (http:/ / www. ticcihcongress2006. net/ paper/ Paper 10/
Hachez Leroy. pdf). Proceedings, TICCIH Congress. . Retrieved 2007-11-03.
[10] Rosenbaum, David Ira (1998). Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold, or Lose It and the Impact on Economic Performance (http:/ /
www. greenwood. com/ catalog/ C5604. aspx). Praeger Publishers via Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56. ISBN 0275956040. . Retrieved
2007-11-03.
[11] Alcoa: News: News Releases: Alcoa Sells Its Stake in Chalco; Will Continue Its Commitment to Chinese Aluminum Industry (http:/ / www.
alcoa. com/ global/ en/ news/ news_detail. asp?pageID=20070912005913en& newsYear=2007)
[12] Alcoa's HQ relocation to NYC no big surprise (http:/ / www. post-gazette. com/ pg/ 06058/ 661831-28. stm)
[13] Political Economy Research Institute - Toxic 100 (http:/ / www. peri. umass. edu/ toxic100_index/ )
[14] U. S. Announces Clean Air Act Coal-fired Power Plant Settlement with Alcoa - Settlement Will Reduce Nitrogen Oxide and Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions from Facility by More than 90 P... (http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ opa/ admpress. nsf/ a883dc3da7094f97852572a00065d7d8/
b427413dc6cc9c2285256d0300674514!OpenDocument)
[15] Alcoa To Carry Out EPA's Order and Expand Cleanup at Superfund Site in Moira, New York To Contaminated Wetlands Sediments |
Newsroom | US EPA (http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ opa/ admpress. nsf/ b1ab9f485b098972852562e7004dc686/
0a8e77c5774a23a585257245005d39a1!OpenDocument)
[16] (http:/ / www. gcsinvestments. com/ downloads/ companyreports/ ALW REPORT 2006. pdf)
[17] Alcoa in Ghana: News: News From Ghana: Alcoa, Government of the Republic of Ghana Agree to Re-Start Valco Smelter (http:/ / www.
alcoa. com/ ghana/ en/ news/ releases/ ghana_valcosmelter. asp)
[18] http:/ / www. le. ac. uk/ business/ case_alcoa. html
[19] http:/ / www. propertyweek. com/ story. asp?sectioncode=39& storycode=3111470
[20] http:/ / www. futureenergy. org/ infopolluting. html
[21] "Something in the Air." (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 4corners/ content/ 2005/ s1471209). Australian Broadcasting Commission - ABC Four
Corners. 2005-03-10. . Retrieved 2009-12-24.
[22] "Alcoa pleads not guilty over Wagerup dust." (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2009/ 07/ 23/ 2634388. ). Australian Broadcasting
Commission - ABC News. 2009-07-23. . Retrieved 2009-12-24.
[23] "Alcoa says health complaints 'unfounded'." (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2009/ 06/ 12/ 2597075. htm). Australian Broadcasting
Commission - ABC News. 2009-12-06. . Retrieved 2009-12-24.
[24] Fast Company magazine (http:/ / www. fastcompany. com/ magazine/ 137/ made-to-stick-in-defense-of-feelings. html) Jul 1, 2009 - Note:
Dubious Source
[25] "Alcoa smelting capacity" (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ primary_eu/ en/ alcoa_primary_eu/ capacity. asp#). . Retrieved 2009-10-29.
[26] "Alcoa: Worldwide: Markets: Aluminum Ingot Products: Global Capacity" (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ ingot/ en/ capacity. asp). . Retrieved
2007-08-28.
[27] http:/ / www. alcoa. com
Alcoa 76

[28] http:/ / video. marketwatch. com/ alcoa. htm?cpg=1

[29] http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ magazine/ content/ 05_50/ b3963415. htm
[30] http:/ / www. dollarsandsense. org/ archives/ 2004/ 0704cervantes. html
[31] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 6033589. stm
[32] http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 4corners/ content/ 2005/ s1471209. htm
[33] http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ australia/ wa/ bunbury/ 200609/ s1741727. htm
[34] http:/ / www. news. com. au/ perthnow/ story/ 0,21598,20391434-2761,00. html
Rio Tinto Alcan 77

Rio Tinto Alcan

Type [1]
Subsidiary of Rio Tinto PLC (LSE: RIO )

Industry Aerospace, Mass Transportation, Building, Construction, Packaging, Aluminium, Alumina.

Founded 1902 as a subsidiary of Alcoa

Headquarters Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Key people Jacynthe Côté, President and CEO

Products Aluminas, aluminum sheet, extrusion billet, rod and remelt ingot, alloys, cable, packaging

Net income ▲ $1.786 billion USD (2006)

Employees 68,000 (including joint-ventures)

Website [2]

Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. became the world's largest Aluminium company when Rio Tinto PLC's Canadian subsidiary,
Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc., completed a friendly acquisition of Canadian company Alcan Inc. on November 15,
2007. On this date, Alcan Inc. was renamed Rio Tinto Alcan Inc..
Alcan Inc., at the time of the takeover, had been the world's third largest aluminium producer, behind its one time
parent Alcoa (from which it split in 1928) and Rusal. The 2007 deal that created Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. followed a
failed hostile takeover bid for Alcan by Alcoa.

History
Founded in 1902 as the Canadian unit of Alcoa, it was spun off in 1928.
Alcan has gone through several name changes:
• Northern Aluminum Company Limited - 1902
• Aluminum Company of Canada Limited - 1925
• registers the name Alcan - 1945
• added French name Aluminium du Canada, Limitée - 1965
• introduce the use of the name Alcan Aluminium Limited in English and Alcan Aluminium Limitée 1966; later
used as the official name of the parent company in 1987
• Alcan Inc. - 2001
• Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. - 2008 (current company name)
In 2008 Alcan Inc was amalgamated with Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc following Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc's
acquisition of a majority of the share capital in Alcan Inc. Following the acquisition which was carried out by way of
amalgamation Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc was renamed Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. [3] [4]
Rio Tinto Alcan 78

From 1935 to 1945, the use of Aluminum in Alcan's name was being
disputed by Alcoa, but a decision by the United States Circuit Court of
Appeals ended the legality of the company's name.
Historically, Alcan was one of Canada's most important and powerful
companies, and was listed as the sixth "largest" in 1975.[5]
In 1982 the company acquired the British Aluminium Company,
renaming the operation British Alcan. In 1999, Alcan made a failed
attempt to make a three-way merger between it and Algroup (Alusuisse
Lonza Group) of Switzerland and Pechiney of France. The proposed The logo of Alcan before the Rio Tinto takeover.
merger was blocked by the European Commission due to fears of
anti-competition. After the deal fell through, Alcan acquired Algroup in 2000. Then in 2003, Alcan acquired
Pechiney, completing the original three-way merger plan of 1999.

In July 2007, Hindalco Industries announced it is buying the stake of Alcan in the Utkal Alumina Project in Orissa,
India marking an exit of Alcan from the project.
On January 20, 2009 Rio Tinto Alcan announced plans to close the Beauharnois smelter and reduce output from the
Vaudreuil refinery; both facilities are in Quebec. It is part of a larger plan to reduce aluminum output by a further 6%
(following a cut of 5% in late 2008), while cutting 1,100 jobs worldwide. The company will also sell its half-interest
in the Chinese Alcan Ningxia joint venture.[6]

Product groups

Bauxite and alumina

Alcan owns, operates or has an interest in six bauxite mines and deposits, five smelter-grade alumina refineries and
six specialty aluminas plants. Its Bauxite & Alumina group refines bauxite ore into smelter-grade alumina for
Alcan’s Primary Metal group and external customers and specialty-grade alumina for third parties. It also owns an
extensive transportation network, including trucking, rail, marine shipping and port facilities worldwide.

Primary metal
Alcan Primary Metal group includes Alcan’s aluminum smelting facilities and power generation installations,
smelting technology and equipment sales, engineering services and aluminum trading operations, anode and cathode
production facilities and aluminum fluoride plants.
Alcan owns or has an interest in 22 smelters in 11 countries and regions.

Alcan smelters[7]
Location Annual Capacity (kt) Ownership (%)

Tomago, NSW, Australia 520 51.5

Edea, Cameroon (Alucam) 100 46.7

Alma, Quebec 415 100

Arvida, Quebec 166 100

Beauharnois, Quebec 52 100

Becancour, Quebec 404 25

Grande-Baie, Quebec 207 100

Kitimat, British Columbia 277 100

Rio Tinto Alcan 79

Laterriere, Quebec 228 100

Sept-Îles, Quebec (Alouette) 572 40

Shawinigan, Quebec 99 100

Qingtongxia, China 152 50

Dunkerque, France 259 100

Lannemezan, France 50 100

Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, France 135 100

Hafnarfjörður, Iceland (ISAL) 179 100

Vlissingen, Netherlands 213 85

Husnes, Norway (SORAL) 164 50

Sohar (Muscat), Oman N/A 20

Lochaber, Scotland, UK 43 100

Lynemouth, UK 178 100

Sebree, Kentucky, USA 196 100

Tiwai Point, NZ 330 79.36

Alcan is based in Montreal, Quebec and had revenues of US$23.6 billion and 68,000 employees in 61 countries in
2007.

Corporate governance
As of March 6, 2007, members of the board of directors of Alcan were: Roland Berger, L. Denis Desautels, Dick
Evans, Yves Fortier, Jean-Paul Jacamon, William R. Loomis Jr., Yves Mansion, Christine Morin-Postel, H. Onno
Ruding, Guy Saint-Pierre, Gerhard Schulmeyer, Paul M. Tellier, and Milton K. Wong.
It should be noted this was the last board of directors of Alcan prior to its renaming and becoming a wholly-owned
subsidiary of Rio Tinto PLC. Rio Tinto added several Alcan directors to its corporate board in London, including
Dick Evans, who is also Chief Executive of Rio Tinto Alcan now.

Takeover
Alcoa Inc. announced a hostile take over bid for its progeny on May 7, 2007, in a deal worth $27 billion USD. The
combined companies would have formed the largest aluminum producer in the world. On May 22, 2007, Alcan's
board of directors unanimously recommended that shareholders reject Alcoa’s unsolicited offer to acquire Alcan. The
board determined that the offer was inadequate in multiple respects and was contrary to the best interests of Alcan’s
shareholders. On July 12, 2007, Alcan announced a friendly takeover deal with Anglo-Australian mining giant Rio
Tinto, worth $38.1 billion USD. Alcan's board of directors unanimously recommended the deal to shareholders.
Alcoa withdrew its bid later in the day. On October 25, 2007, the merger was completed and Rio Tinto Alcan (the
amalgamation of Alcan and Rio Tinto Aluminum) became the world's largest aluminum company. Rio Tinto Alcan
is based in Montreal and retains Alcan's CEO, Dick Evans. However, while Rio Tinto won overwhelming
shareholder support on October 25, 2007, the acquisition was not formally consummated until November 15, 2007,
the date on which the corporate name changes and integration were finally completed.[8] [9]
Rio Tinto Alcan 80

See also
• British Alcan
• List of alumina refineries
• List of aluminium smelters
• Aluminium smelting
• Kemano, British Columbia, Canada
• Nechako Reservoir

External links
• Rio Tinto Alcan website [2]
• Alcan website [10]
• Rio Tinto website [11]
• Alcan is named Americas Most Admired Metals Company by Fortune [12]
• L’impact de la perte de contrôle d’une entreprise florissante la prise de contrôle d’Alcan par Rio Tinto [13]
• continuity agreement between Alcan and Gouvernement of Québec 2006 [14]

References
[1] http:/ / www. londonstockexchange. com/ en-gb/ pricesnews/ prices/ system/ detailedprices.
htm?sym=GB0007188757GBGBXSET10718875RIO
[2] http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ riotintoalcan/
[3] (https:/ / www. ic. gc. ca/ app/ scr/ cc/ CorporationsCanada/ fdrlCrpDtls. html?corpId=3101452) Corporations Canada.
[4] (http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ media/ 5157_6844. asp) Acquisition of Alcan, Inc.
[5] The Top 200 - Canada's Largest Companies c1973-74 - Business (http:/ / www. lib. uwo. ca/ business/ 200TopCompanies. html)
[6] Staff writer. "Rio Tinto Alcan permanently shutting Quebec smelter, reducing refinery output". (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ cp/ business/ 090120/
b0120198A. html) Canadian Press. January 20, 2009.
[7] "Alcan Primary Metal" (http:/ / www. alcan. com/ web/ publishing. nsf/ AttachmentsByTitle/ Business+ Groups/ $FILE/ Primary_Metal.
pdf). . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[8] (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ money/ story/ 2007/ 07/ 12/ alcan-rio-tinto. html)
[9] (http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ riotintoalcan/ ENG/ media/ 35_media_releases_1072. asp)
[10] http:/ / www. alcan. com/
[11] http:/ / www. riotinto. com/
[12] http:/ / money. cnn. com/ magazines/ fortune/ mostadmired/ 2007/ snapshots/ 6489. html
[13] http:/ / www. rlt. ulaval. ca/ mutationsdutravail/ upload/ fichier37. pdf
[14] http:/ / www. mdeie. gouv. qc. ca/ fileadmin/ sites/ internet/ documents/ publications/ pdf/ communique/ convention_alcan_120707. pdf
United Company RUSAL 81

United Company RUSAL

Type Public

Industry Mining
Metallurgy

Founded 27 March 2007

Headquarters Moscow
Key people Viktor Vekselberg,
Chairman
Oleg Deripaska, CEO

Products Aluminium
Aluminium alloys
Bauxite
Alumina

Revenue US$$14.3 billion (2007)

Employees over 75,000

Website http:/ / www. rusal. com

United Company RUSAL (SEHK: 486 [1]) (Russian: ОК РУСАЛ, /OK RUSAL/) is the world's largest aluminium
company. UC RUSAL accounts for almost 11% of the world's primary aluminium output and 13% of the world’s
alumina production. The United Company was formed by the merger of RUSAL (Russian: Русский алюминий),
SUAL, and the alumina assets of Glencore, completed in March 2007. The company operates in 19 countries over
five continents and employs over 75,000 people across its international operations and offices.[2] United Company
RUSAL incorporated at Jersey, Crown dependency. The company has its Financial Center operating from Jersey.

History
RUSAL is the global leader in the aluminium industry and accounts for approximately 12% of global aluminium
production and 13% of the world’s alumina output. It has played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Russian
aluminium industry during its establishment as a large, vertically integrated aluminium holding.
The Russian aluminium industry dates back to 1932, the year when the Volkhov aluminium smelter produced the
first batch of aluminium. Following that, construction of smelters began to meet the growing demand of the national
economy. During WW2, the production facilities in the country were evacuated to the Urals and Western Siberia,
and the relocated equipment was used to build the Bogoslovsk and Novokuznetsk aluminium smelters. In the 1950s,
new aluminium smelters were built for strategic purposes in Kandalaksha, Nadvoitsy and Volgograd. In the 1960s
and 1970s, smelters in Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and Bratsk were constructed in close proximity to the largest hydro
power plants in Siberia. By the early 1980s, Russia was the world’s second largest producer of aluminium after the
US.
Russia has been historically short of bauxite, which is used to produce alumina, the main raw material in the
aluminium production process. Due to the weak development of raw materials production in Russia, and amid
growing aluminium output, the domestic producers were forced to purchase alumina from other countries like
Guinea and India. In the early 1990s, as Russia was going through market reforms, its aluminium industry was hit
United Company RUSAL 82

hard by the economic downturn and the political uncertainty that the country experienced in the years following the
collapse of the USSR. The ‘shock therapy’ economic measures mostly hit the defence and engineering industries, the
key consumers in the Russian aluminium sector. Alumina refineries in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan became
foreign operations located in the independent countries, while Russian production facilities were only able to meet
40% of business demand for raw aluminium materials. Following the collapse of the USSR, the lack of raw material
sources, the closed nature of the Soviet economy and poor ties with global alumina producers jeopardised the
aluminium industry in the country. By 1994, aluminium consumption in Russia fell to around 2 kg per capita,
compared with 17 kg per capita in 1990. The only way the industry could survive was to re-orient itself towards
external markets; and so in 1992 export of aluminium exceeded 1 mln tonnes for the first time.
In 1993, the Russian government launched the privatisation of the aluminium industry. International traders who
obtained access to Russia’s largest aluminium smelters during the privatisation were not interested in developing the
sector and did not invest in production, opting for immediate profits instead. Russian businessman Oleg Deripaska
started his business as a commodities agent and broker at the Moscow Trade Stock Exchange (Moskovskaya
Tovarnaya Birzha (MTB)) and then at the Russian Commodities and Raw Materials Exchange (Rossiyskaya
Tovarno-Syryevaya Birzha (RTSB)), dealing in a wide range of commodities, including aluminium. His work
included trading with major Russian aluminium smelters. Between 1991 and 1994, companies set up by Mr.
Deripaska started investing trading profits in the shares of Sayanogorsk Aluminum Smelter (SAZ), one of the newest
and most modern aluminium plants built in Soviet times (1980–1985). In 1994, Mr. Deripaska was elected the
General Director of SAZ.
Since then, gradual strategic acquisitions and growth projects have led to the creation of the world’s largest
aluminium and alumina producer, based on production in 2008. RUSAL has historically adopted the policy of fully
integrating assets it acquires and controls under centralised operational and management control. The company has
achieved increased production and efficiency in most of its acquired facilities through so-called production “creep”
(improvements achieved through targeted improvements to key processes), as well as by undertaking key
modernisation and expansion projects.
In 1997, as part of a general restructuring of the companies controlled by Mr. Deripaska, Sibirsky Aluminium was
established to manage aluminium and alumina assets acquired by companies related to Mr. Deripaska. By 2000,
Sibirsky Aluminium managed, among other aluminium-related assets, majority interests in the Sayanogorsk
aluminium smelter, the Sayanal foil mill, a fabricating plant in Samara, Russia, and a minority interest in the
Nikolaev alumina refinery in Ukraine.
In 2000, Sibirsky Aluminium and Millhouse Capital agreed to manage jointly the aluminium and alumina assets they
controlled and founded RUSAL. By 2002, Sibirsky Aluminium and Millhouse Capital were managing controlling
stakes in the Armenal foil mill in Armenia and the Belaya Kalitva metallurgical plant and Novokuznetsk aluminium
smelter in Russia, and also took under management the Friguia bauxite and alumina complex and Bauxite of Kindia
Company in Guinea to secure bauxite and alumina supply for its Russian smelters.
In 2003, companies related to Mr. Deripaska increased their stake in those companies under common management to
75% by acquiring half of the interest managed by Millhouse Capital. In Ukraine, RUSAL increased its share in the
Nikolaev alumina refinery to 98%.
In 2004, the consolidation of RUSAL’s ownership by companies related to Mr. Deripaska was completed with the
acquisition of the remaining 25% equity interest in RUSAL managed by Millhouse Capital. At this time, RUSAL
made the strategic decision to focus on the upstream business and began disposing of its downstream assets,
including the sale of its fabricating division to Alcoa Inc. in January 2005. This divestiture process was largely
completed in 2006 with the distribution of certain aluminium construction plants and other non-core assets to
companies controlled by RUSAL’s beneficial owner.
Having completed integration in Russia, RUSAL still required additional sources of raw materials, and so it began an
active international expansion. Within four years after its creation, RUSAL had established its presence on all five
United Company RUSAL 83

continents and included Guinea, Australia, Guyana, China and Nigeria in its geographical portfolio. From 2004 to
2006, RUSAL acquired several strategically important assets. In 2004, RUSAL acquired a 90% interest in the
Boxitogorsk alumina refinery in Russia and increased its holding in the Nikolaev alumina refinery to 100%. In 2005,
RUSAL bought a 50% stake in the Komi alumina project from SUAL and became its partner in the project, which
involved the construction of an integrated bauxite and alumina complex in Russia’s Komi Republic. In the same
year, RUSAL completed the acquisition of a 20% equity interest in one of the world’s largest alumina refineries in
terms of production capacity, Queensland Alumina Limited, located in Queensland, Australia. RUSAL’s joint
venture partner in Queensland Alumina Limited is Rio Tinto. In 2005, RUSAL purchased assets of a cathode plant in
Lingshi County of Shanxi Province, China. In April 2008, the company acquired assets of another cathode plant in
Taigu County of Shanxi Province, China, which have been integrated into the existing cathode plant in Lingshi.
In 2006, RUSAL acquired assets of the Aroaima Mining Company in Guyana, acquired the remaining equity interest
in the Friguia bauxite and alumina complex in Guinea, completed an extensive retrofit of the Armenal foil mill and
commissioned the Khakas aluminium smelter in Russia — one of the most advanced aluminium production facilities
in the world. RUSAL also acquired a 56.16% equity interest in the Italian alumina refinery, Eurallumina. In May
2006, RUSAL and RusHydro signed a co-operation agreement for the construction of the Boguchanskaya
hydropower station (HPP) and the Boguchansky aluminium smelter. RUSAL increased ownership in the Bratsk,
Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk and Novokuznetsk aluminium smelters, the Achinsk and Boksitogorsk alumina refineries
and the Russian National Aluminium and Magnesium Institute (VAMI) to 100% in November 2006, and in Sayanal
in June 2007.
Long-term competitiveness is impossible without a solid in-house research and design platform. The VAMI and
SibVAMI aluminium and magnesium research institutes became the backbone for engineering and technology
centres involved in the development of new unique production technologies including RA-300 and RA-400
reduction cells for RUSAL. The new technologies allowed for large-scale greenfield and brownfield projects. In
2005, RUSAL created its own engineering and construction subsidiary responsible for modernisation and
construction projects.
In December 2006, RUSAL acquired through a privatisation process a 77.5% equity interest in the Aluminium
Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON). The Group acquired a further 7.5% equity interest in ALSCON from
MAN Ferrostaal AG in January 2008.
In late March 2007, the merger between RUSAL, SUAL and alumina assets of Glencore created UC RUSAL
including 16 aluminium smelters, 12 alumina refineries, eight bauxite mines, three powder metallurgy plants, three
silicon smelters, three secondary aluminium plants, three aluminium foil mills, two cryolite plants, and one cathode
plant. This transaction completed the 15-year process of consolidating the Russian aluminium industry, and created
the world’s largest aluminium producer (based on production in 2008) with operations in 19 countries across five
continents and more than 75,000 employees.
In 2008, RUSAL produced 4.4 million tonnes of aluminium and 11.2 million tonnes of alumina. In November 2007,
RUSAL signed a cooperation agreement with Samruk-Energo, a subsidiary of Samruk-Kazyna, on the creation of a
50/50 joint venture in respect of the operation of the LLP Bogatyr Komir, the largest coal mining company in
Kazakhstan, with an annual production of approximately 40 million tonnes of coal, that ensured stable fuel supply to
Urals thermal power stations that provide electricity for RUSAL’s Urals plants.
In April 2008, the Group completed the acquisition from Onexim of a 25% plus one share equity interest in Norilsk
Nickel, the world’s largest nickel and palladium producer. The acquisition allowed the Group to diversify its asset
base. The consideration for the shares in Norilsk Nickel was partially paid in cash and partially in shares. This
strategic transaction paved the way to develop RUSAL into a global, diversified metals, mining and energy group. [3]
As of December 2009, En+ Group owns a 53.35% stake in the United Company, SUAL’s shareholders hold 17.78%,
19.46% is owned by ONEXIM, and the remaining 9.70% is owned by Amokenga Holdings, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Glencore [4] .
United Company RUSAL 84

In January 2010, RUSAL was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange with its IPO price of HK$10.8[5] per share
and capital raising of US$2.6 billion. The IPO attracted a list of big name investors including Nathaniel Rothschild,
Robert Kuok, Paulson & Co, John Paulson and Vneshekonombank.[6] [7]

Operations

Russia
Rusal owns and operates six aluminium smelters, two alumina refineries and two foil rolling mills in Russia:
• Bratsk Aluminium Smelter, Bratsk
• Irkutsk Aluminium Smelter, Shelekhov
• Krasnoyarsk Aluminium Smelter, Krasnoyarsk
• Novokuznetsk Aluminium Smelter, Novokuznetsk
• Sayanogorsk Aluminium Smelter, Sayanogorsk
• Khakas Aluminium Smelter, Sayanogorsk
• Bogoslovsk Aluminium Smelter
• Achinsk Alumina Refinery
• Boksitogorsk Alumina Refinery
• SAYANAL foil rolling mill
• Urals Foil

Ukraine
• Nikolaev Alumina Refinery
• Zaporozhye Aluminium Complex

Armenia
• RUSAL ARMENAL aluminum foil mill, Yerevan. Formerly known as the Kanaker aluminium smelter.

Guinea
• Alumina Company of Guinea (ACG) - Friguia alumina production facilities
• Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia - development of the Debele bauxite deposit
• Compagnie de Bauxite et d'Alumine de Dian - in Dian Dian

Nigeria
• Aluminium Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON) - Smelter in Akwa Ibom state of Nigeria

Guyana
• Bauxite Company of Guyana

Australia
• Queensland Alumina Refinery - minority ownership

Italy
• Eurallumina Alumina Refinery

Sweden
United Company RUSAL 85

• KUBAL - Kubal is one of the largest industrial facilities in Central Sweden and the only primary aluminium
producer in the country.

See also
• Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
• Aluminium in Russia
• Aluminium in Africa
• Aluminium in Guinea
• List of alumina refineries

External links
• Official website [8]
• MBendi:Mining:Bauxite:Asia:Russia [9]

References
[1] http:/ / www. hkex. com. hk/ eng/ invest/ company/ quote_page_e. asp?WidCoID=486& WidCoAbbName=& Month=& langcode=e
[2] http:/ / www. rusal. com
[3] http:/ / www. rusal. ru/ en/ history. aspx
[4] http:/ / www. rusal. ru/ en/ facts. aspx
[5] Shares of Russian aluminum giant UC Rusal slide in Hong Kong trading debut (http:/ / www. canadianbusiness. com/ markets/ market_news/
article. jsp?content=D9DFSS500)
[6] RUSAL announces $2.6 bln IPO plan, reveals poor H1 (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ idUSTOE5BU00A20091231)
[7] Rusal IPO Draws Initial Investors (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB10001424052748703510304574625452262729652.
html?mod=WSJ_hpp_MIDDLTopStories)
[8] http:/ / www. rusal. com
[9] http:/ / www. mbendi. co. za/ indy/ ming/ baux/ as/ ru/ p0005. htm
List of alumina refineries 86

List of alumina refineries

This is a list of alumina refineries in the world. The list is incomplete and missing some data.

Smelter-grade alumina refineries

Country Location Coordinates Total Annual Ownership
Capacity (kt)

Australia Gove, Northern Territory 12°11′17″S 3,100 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
136°41′11″E

Australia Gladstone, Queensland 23°52′1″S 3,954 [1]

100% Queensland Alumina Limited
151°17′25″E

Australia Yarwun, Queensland 23°49′36″S 1,400 [2]

100% Rio Tinto Alcan
151°9′13″E

Australia Kwinana 32°11′40″S 2,150 [3]

100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
115°46′38″E

Australia Pinjarra, Western Australia 32°38′40″S 4,200 [3]

100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
115°56′58″E

Australia Wagerup, Western Australia 32°55′2″S 2,400 [3]

100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
115°54′50″E

Australia Worsley, Western Australia 33°13′57″S 3,528 86% BHP Billiton, 10% Japan Alumina Associates,
116°4′6″E [4]
4% Sojitz Alumina

Azerbaijan Gyandzha Alumina peak of 410 in 1988, [5]

Azeralyuminii (Levine, 1996)
closed as of 1997 due to
energy issues

Bahrain Kingdom of Bahrain, Persian 850 Aluminium Bahrain (Alba) - 77% Government of
Gulf, Bahrain, 20% SABIC and 3% Breton Investments

Bosnia Birac 600 [5]

Energoinvest Alumina, (United Nations 2000),
Herzegovina

Bosnia Mostar Alumina 43°16′30″N [5]

Energoinvest Alumina
Herzegovina 17°49′14″E

Brazil Alumar, Sao Luis, Maranhao 2°42′32″S 1,490 19% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals, 35%
44°20′49″W [3]
Alcoa, 36% BHP Billiton, 10% Rio Tinto Alcan

Brazil Pocos De Caldas, Alcominas 390 [5]

100% Alcoa

Brazil Belem, Alunorte, Barcarena, 1°32′43″S 4,126, undergoing an 57.0% Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, 34% Norsk
Pará 48°44′4″W expansion to 6,400 Hydro, 3.6% CBA, 1.2% Japan Alunorte Investment,
0.1% Mitsubishi Corp., 0.2% Mitsui & Co, 3.8%
[6]
NAAC (Hydro Aluminium 2004)

Brazil Alumina 940 [5]

100% Cia Brasileira de Aluminio

Brazil Ouro Preto 150 66.67% Hindustan Aluminium, 33.33% Novelis

Canada Vaudreuil, Quebec 1,400 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

China Guizhou Alumina 1,100 [5]

100% Chinalco , (United Nations 2000)

China Pingguo Alumina 955 [5]

100% Chinalco , (United Nations 2000)

China Shandong Alumina 1,650 [5]

100% Chinalco , (United Nations 2000)
List of alumina refineries 87

China Shanxi Alumina 2,250 [5]

100% Chinalco , (United Nations 2000)

China Dingtai Tuoyuan 150

China East Hope (Sanmenxia) 650

China Guixi Huayin 200

China Jiaokou 50

China Kaiman 1100

China Lubei 320

China Luneng Jinbei 975

China Nanchuan 0

China Nanshan 400

China Pingdingshan 375

China Shanxi Tongde 0

China Luneng Jinbei 975

China Wanji Xiangjiang 400

China Weiqiao 2500

China Wusheng (Pinglu) 200

China Xinfa Huayu (Chiping Xinfa) 2300

China Yangquan 400

China Yimei 150

China Yunnan 0

China Zhengzhou 2490

China Zhongmei 83

China Zhongzhou 2000

China Zunyi 0

France Gardanne 650 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

Germany Martinswerk Alumina 0 [5]

100% Albemarle Corporation

Germany Stade Alumina 650 Dadco Alumina and Chemicals Ltd, VAW aluminium
[5]
AG , (United Nations 2000)

Greece Distomon Alumina 830 [5]

100% Rio Tinto Alcan through Pechiney , (United
Nations 2000)

Guinea Friguia 755 [1]

100% Alumina Company of Guinea

Guinea Sangaredi - currently in 11°5′26″N 0 33% Global Alumina, 33% BHP Billiton, 25% Dubai
Feasibility Study 13°59′38″W Aluminium Company Limited, 8.3% Mubadala
[7]
Development Company PJSC

Hungary Ajka 300 [5]

100% Hungalu , (United Nations 2000)

Hungary Aloxid Alumina [5]

100% Hungalu,

Hungary MOTIM-Magyarovar Alumina 75 [5]

United Company of Rusal , (United Nations 2000)

India Belgaum, Karnataka 390 [5]

Indal, Hindalco , (United Nations 2000)
List of alumina refineries 88

India Damanjodi, Orissa 18°46′26″N 1,600 [5]

Nalco , (United Nations 2000)
82°53′37″E

India Gujarat Alumina Project [5]

India Korba Alumina, Chhattisgarh 22°23′39″N 205 [5]

BALCO, Sterlite Industries , (United Nations
82°43′53″E 2000)

India Vedanta Alumina, Lanjigarh, 19°42′24″N 1000 (to be 1400 in Vedanta Resources
Orissa 83°22′00″E 2011)

India Mettur Alumina, Tamil Nadu 100 [5]

Malco, Sterlite Industries , (United Nations 2000)

India Muri Alumina 120 [5]

Indal, Hindalco , (United Nations 2000)

India Renukoot Alumina, Uttar 700 [5]

Hindalco , (United Nations 2000)
Pradesh

India Utkal Alumina Project, 19°11′23″N 0 [5]

Hindalco
Kashipur, Orissa 83°1′43″E

Iran Jajarm Alumina 280 [5]

100% Iran Alumia co, , (United Nations 2000)

Ireland Aughinish 52°37′35″N 1,900 [8]

United Company of Rusal 100% , (Rusal 2007)
9°3′53″W

Italy Eurallumina 39°12′26″N 1,100 [9]

United Company of Rusal 100% , (Rusal 2007)
8°23′50″E

Jamaica Clarendon 1,400 50% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals, 50%
[3]
Jamaican Government

Jamaica Ewarton Alumina 675 [5]

Jamaican Government, United Company of Rusal

Jamaica Nain St. Elizabeth (Alpart) 1,700 65% United Company of Rusal, 35% Hydro
[5]
Aluminium

Jamaica Kirkvine Alumina 625 Jamaican Government, United Company of Rusal

Japan Ehime 0 [5]

100% Sumitomo Chemical,

Japan SAL Yokohama Alumina 0 [5]

100% Showa Denko KK,

Japan Shimizu Alumina 0 [5]

100% Nippon Light Metals, , (United Nations
2000)

Kazakhstan Pavlodar Alumina 1,540 [5]

100% Alkaz, , (United Nations 2000)

Romania Oradea 400 [5]

100% Russky Alyuminy,

Romania Tulcea 600 (idled in Feb 2007) [5]

100% Alro SA, Slatina,

Russia Achinsk Alumina Refinery 1,100 [1]

100% United Company of Rusal

Russia Bauxitogorsk 186 [1]

100% United Company of Rusal

Russia Bogoslovsk 1100 [1]

100% United Company of Rusal

Russia Komi Aluminium Project, 1,400 (Under [10]

United Company of Rusal
Sosnogorsk, Komi Republic Construction)

Russia Ural Aluminium Smelter, 750 [10]

United Company of Rusal, , (United Nations
Kamensk-Uralsky, Sverdlovsk 2000)
Region

Russia Nikolaev Alumina Refinery 1,300 [1]

100% United Company of Rusal
List of alumina refineries 89

Russia Pikalevo Alumina Refinery, 268 [10]

100% United Company of Rusal , (United
Leningrad region Nations 2000)

Russia Volkhov Alumina 400 [5]

100% North-West Aluminium , (United Nations
2000)

Spain San Ciprian 1,530 [3]

100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals

Slovakia Slovalco 180 [5]

100% Zavod SNP , (United Nations 2000)

Slovenia Talum Alumina 0 [5]

100% Eti Holding S.A.

Suriname Paranam 2,200 55% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals, 45% BHP
[3]
Billiton

Turkey Seydisehir Alumina 200 [5]

100% Eti Holding S.A. , (United Nations 2000)

Ukraine Zaporozhye Aluminium 270 [10]

United Company of Rusal,
Combine, Zaporozhye City

Ukraine Nikolaev 1421 [5]

Ukrainian Aluminium, Russky Alyuminy

United Burntisland 120 (closed 2002) [5]

100% Rio Tinto Alcan, , (United Nations 2000)
Kingdom

US Virgin St. Croix 0,600 (closed since 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals (Plunkert
Islands 2000) [11]
1997),

USA Burnside 30°8′17″N 0,560 [5]

100% Ormet Corporation, (United Nations 2000),
90°55′23″W

USA Baton Rouge 0 [5]

100% LaRoche Chemical Co,

USA Gramercy, Louisiana 30°2′56″N 1,215 [12] [13]

United Company of Rusal
90°45′18″W

USA Point Comfort, Texas 28°39′3″N 2,330 [3]

100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
96°33′45″W

USA Corpus Christi 27°53′0″N 1,610 [14]

Sherwin Alumina Company
97°15′32″W

Venezuela Bauxilum 2,000 [15]

Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana

Venezuela Venalum 0 Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana

Vietnam Lam Dong Project 0 [5]

Pechiney, CAV

Vietnam Tan Rai Alumina Project 0 [5]

Yugoslavia Podgorica Alumina 0 [5]

Kombinat Aluminijuma Podgorica, CAV , (United
Nations 2000)

Specialty alumina plants

List of alumina refineries 90

Country Location Total Annual Capacity Ownership

(kt)

Canada Brockville, Ontario 20 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

Canada Vaudreuil, Quebec 180 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

France Gardanne 435 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

France Beyrede 28 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

France La Bathie 31 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

Germany Teutschenthal 28 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)

Russia Boksitogorsk Alumina [1]

100% United Company of Rusal
Refinery

USA Sherwin 300 [14]

Sherwin Alumina Company

References
[1] "Alumina Division" (http:/ / www. rusal. com/ business/ geography/ alumina/ ). Rusal. . Retrieved 2007-03-14. (English)
[2] "Rio Tinto - Alumina, aluminium and bauxite - Key data" (http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ whatweproduce/ 452_aluminium_4336. asp). Rio
Tinto. . Retrieved 2007-03-14. (English)
[3] "Alumina Limited:: The AWAC Business" (http:/ / www. aluminalimited. com/ index. php?s=awac_biz& ss=global& p=global_op). Alumina
Limited. . Retrieved 2007-03-14. (English)
[4] "Worsley: About Us: Welcome" (http:/ / worsley. geo. net. au/ pages/ worsley_overview. php4). Worsley Alumina. . Retrieved 2007-03-14.
(English)
[5] "Alumina Refineries - AME Mineral Economics" (http:/ / www. ame. com. au/ refineries/ al/ refineries. htm). AME Research. . Retrieved
2007-03-15. (English)
[6] "Companhia Vale do Rio Doce" (http:/ / www. cvrd. com. br/ ). Companhia Vale do Rio Doce. . Retrieved 2007-03-15. (English)
[7] "SANGAREDI REFINERY PROJECT BRIEFING PAPER" (http:/ / nyse. 10kwizard. com/ cgi/ image?& ipage=4891415& doc=2& fdl=1&
odef=8& dn=2& quest=1& rid=12) (PDF). BHP Billiton. . Retrieved 2009-08-30.(English)
[8] "RUSAL - Aughinish Alumina" (http:/ / www. rusal. com/ index. php?lang=eng& topic=3& subtopic=57& subtopic2=71& subtopic3=246). .
Retrieved 2007-09-08.
[9] "RUSAL - Euralumina" (http:/ / www. rusal. com/ index. php?lang=eng& topic=3& subtopic=57& subtopic2=71& subtopic3=248). .
Retrieved 2007-09-08.
[10] "Operating Locations" (http:/ / www. sual. com/ company/ locations/ ). SUAL Group. . Retrieved 2007-03-15. (English)
[11] "Untitled" (http:/ / www. brownrecov. com/ stcroix_press6-02. htm). Brownfields Recovery Corp.. . Retrieved 2007-03-16. (English)
[12] "Falconbridge : Our Business : Aluminum : Gramercy Alumina Refinery" (http:/ / archive. xstrata. com/ falconbridge/ www. falconbridge.
com/ our_business/ aluminum/ operations/ gramercy. htm). Falconbridge. . Retrieved 2007-03-15. (English)
[13] "Glencore - Aluminium, Alumina and Bauxite" (http:/ / www. glencore. com/ pages/ aluminium. htm). Glencore. . Retrieved 2007-03-15.
(English)
[14] "Sherwin Alumina Company" (http:/ / www. sherwinalumina. com/ ). Sherwin Alumina Company. . Retrieved 2007-03-16. (English)
[15] "CVG-Bauxilum" (http:/ / www. bauxilum. com/ englishversion/ finances. php). CVG-Bauxilum. . Retrieved 2007-03-16. (English)
• Alcan, (2006). An Evolving Alcan: Alcan Facts 2006, Canada: Alcan.
• Platt's Metal Week, 27 October 1997, p. 6
• Plunkert, P (1997). Bauxite and Alumina), United States Geological Survey
• Hydro Aluminium, (2004). Shaping Solutions for the Future, Oslo: Hydro Media.
• United Nations, (2000). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Recent and Planned Changes in
Production Capacity for Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium
List of aluminium smelters 91

List of aluminium smelters

This is a list of primary aluminium smelters in the world.
This list is incomplete.

Primary aluminium smelters

Aluminium smelters of the world

Country Location Coordinates Plant Capacity Company Name Ownership
(kt/year)

Argentina Puerto Madryn 42°44′27″S 272 Aluar

65°02′34″W

Australia Bell Bay 41°07′26″S [1] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
178
146°52′08″E

Australia Boyne Island 23°55′45″S [1] Boyne Smelters Ltd Rio Tinto Alcan 59.4%, Sumitomo,
545
151°20′24″E Marubeni, Mitsubishi

Australia Kurri Kurri 32°47′26″S [2] Hydro Aluminium

164
151°28′51″E

Australia Point Henry 38°08′3″S [] [3] Alcoa/Alumina Ltd Alcoa 60%, Alumina Ltd 40%
185
144°25′31″E

Australia Portland 38°23′14″S [] Portland Aluminium 55% Alcoa

353
141°37′48″E

Australia Tomago 32°49′49″S [4] Tomago Aluminium Rio Tinto Alcan 51.5%
520
151°43′47″E Company

Azerbaidjan Sumgait 40°35′31″N 60 Sumgait Am

49°38′25″E Works-Saz

Bahrain Manama 26°5′30″N 872 Alba

50°36′39″E

Bosnia Mostar 43°16′44″N 130 Aluminijcki Kombinat

17°49′20″E Mostar

Brazil Aratu 12°46′11″S 57 Alunordeste Novelis

38°28′43″W

Brazil Barcarena 1°33′2″S 460 Albras Vale 51%, Nippon Amazon

48°44′25″W Aluminium Company 49%

Brazil Pocos De Caldas 21°50′30″S [] [3] Alcominas Alcoa 100%

96
46°35′24″W

Brazil Santa Cruz 22°54′1″S 96 Valesul Vale 100%

43°39′5″W

Brazil Sao Luiz 2°42′31″S [] Alumar Alcoa 60%

438
44°19′53″W

Brazil Saramenha 20°24′1″S 52 Novelis

43°31′17″W

Brazil Sorocaba 23°31′53″S 475 Companhia Brasileira

47°15′59″W de Aluminio (CBA)

Cameroon Edea 3°49′15″N [4] Alucam Rio Tinto Alcan 46.7%

100
10°7′30″E
List of aluminium smelters 92

Canada Alma 48°35′18″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
415
71°41′9″W

Canada Baie Comeau 49°15′14″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

438
68°8′35″W

Canada Beauharnois 45°18′31″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
52
73°53′40″W

Canada Becancour 46°22′44″N [] [3] A.B.I. Alcoa 75%, Alcan 25%

409
72°22′43″W

Canada Deschambault 46°41′46″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

254
71°56′49″W

Canada Saguenay (Grande Baie) 48°18′21″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
207
70°55′36″W

Canada Saguenay (Jonquiere) 48°25′37″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
166
71°9′44″W

Canada Kitimat 54°0′26″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
277
128°41′11″W

Canada Saguenay (Laterriere) 48°18′3″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
228
71°7′43″W

Canada Sept-Îles 50°9′43″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan 40%, Austria Metall
572 Aluminerie Alouette
66°26′16″W [5] AG 20%, Hydro Aluminium 20%, SGF
13.33%, Marubeni 6.67%

Canada Shawinigan 46°33′39″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
99
72°44′4″W

China Baiyin 130 Baiyin Al Co Ltd

China Baotou 40°34′13″N 185 Baotou Al Ind

110°5′42″E

China Chuangyuan 100 Chuangyuan Al Co

China Danjiangkou 32°33′41″N 114 Hanjiang Danjiangkou

111°31′21″E

China Datong 220 Qinhai Al Smelter

China Fushun 41°51′17″N 150 Fushun Al Smelter

123°44′11″E

China Guanlu 220 Shanxi Guanlu Co Ltd

China Guiyang 26°27′46″N 260 Guizhou Al Plant

106°44′15″E

China Hejin 130 Long Men Al Plant

China Huanghe 75 Huanghe Al Co

China Huaxin 270 Huaxin Al Ind

China Huasheng 100 Huasheng Jiangquan

Al Co

China Jiaozuo 35°14′16″N 50 Great Wall Al Co

113°22′17″E

China Liancheng 270 Liancheng Al Plant

China Lanzhou 36°7′48″N 209 Lanzhou Al Co Ltd

103°35′44″E
List of aluminium smelters 93

China Nanshan 150 Nanshan Group Al Co

Ltd

China Pingguo 23°20′12″N 135 Pingguo Al Co

107°29′43″E

China Qimingxing 120 Guangyuan

Qimingxing

China Qiaotou 300 Qinghai Qiaotou

Power

China Qingtongxia 37°53′12″N 385 Qingtongxia Al Co Rio Tinto Alcan 50%

105°55′49″E

China Sanmenxia 34°44′35″N 100 Sanmenxia Tianyuan

111°14′18″E Al Co

China Shenhu 166 Shenhuo Al &

Electricity Co

China Tongchuan 105 Tongchuan Xinguang

Al Co

China Wanfang 250 Jiaozuo Wangfang Al

Co Ltd

China Wanji 34°45′14″N 340 Wanji Al Co Ltd

112°4′20″E

China Xian 60 Xian Al Plant

China Xinfa 228 Xinfa Xiwang Al &

Power

China Yichuan 269 Yugang Longquan Al

Co Ltd

China Yongan 115 Yongan Al Co

China Yunnan 300 Yunnan Al Co

China Zhengzhou 50 Great Wall Al Co

China Zhongfu 160 Zhongfu Al Ind

China Zhongmai Yongai 85 Mianchi Zhongmai

China Zibo 95 Shandong Al Ind

Egypt Nag Hammadi 25°59′20″N 240 Egyptalum

32°20′1″E

France Dunkerque 51°0′5″N 2°10′5″E 259[4] Aluminium Dunkerque Rio Tinto Alcan 100%

France Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne 45°16′8″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
135
6°22′31″E

Germany Essen 51°29′39″N 161 Aluminium Essen Trimet 100%

6°57′49″E

Germany Hamburg 53°30′44″N 130 Hamburger Aluminium Trimet 100%

9°53′38″E Werke

Germany Neuss/Norf 51°8′57″N [2] Rheinwerk

226
6°46′57″E

Germany Stade 53°39′31″N 70 Elbewerk closed down

9°29′57″E
List of aluminium smelters 94

Germany Voerde 51°37′20″N 92 Hogal Klesch

6°36′50″E

Ghana Tema 5°40′13″N [] Valco Government of Ghana 90%, Alcoa

200
0°1′13″E 10%

Greece St-Nicolas 38°21′49″N 165 Aluminium of Greece

22°41′24″E

Iceland Grundartangi 64°21′50″N 260 Nordic Aluminium Century Aluminum 100%

21°46′23″W

Iceland Straumsvik 64°2′40″N [4] Isal Rio Tinto Alcan 100%

179
22°1′22″W

Iceland Fjardaal 65°1′36″N 322 Alcoa

14°9′27″W

India Alupuram 10°4′45″N 14 Hindustan Aluminium

76°19′35″E Co. (Hindalco)

India Angul 20°49′55″N 359 National Aluminium

85°9′45″E Co. (Nalco)

India Hirakud 21°31′58″N 150 Hindustan Aluminium

63°54′22″E Co. (Hindalco)

India Korba 22°23′37″N 345 Bharat Aluminium Co Government of India 49%, Vedanta
82°43′56″E (Balco) 51%

India Mettur 11°48′32″N 40 Madras Aluminium

77°49′44″E (Malco)

India Renukoot 24°13′56″N 360 Hindustan Aluminium

83°2′1″E Co. (Hindalco)

Indonesia Kuala Tanjung 3°20′59″N 225 Inalum / Asahan

99°27′29″E

Iran Bandar Abbas 27°12′43″N 120 Almahadi IRALCO 100%

56°15′26″E

Iran Arak 34°4′35″N 120 Iralco IRALCO 100%

49°45′28″E

Italy Fusina 45°25′30″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa100%

44
12°15′15″E

Italy Porto Vesme 39°12′3″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa100%

150
8°24′21″E

Japan Kambara 35°7′10″N 18 Nippon Light Metals

138°36′56″E Co. Ltd.

Montenegro Podgorica 42°23′39″N 120 Kombinat Al

19°13′40″E Podgorica (KAP)

Mozambique Maputo 25°54′55″S 530 Mozal BHP Billiton

32°24′47″E

Netherlands Delfzijl 53°18′41″N 100 Aldel Klesch

6°58′38″E

Netherlands Vlissingen 51°27′28″N 213 Zalco Klesch

3°42′17″E

New Tiwai Point 46°35′44″S [1] New Zealand Rio Tinto 79%, Sumitomo 21%
352
Zealand 168°23′1″E Aluminium Smelters
List of aluminium smelters 95

Nigeria Ikot Abasi 4°34′16″N [] Alscon RUSAL 77,5%

193
7°34′49″E

Norway Årdal 59°8′11″N [2] Hydro Aluminium

232
6°13′21″E

Norway Høyanger 61°13′10″N [2] Hydro Aluminium

60
6°4′10″E

Norway Husnes 59°52′5″N [4] Sor-Norge Aluminium Rio Tinto Alcan 50% Hydro
165
5°46′13″E (Søral) Aluminium 50%

Norway Karmøy 59°18′47″N [2] Hydro Aluminium

288
5°18′48″E

Norway Lista 58°2′24″N [] Elkem Aluminium Alcoa 50%

94
6°47′9″E

Norway Mosjøen 65°50′55″N [] Elkem Aluminium Alcoa 50%

188
13°11′22″E

Norway Sunndal 62°40′41″N [2] Hydro Aluminium

357
8°33′28″E

Oman Sohar 24°25′03″N 330 Sohar Aluminium Oman Oil Corporation 40% ADWEA
56°33′02″E Company 40% Alcan 20%

Poland Konin 52°16′15″N 50 Huta Aluminium

18°17′4″E Konin S.A.

Qatar Mesaieed 24°58′28″N 585 (Under Qatalum Hydro Aluminium 50% Qatar
51°34′42″E construction) Petroleum 50%

Romania Slatina 44°26′40″N 215 Alro

24°23′13″E

Russia Bratsk 56°7′50″N 950 Bratsk Am RUSAL 100%

101°27′8″E Works-Braz

Russia Kamensk-Uralsk 56°22′17″N 127 Ural Am Works-Uaz RUSAL 100%

61°58′14″E

Russia Kandalaksha 67°11′42″N 72 Kandalaksha Am RUSAL 100%

32°25′51″E Works-Kanaz

Russia Khakas 53°12′0″N 300 Khakass Am RUSAL 100%

91°26′32″E Works-Khaz

Russia Krasnoturinsk 59°46′42″N 183 Bogoslovsk Am RUSAL 100%

60°10′12″E Works-Baz

Russia Krasnoyarsk 56°5′28″N 937 Krasnoyarsk Am RUSAL 100%

93°1′21″E Works-Kraz

Russia Nadviotsky 63°52′41″N 78 Nadvoitsky Am RUSAL 100%

34°15′44″E Works-Nkaz

Russia Novokuznetsk 53°46′51″N 310 Novokuznetsk Am RUSAL 100%

87°14′28″E Works-Naz

Russia Sayanogorsk 53°11′52″N 500 Sayamsk Am RUSAL 100%

91°27′3″E Works-Saaz

Russia Shelekhovo 52°11′21″N 456 Irkutsk Am Works-Iraz RUSAL 100%

104°5′10″E

Russia Volgograd 48°50′5″N 156 Volgograd Am RUSAL 100%

44°35′29″E Works-Vgaz
List of aluminium smelters 96

Russia Volkhov 59°55′18″N 23 Volkov Am RUSAL 100%

32°18′8″E Works-Vaz

Slovakia Ziar Nad Hronom 48°33′47″N [2] Slovalco Norsk Hydro 55.3% ZSNP 44.7%
158
18°50′51″E

Slovenia Kidričevo 46°22′40″N 117 Talum ELES 80%

15°47′23″E

South Africa Richards Bay-B 28°47′14″S 185 Bayside BHP Billiton

32°0′50″E

South Africa Richards Bay-H 28°45′52″S 670 Hillside BHP Billiton

32°1′54″E

Spain Aviles 43°35′0″N [] [3] Inespal Alcoa 100%

90
5°54′34″W

Spain La Coruna 43°20′49″N [] [3] Inespal Alcoa 100%

84
8°26′20″W

Spain San Ciprian 43°41′59″N [] [3] Aluminio Espanol Alcoa 100%

225
7°28′34″W

Surinam Paranam Closed in 1999 30 Suralco Alcoa 100%

Sweden Sundsvall 62°22′19″N 102 Kubikenborg RUSAL 100%

17°22′22″E Aluminium

Tajikistan Tursunzoda 38°32′55″N 520 Tajik Aluminium

68°13′27″E Company

Turkey Seydisehir 37°26′38″N 65 Etibank

31°51′5″E

UAE Jebel Ali 25°1′45″N 861 Dubal

55°5′32″E

UAE al Taweelah 24°46′20″N under EMAL Dubal 50% Mubadala Development

54°41′16″E construction Company 50%
(700)

UK Anglesey 53°17′47″N [1] Anglesey Aluminium Rio Tinto 51%, Kaiser Aluminum 49%
145
4°35′48″W Metal Ltd

UK Lochaber 56°49′43″N [4] British Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%

43
5°4′19″W Aluminium Plc

UK Lynemouth 55°12′8″N [4] British Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%

178
1°32′10″W Lynemouth Ltd.

Ukraine Zaporozhye 47°53′27″N 113 Zaporizhsky RUSAL 100%

35°12′14″E Alyuminievy
Kombinat (Zalk)

USA Alcoa Tennessee 35°46′29″N [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

210
83°58′12″W

USA Badin 35°24′21″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

60
80°6′58″W

USA Bellingham/Ferndale 48°50′38″N 300 Intalco Alcoa 61%

122°42′34″W

USA Columbia Falls 48°23′35″N 180 CFAC Glencore 100%

114°8′2″W

USA Evansville/Warrick 37°55′5″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

309
87°19′43″W
List of aluminium smelters 97

USA Frederick 39°19′58″N [] Eastalco Alcoa 100%

195
77°28′26″W

USA Goldendale 45°44′4″N 178 Columbia Gorge

120°41′43″W Aluminum

USA Hannibal 39°42′17″N 267 Ormet

80°50′46″W

USA Hawesville 39°42′17″N 244 Century Aluminium Century 100%

80°50′46″W Hawesville

USA Massena, NY (East 44°57′43″N [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

130
Plant) 74°52′2″W

USA Massena, NY (West 44°57′31″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

125
Plant) 74°53′32″W

USA Mount Holly, SC 33°3′8″N [] Goose Creek Alcoa 50% Century Aluminum 50%
225
80°3′9″W

USA New Madrid 36°30′36″N 253 Noranda Aluminum

89°33′50″W Inc.

USA Ravenswood, [Link]. 38°56′2″N 170 Ravenswood Century Aluminum 100%

81°49′34″W Aluminum Corporation

USA Rockdale, TX 30°33′59″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa 100%

267
97°4′21″W

USA Sebree, KY 37°39′27″N [4] Rio Tinto Alcan Rio Tinto Alcan 100%
196
87°29′57″W

USA Wenatchee, WA 47°21′22″N [] [3] Alcoa Alcoa100%

184
120°7′32″W

Venezuela Puerto Ordaz-A 8°16′10.05″N 210 Alcasa

62°48′43.41″W

Venezuela Puerto Ordaz-V 8°16′45.25″N 436 Venalum

62°49′46.05″W

Kazakhstan Pavlodar Kazakhstan aluminium smelter ENRC

See also
• List of countries by aluminium production

External links
• Primary Aluminum Smelters of the World [6] - a list of primary Al smelters as of April 2010
• Secondary Aluminum Smelters of the World [17] - a list of secondary aluminum smelters (i.e., recycled or
remelted from scrap metal) as of June 2009

References
[1] "Rio Tinto 2006 Data Book" (http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ documents/ investors_databook/ RTdatabook. pdf). . Retrieved 2007-08-19.
[2] "Norsk Hydro 2006 Annual Report" (http:/ / www. hydro. com/ library/ attachments/ en/ investor_relations/ financial_reports/
pdf_annual_report_2006/ annual_report_2006. pdf). . Retrieved 2007-08-25.
[3] "Alcoa smelting capacity" (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ primary_eu/ en/ alcoa_primary_eu/ capacity. asp#). . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[4] "Alcan Primary Metal" (http:/ / www. alcan. com/ web/ publishing. nsf/ AttachmentsByTitle/ Business+ Groups/ $FILE/ Primary_Metal.
pdf). . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[5] http:/ / www. alouette. qc. ca/
[6] http:/ / www. lightmetalage. com/ producers_primary. php
List of countries by aluminium production 98

List of countries by aluminium production

[1]
This is a list of countries by aluminium production in 2006 mostly based on Altech accessed in September
2007.

Rank Country/Region Aluminium production

(tonnes)

— World 33,410,000

1 People's Republic of China 5,896,000

2 Russia 4,102,000

3 United States 3,493,000

4 Canada 3,117,000

5 Australia 1,945,000

6 Brazil 1,674,000

7 Norway 1,384,000

8 India 1,183,000

9 Bahrain 872,000

10 United Arab Emirates 861,000

11 South Africa 855,000

12 Iceland 721,000

13 Germany 679,000

14 Venezuela 640,000

15 Mozambique 530,000

16 Tajikistan 520,000

17 Iran [2]
457,000

18 Spain 399,000

19 France 394,000

20 United Kingdom 366,000

21 New Zealand 330,000

22 Netherlands 313,000

23 Romania 283,000

24 Argentina 272,000

25 Egypt 245,000

26 Indonesia 225,000

27 Ghana 200,000

28 Italy 198,000

29 Nigeria 193,000

30 Greece 165,000

31 Slovakia 158,000

32 Montenegro 120,000
List of countries by aluminium production 99

33 Slovenia 117,000

34 Ukraine 113,000

35 Bosnia and Herzegovina 107,000

36 Sweden 102,000

37 Cameroon 96,000

38 Mexico 75,000

39 Turkey 65,000

40 Poland 50,000

41 44,000
Switzerland
42 Azerbaijan 35,000

43 Hungary 28,000

44 Japan 18,000

45 Bangladesh 15,600

See also
• List of aluminium smelters
• Complete list [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. altech. is/ index. php/ id/ 1802
[2] http:/ / www. presstv. com/ detail. aspx?id=115693& sectionid=351020102
Article Sources and Contributors 100

Article Sources and Contributors

Aluminium Source: [Link] Contributors: (jarbarf), 050555, 111112, 56, 842U, A Brave New World, A More Perfect Onion, A.C. Norman,
[Link], A2Kafir, ABF, AOEU, Aazn, Abrech, Accurrent, Adambro, Adamd1008, Adashiel, Addshore, Adimovk5, AdjustShift, Aeluwas, Ahoerstemeier, Aiden Fisher, Aitias, Ajbxo, Akamad,
Alansohn, Alchemist-hp, Aldie, Ale jrb, Aleenf1, Alexey Feldgendler, Alexius08, Alexwcovington, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Allstarecho, Almazi, Alproffesor, Altenmann, Alumimum,
American Eagle, Amgreen, Andesk, AndonicO, Andrevan, Andyboza, Angela, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, AnotherBrian, Ansell, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Anwar saadat, Arakunem,
Aranherunar, Archfalhwyl, Archimerged, ArielGold, Aristotle28, Ark2120, Army1987, Arnoutf, Artaxiad, Aruseusu, Arx Fortis, Asder smit, Askewchan, Aslonline, Astral, At the speed of light,
Atlant, Audrius u, Avala, Average Earthman, Avicennasis, Avriette, AxSkov, AxelBoldt, BRUTE, Banes, Banpei, Bart Versieck, Basicdesign, Bast ailuros, Beetstra, BenFrantzDale, Bender235,
Beni-Sakur-Six, Benjah-bmm27, Benjiboi, Bennetto, Benwildeboer, BigChicken, BigHairRef, Bihco, BillFlis, Billde, BillySharps, Bilsonius, Bjarki S, Bkell, Black Kite, Blainster, Blathnaid,
Bleepbloopbloop, Bletch, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Boffy b, Bomac, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, Bowlhover, Brandonlovesflasks, Brandonrush, Brian the Editor, Brian0918, Brianga,
Bridesmill, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Britzingen, Bryan Derksen, Bsadowski1, Bubba hotep, BuickCenturyDriver, BunnyFlying, Burgercat, Bücherwürmlein, [Link], C0nanPayne,
CDThieme, CMILC, CWii, CYD, Cafzal, CalicoCatLover, Calmer Waters, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Camden7, Camembert, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian Scouter,
Canadian-Bacon, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Canthusus, CapitalLetterBeginning, Capricorn42, Captain panda, CaptainVindaloo, Carl Logan, Carnildo, Casliber,
Casper2k3, Cassivs, Causesobad, Ccrrccrr, Celarnor, Centrx, Cfailde, Chameleon, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, Chatt26, ChemNerd, Chemical Heritage, Chemicalinterest, Chemkid1, Chenzw,
Chodges, Chris 73, Chrislk02, Chun-hian, Cireshoe, Ckatz, Clark89, Closedmouth, Coasting, Cohesion, Cometstyles, CompIsMyRx, ConCompS, Conversion script, Corpx, CosineKitty,
Coughinink, CrazyChemGuy, Cryptic C62, Curps, Cybercobra, D, D. Recorder, D99figge, DMacks, DUBJAY04, DVD R W, Dadude3320, Darklilac, Darrien, DarthShrine, Davehi1,
Daveisrategud, Davewild, David Latapie, [Link], Dawn Bard, Dbtfz, Dcljr, Dcoetzee, Ddurant, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Decltype, Deelkar, Deglr6328, Deli nk, Delirium, Delldot, Delta
G, Denni, Deor, DerHexer, Dforest, [Link], Dhart, Diderot, Digeridouble, Dina, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim, Dmn, Dogsrockroll, Donarreiskoffer, Doovinator, Doseiai2, DoubleBlue, Doulos
Christos, DrBob, DragonflySixtyseven, Drbreznjev, Dreadstar, Drmies, Drutt, Dtgriscom, Duckysmokton, Dududuh, Duh duh duh, Dwmyers, Dycedarg, DylanW, Dysprosia, EL Willy, Eadthem,
Eagle99999, Eaolson, East718, EdBever, Eddyelm, Edgar181, Edison, El C, Elassint, Elektron, Element16, Eleuther, Eli the Bearded, Elkman, Emassey2005, EmilyBwater, Emperorbma,
Enkauston, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epo, Erebus555, Eric Kvaalen, Eric119, Erik Zachte, Esmehwp, Espoo, Eternal Pink, Evand, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Excirial, Exert, Extransit, Eyeguy3,
Ezshay, Fabiform, Fahadsadah, Faithlessthewonderboy, Faradayplank, FastMarkets, Fattyjwoods, Fayenatic london, Femto, FengRail, Ferkelparade, Fg2, Fgdfgdfgsdfzg, Fieldday-sunday,
Firebladed, FisherQueen, Fitzed, Floul1, Flyers13, Flyguy649, FlyingToaster, Foobar, ForestAngel, Frankenpuppy, Fraser J Allison, Freakofnurture, Freedom fighter, Freestyle-69, Friginator,
Futuraind, Fvasconcellos, GPHemsley, GW Simulations, Gaff, Gail, GargoyleMT, Gary King, Gcsuchemistry, Gdo01, Gene Nygaard, Geni, Geniac, Gensanders, George The Dragon,
GeorgeLouis, Georgec95, Georgewilliamherbert, Ghalas, Ghosts&empties, Giftlite, Gihanuk, Gilgamesh, Gilliam, Gillyweed, Giorgio51, Glenn, GlobeGores, Gnj, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL,
Graham87, Great Cthulhu, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gregcaletta, Gregorian, Grendelkhan, Greyhood, Grim-Gym, Grmagne, Gtstricky, Gunde123456789, Gurch, Gurps npc, Gurubrahma, Gus
Polly, Gwernol, Gyro199259, Gzuckier, Gökhan, Ha Ha, king of Switzerland, Hadal, Hadcoforyou, Haeleth, Hairy Dude, Hak-kâ-ngìn, HalfShadow, Halvorseno, Hankwang, Hannah375, Harmil,
Hawk512, Hdt83, Headbomb, Heartache95, Hello32020, Henrik, HenryLi, Herbee, HereToHelp, Heron, HexaChord, Hgrosser, Hqb, Hraefen, Hu12, Huangcjz, Huangdi, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen
Iodide, I80and, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ITasteLikePaint, [Link], IWhisky, Icairns, Icek, Icepunisher, Igoldste, Ilurker, ImperfectlyInformed, Imroy, Inprov, InvertRect, Iridescent, Isis, Isopropyl,
IstvanWolf, Iwanttodie, [Link], J295, J4V4, JForget, JG17, JLaTondre, JNW, JaGa, Jaan513, Jaaronan, Jacek Kendysz, JackLumber, Jackol, Jadtnr1, Jadzianna, Jaganath, Jakestew@[Link],
James086, Jamesontai, JamieS93, Jan1nad, Janke, Jaraalbe, Jason1956, Java7837, Jay Litman, Jcwf, Jdforrester, Jeffjon, Jefflayman, Jeltz, Jennavecia, JeremyA, Jerry Seinfeld, Jespinos, JesseW,
Jetman123, Jguk 2, Jiang, Jim77742, Jinian, Jinxed, Jj137, Jmah, John, JohnCD, Johnleemk, Jonathunder, Jooler, Joolz, Jorunn, Jose77, Joshschr, Joshthegreat, Josquius, Jowheelie, Joyous!,
Jtdirl, Juanscott, Julesd, Juliancolton, Junglecat, Justforasecond, Jwray, KJBracey, KJS77, KPH2293, Kahuroa, Kalothira, Karn, Karthikganapathy, Katalaveno, Katieh5584, Kazvorpal, Kbh3rd,
Kbogusz, Keenan Pepper, Keenman76, Keilana, Kelc07, Kember, Kevin B12, Kf4bdy, Kieff, King of Hearts, Kingkaos0, Kissoffire, Kku, KlaudiuMihaila, Klemen Kocjancic, KnowledgeOfSelf,
Koavf, Korandder, Kosebamse, KostasG, Kouban, Kowloonese, Krun, Kukini, Kuru, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Kyle Barbour, L33tminion, LAX, La Pianista, Larspcus2, Lastyearswishes,
Lazyguythewerewolf, Lazylaces, Lcawte, LeaveSleaves, Legend78, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, LemonSmints, Leujohn, Leyo, LiamE, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lights, Ligulem, Litefantastic,
Little Mountain 5, Livajo, Lo2u, LonelyMountain, Looper5920, [Link], LossIsNotMore, LouScheffer, LuigiManiac, Luk, Luke Sperduto, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lunchscale, Lupin, M
dorothy, MCGEEJES000, MER-C, MPerel, MZMcBride, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, Mako098765, Malcolm Farmer, Malleus Fatuorum, Mandarax, Mani1, Marek69, Marj Tiefert, Mark Ryan,
Markles, Martin451, Martinp23, Materialscientist, Mathemagician57721, Mathnerd314, Matthew Yeager, Mattrox90, Mav, Max SamuelC, MaxSem, Maxim Razin, Mbc362, McSly, McTrixie,
Mcpgv, MeMe213, Mee Merone, Megganonion, Meisterkoch, MementoVivere, Mephistophelian, Mercuryone, Metagraph, Metalxzxz, Mgimpel, Michaelas10, Miffyandfrends, Mike40033,
Mikespedia, Mikiemike, Milesflint, Mimime, Mindmatrix, Minesweeper, Mintguy, Mirage GSM, Mirv, Miskaton, Miss Madeline, Mjpieters, Mkweise, Mmccrae, Moilleadóir, Mojosam,
Morehugh, Mpbx3003, Mpp piotrp, MrOllie, MrRadioGuy, Mrbrtk, Mschel, Mtelewicz, Muenda, Mulad, Mx3, Mxkjk2, Myanw, Mygerardromance, Mysekurity, Mythdon, N5iln, Nahat, Nakon,
NawlinWiki, NeoVampTrunks, NeonGeniuses, Nepenthes, Nerd65536, Nergaal, Netkinetic, Nev1, NewEnglandYankee, Nick123, NickMartin, Nigosh, Nihiltres, Ninly, Nishkid64, Nn123645,
Nohat, Noisy, Nokhc, Normanton3, NorthernThunder, Not the duke of Devonshire, Novacatz, Nuance 4, NuclearWarfare, Nucleartape, Nucleusboy, Numbo3, Ocatecir, Oda Mari, Oliver202, Olli
Niemitalo, Omicronpersei8, Onorem, Opelio, Originalpimp, Otolemur crassicaudatus, OwenBlacker, OxMat, Oxymoron83, PFHLai, PGPirate, PJBEAR13, Pacholua234, Pakaran, Pandanx,
Papaya07, Parkingtigers, [Link], Paterj41, Patstuart, Paul August, Paul from Michigan, PaulGS, PaulHallows, PaulHanson, Pavel Vozenilek, Pax:Vobiscum, Pedro, Pedro12, PeepP,
Pekinensis, PeregrineAY, Perique des Palottes, Persian Poet Gal, Personman, Pessi, Peter Ellis, Pfahlstrom, Pgk, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phe, Philip Trueman, Physchim62, Pi.1415926535,
Pilotguy, Pinkadelica, Piperh, Pit-yacker, Plastikspork, Plazak, Polyparadigm, Pontificalibus, Poolkris, Poor Yorick, Porud!!!, Possum, Potato99, Prainog, Prari, Predecess, PrestonH, Primalchaos,
Primarscources, Proofreader77, Psi-kat, Psyche825, Ptdecker, Puchiko, Purpleislost, Pyrochem, Quadell, Quebec99, Quintote, Qwerty414, Qxz, RAM, RESURGAM, RJHall, RJaguar3, RTC,
Rachel Pearce, Radon210, Razimantv, Razorflame, Rcbleeds, Real Robbie, Rebroad, RedWolf, Reddi, Redux, Reedy, Remember, Remember the dot, Repairscircuitboards, Res2216firestar,
Retired username, RevDan, RexNL, Reyk, Reywas92, Rfc1394, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Richardlw, Richnotts, Rifleman 82, Rintojiang, Rjwilmsi, Rkr1991, Rmky87, Roadrunner,
RobertG, Robertvan1, Robin Patterson, Robuckmetal, RockMFR, Rohitbd, Romanm, Roni2204, Rory096, Rossnorman, Rsocol, RyanJones, Ryancragg, Ryulong, S h i v a (Visnu), SDC,
SHIMONSHA, Saddhiyama, Salamurai, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Sam Paris, SamDonner, Sampi, Sandahl, Sango123, Saperaud, Sbharris, Sbrownlee, Scarian, SchfiftyThree, Schneelocke,
ScienceApologist, Sciencewatcher, Scientizzle, Scream1013, Seb az86556, SemperBlotto, Sengkang, Seraphimblade, Serpent212, Sfahey, Sfgagnon, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Shans eW,
ShaunMacPherson, Shirulashem, Shoefly, Shoessss, Shoy, Sigmund, Silentaria, Siliconov, Sillybilly, Silverbackmarlin, Silverfox1000, SimonP, Simply south, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington,
Sirbob592, Sjakkalle, Skatebiker, Sl, Sladen, Slakr, Slambo, Slinky puppet, Smartiger, Smithsterj, Snigbrook, Snowolf, Snoyes, SoM, SoWhy, Soccernjak, Sodium, Soliloquial, Solipsist,
Somedawgnamedjamie25, Someguy1221, Sometimes somethings, Soosed, Spaully, Spellmaster, Spencer, Spitfire, SpuriousQ, Squids and Chips, Sswan, StaticGull, Stephen G. Brown, Stephenb,
Stereo, Stevenmitchell, Stifynsemons, Stismail, Stone, Storm Rider, Stormwriter, Strangerer, Streifenbeuteldachs, StuartH, Subash.chandran007, Suicidalhamster, Suisui, Sujan dey, Sunborn,
Sundar, SusanLesch, Synesthesiac27, T. Anthony, T@nn, TICK TOCK, TVBZ28, Tabletop, Tagishsimon, Tangotango, Tapir Terrific, Tarquin, Tcncv, Technicaltechy, Tedickey, Tempodivalse,
Terren5, Terrx, Tetracube, Tetrax994, Thaurisil, The Giant Puffin, The Next Doctor, The Noodle Incident, The Rambling Man, The Sunshine Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The undertow,
TheFeds, Thebigmansilver, Thedjatclubrock, Theone00, Theseeker4, Thingg, Thisisbossi, Thricecube, Thunderhead, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timeineurope, Timrollpickering, Timtrent, Titoxd,
Tkynerd, Toddst1, Tom harrison, Tombomp, Tony Fox, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, TonyBallioni, Topbanana, Topsydog, Towerman86, Townmouse, TreasuryTag, Tregoweth, Trevor MacInnis,
Triku, Trojancowboy, Trusilver, Tsogo3, Ttony21, Tumble, Turidoth, Tuxlie, Tyugar, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., UberScienceNerd, Ubergeekguy, UkPaolo, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unomi,
[Link], Useight, User A1, User86654, Utcursch, V----l Sch----l, V8rik, VanHelsing, Vancouverguy, Vanderdecken, Vcelloho, Vegaswikian, Velela, Vercalos, Versageek, Versus22,
Vessels42, Viktor-viking, Vildricianus, Vina, Violetriga, Vortexrealm, VoteyDisciple, Vremya, Vsmith, Vssun, Vuong Ngan Ha, Walkerma, Wanderson, Watch37264, Wavelength, Wayward,
Wernher, Wiki alf, Wiki-Ed, Wikianon, Wikieditor06, Wikievil666, WikipedianMarlith, Wizard191, Wmahan, Wolfkeeper, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Work permit, Wronkiew, Wuhwuzdat,
Wyllium, Wyss, X Constant X, Xam123456, Xannabellax, Xhaoz, Xiahou, Xp54321, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yansa, Yath, Yiplop stick stop, Yomom34, Yonatan, You knnow what, You knnow who,
Youngjim, Yst, Ytrottier, Yurell, Yyy, ZX81, ZacBowling, Zach4636, Zamatech, Zigbigadoorlue, Zoe, Zoeb, Zomgadonggs, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, Zzzzziz, Ásgeir IV., 2428 anonymous edits

Isotopes of aluminium Source: [Link] Contributors: Awickert, Bryan Derksen, Donarreiskoffer, DragonflySixtyseven, Femto, Headbomb, John,
Karlhahn, Rursus, Szaszicska, Topquark22, William Graham, Wsiegmund, 8 anonymous edits

Aluminium-26 Source: [Link] Contributors: Carlossuarez46, Closedmouth, F Notebook, Graeme Bartlett, Headbomb, Jondn, LilHelpa,
Mandarax, Rursus, SkyLined, Stone, 4 anonymous edits

Aluminium smelting Source: [Link] Contributors: Anarchemitis, Chipili, [Link], CultureDrone, Edgar181, Eleassar, Element16,
Epbr123, Erik9, Fintan264, Fivemack, Fudoreaper, Gail, Headbomb, Jóna Þórunn, Kuyabribri, Lankiveil, LonelyMountain, Longhair, Philip Trueman, Qwerty310, Steffkicksass1, The
Utahraptor, User A1, VMS Mosaic, Willking1979, Wizard191, Wongm, 26 anonymous edits

Aluminium recycling Source: [Link] Contributors: AP Shinobi, Alan Liefting, Alex2dent, Amatulic, Anonymous Dissident, Ash, Bernard S.
Jansen, Bikeable, Blythe025, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, Bryan Derksen, Canderra, Capricorn42, Chris the speller, Coelacan, Dantadd, Darth Panda, Dburdenbates, Firsfron, Flewis, Headbomb,
Hu12, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jock Boy, John Vandenberg, JohnCD, Jolene barlow, Jwanders, Kelly Martin, Kozuch, Lucien504, Marcelobbribeiro, Mceder, Mogilny89, Nbritton, Neparis,
NuclearWarfare, Nv8200p, Rayc, Shiseijitsu, Soliloquial, TWCarlson, The cattr, Tillman, Ustokos, Veinor, Velela, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, [Link], Warut, Willvsk, Wizard191, 129
anonymous edits

Bauxite Source: [Link] Contributors: Acroterion, AdamMorton, AdjustShift, Agre22, Alansohn, Albedo, Anwar saadat, B, Bealezy, BiH,
BillFlis, Bobo192, Bryan Derksen, Cabiria, CambridgeBayWeather, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Chris 73, Chris G, Chris the speller, Chriscf, Christopher Parham, Conversion script,
Cuyaya, Cybercobra, DanKeshet, DanMS, DanikaF, Dark Mage, Davivalle, Deglr6328, Delirium, DeltaQuad, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, [Link], Dmanning, Drake Redcrest, Drini, Dungeon
Article Sources and Contributors 101

Master 3.5, Eaolson, Echuck215, Eclipsenow, EddEdmondson, Elipongo, Elockid, Epbr123, Eve Hall, Eyrian, Fivemack, FocalPoint, Frelke, Gaius Cornelius, Gako, Geyol, Gfhsk, Greyhood,
Gökhan, Ha Ha, king of Switzerland, Hadal, Hamsterlopithecus, Headbomb, Hydrogen Iodide, IceCreamAntisocial, Ivan Bajlo, Iwillkilluifudie, JHunterJ, JTN, JeLuF, Jeepday, Jonathan Hall,
Jossi, Julianp, Jumbuck, Junglecat, Jurema Oliveira, Jwissick, Kakofonous, Kapil991, Karanne, Kareemmohamed, Kate, Keilana, Kesac, Khargas, Kirrages, Kiwipete, Koavf, Krg47, Ktsquare,
Kubra, Kuru, Ladywolf63, Lauren 218, Levelistchampion, Little Mountain 5, Logical2u, Looxix, Luca Bergamasco, MSGJ, [Link], McTrixie, Melesse, Merovingian, Mikenorton, Mmccrae,
Nachoman-au, Nafordham, Nazgul42, NewEnglandYankee, Newone, Octane, Oli Filth, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, Onevalefan, OsamaBinLogin, Paleorthid, Patrickdavidson, PaulHanson,
Peppermint1110, Pinethicket, Pit, Pixel8, PookeyMaster, Puppy8800, Quaestor, Rampart, Rob Hooft, RockRichard, Ronhjones, SEKIUCHI, SatuSuro, Schellat, Sexy.lady80212, Shabicht,
Shadowjams, Shafei, SheepNotGoats, Shimmin, Siim, Sillybilly, Sinorth, Skarebo, Slawojarek, Smalljim, Sortcoach, SquidSK, Staphylococcus, Stone, StradivariusTV, Tarret, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Thue, Tide rolls, Tim Ross, Tim Starling, Tourbillon, Tyranny Sue, Uncle Dick, [Link], Vern01, Versus22, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Wafulz, WesUGAdawg,
Wombatcat, Xdenizen, Yvwv, Zippypic, Zzuuzz, Јованвб, 362 anonymous edits

Bayer process Source: [Link] Contributors: Al Pereira, AndonicO, Angela, Axiosaurus, Bryan Derksen, Calvero JP, CultureDrone, Daverocks,
Download, Duk, Encyclops, F Notebook, Goosman99, Headbomb, Itub, Jdpipe, Liaose, MegA, Melchoir, Moriori, Quevaal, Qwertytam, RJHall, RamonDuarte, Rifleman 82, Ryanleyland,
Shimmin, Tgeller, The Sharminator, Thermbal, Twthmoses, Walkerma, Warut, WilfriedC, Xx stef, 46 anonymous edits

Deville process Source: [Link] Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Ceyockey, Headbomb, Josh Parris, Marco21, Michael Hardy, Tetracube, 6
anonymous edits

Hall–Héroult process Source: [Link] Contributors: A b, Achim1999, Altales Teriadem, Arvindn, Athanor, Big hairy head, Bogey97, Bryan
Derksen, Cardibling, ChrisGriswold, Deelkar, Devil Master, Dgillespiejr, Dispenser, Element16, Ericspenguin, F Notebook, FelineAvenger, Giftlite, Headbomb, Jim1138, Joeinwap, Jossi,
Karlhahn, Kashkhan, Kim Bruning, LonelyMountain, LouScheffer, M stone, Madlobster, Maximus Rex, Mindmatrix, Monkeyget, Mosquito x, Mumiemonstret, Ospalh, Oxymoron83, Pauli133,
Pjacobi, Plastikspork, Pyrochem, RJHall, Rifleman 82, Rlevse, Ryan Postlethwaite, Shimmin, Smiles Aloud, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tim Starling, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tranletuhan,
[Link], User A1, Vsmith, Walkerma, Warut, Wastenator, Whiner01, WilfriedC, Yak Off, ZorroIII, 77 anonymous edits

Thermite reaction Source: [Link] Contributors: 0612, 12816me, 1qaz1234, 7severn7, Abbyasbo, Acroterion, Adambro, Adamowen1, Adashiel,
Ahoerstemeier, Aiken drum, Aleron235, Almazi, Alpha Omicron, Alphachimp, Alsadius, Alvis, Ambalasis, Amire80, Anonymous1408, Antandrus, Antilock, Anyeverybody, Arogon, Astavats,
Aude, AySz88, Barneyg, Batchelor, Berkeley626, Beyond My Ken, Bipedal, Bjornwireen, Boris Barowski, Bov, BrianGV, Bryan Derksen, Bubbastarch, CIreland, CaesiumFluoride, Cafzal,
CambridgeBayWeather, Capecodeph, Cesrage, ChemGardener, Chemicalinterest, CloudNine, [Link], Collabi, ComaVN, Contrablue, Cosmic Latte, CrM 09, Curps, Cwkmail, Cyde, Cyktsui,
DJH47, DS1953, Da Stressor, Dalf, Daveswagon, DavidCane, Davidmsmall, Deltabeignet, DerHexer, Devonkime, DocWatson42, DocendoDiscimus, Doco, Dolda2000, Doom Order,
Dougofborg, DragonflySixtyseven, Dtolman, Durgenman, ESkog, Eatmealive, Ebricca, Ed Fitzgerald, EdJohnston, EddEdmondson, Edgar181, Elcapitane, Eli the Bearded, EncMstr, Ergzay,
Extraordinary Machine, Feezo, FlamingSilmaril, Flyguy649, Forteblast, Fosnez, Freetown, Froth, Gene Nygaard, Geniac, Geo8rge, Gershwinrb, Ginsengaddict, Goobergunch, Gpunketesh,
Graibeard, GregorB, Gregorian, Ground Zero, Gwern, Hadal, HamburgerRadio, Hawkaris, Headbomb, Heron, Hohum, Hooperbloob, IQless1, Id447, Iepeulas, Incredibleman007, Irate, Iridescent,
Itub, Ixfd64, [Link], Jackol, Jb17kx, Jewperson27, Jfiling, Joekeenan, Joeylawn, Jojhutton, Jonathan Hall, Joonhon, Joseph 098, Jrollette, Jtwellner, Jufam44, Julesd, Karen Johnson, Keenan
Pepper, Krasss, Krdando, Krich, Kukini, Kunihura, Kyanite, Laager, Lacrima97, LapoLuchini, Lear's Fool, Leonard G., Libertad y Saber, Lights, Lithium6, LittleT889, Lloydd, Locewtus,
LorenzoB, LuckyStarr, Malerin, Manuel Anastácio, MarcelB612, Marudubshinki, Mauls, Mayfly may fly, Mboverload, McBriefs, McDScott, Meelar, Megaqwerty, Melamed katz, Merenta,
Michael Fourman, Michael Zimmermann, Miguel, MimirZero, Mirv, Mitartep, Modify, Mulad, MystK, NCurse, Nabokov, Nchrdn, Ncurses, Neilc, Nick Roberts, Nick0597n, Nick125, Nirmos,
Nwwaew, Ohnoitsjamie, Omegatron, Oonissie, Pablos, [Link], Passw0rd, Pearle, PerfectStorm, Peterlewis, Pevernagie, Pgan002, Phgao, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pixeltoo,
Pjvpjv, Potshot, Pqmos, Prankboy973, Puppy8800, Qxz, R3m0t, RAM, RJFJR, Raitchison, Raryel, Raul654, Red Director, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Riddley, Rlcantwell, Rlevse, Rmnguy,
Romanm, Rudyh01, Russoc4, SCEhardt, Sagaciousuk, Saippuakauppias, Sbard, ScholarTruthJustice, Schumi555, Schusch, Schuyler s., Securiger, Senordingdong, Sevela.p, SexyBern, Shaddack,
Shai-kun, Shimmin, Shknbns, Sidlala, Sifaka, SilentGuy, Sillybilly, Sixfifteen, Skatebiker, Skele, Smack, Sobreira, Sqush101, Stone, StuffOfInterest, Swift, Tabletop, TerraNova
whatcanidotomakethisnottoosimilartosomeothername, Terry Bollinger, The Anome, The REAL Teol, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheAlphaWolf, Thumperward, Tiak, Tom harrison,
TrygveFlathen, Tyklink, Tyro, UltraMagnus, Ummit, Virtualphtn, Vsmith, WatchingDragon, Wayward, Wiki alf, Wikieditor06, Willancs, Wizard191, Wowest, Writtenright, X1987x,
XAdHominemx, Xiahou, YGingras, Yamamoto Ichiro, Youthinayzhuh, Zardiw, ZeroOne, ZimZalaBim, Zimage, Zyqqh, 川藤, 703 anonymous edits

Wöhler process Source: [Link] Contributors: Bduke, Bryan Derksen, Darci, Headbomb, Mikiemike, Steinsky, 4 anonymous edits

Aluminium alloy Source: [Link] Contributors: 99jfennell, AKMask, Accurizer, Andrew c, Andy Dingley, ArielGold, ArnaudContet, Axlrosen,
Bcartolo, Ben Ram, BillFlis, Brais, Calvin 1998, Capricorn42, Cassivs, CheMechanical, Chrumps, CosineKitty, CultureDrone, Duckysmokton, Elassint, Element16, Equendil, Euryalus,
Felipealvarez, FengRail, Gene93k, Georgewilliamherbert, Hazelsct, Headbomb, Hydroxides, JanRezac, Jaydec, Jefflayman, Jhfireboy, LeoNomis, Materialscientist, Michael Daly, MisterHand,
Mittosi, N2e, Ninly, Orpheus, Paul venter, Peerob2009, Prari, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Sbharris, Shotput king, Sigmund, Silver000777, Storm Rider, Tackat, TheFeds, Tresiden, Trevor MacInnis,
Triangl, Turidoth, TutterMouse, Wizard191, Xp54321, YellowDucks2, Ytrottier, 135 anonymous edits

Aluminium battery Source: [Link] Contributors: Arch dude, BenB4, BerserkerBen, Bhimaji, Biscuittin, Bryan Derksen, Crusoe8181,
DaddyWarlock, Doctorsundar, Donhoraldo, Drahz, Element16, Gene Nygaard, Headbomb, Houseonmangostreet, HumphreyW, Hydrogen Iodide, JG17, Jorfer, Lio, Mikiemike, Nburden,
Ryddragyn, Shaddack, Shalom Yechiel, Stephenb, Tulkolahten, Victorfuts, WereSpielChequers, Wtshymanski, 40 anonymous edits

Semi-finished casting products Source: [Link] Contributors: Amalas, Andy Dingley, Aspire3623WXCi, Carlossuarez46, Closedmouth,
DavidBrooks, Hooperbloob, Inwind, JennyRad, Jfire, Mani1, MarkBolton, Necrothesp, TexasAndroid, Wizard191, Wknight94, 11 anonymous edits

Aluminium foil Source: [Link] Contributors: Acalamari, Adambro, Adashiel, Adumoul, Ahoerstemeier, Ahruman, Alan Liefting, Alansohn,
Aleenf1, Alexkin, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Amitparikh, Anna Lincoln, Arch dude, Atlant, Audin, B4hand, BarretBonden, BeamerNZ, Beaten, BesselDekker, Bigtop, Bobo192, Bongwarrior,
Brendan Moody, Bryan Derksen, Camw, CanisRufus, Centrx, Cffrost, Chatool, ClockworkLunch, Cs30109, DMacks, Dante Alighieri, Denali134, DerHexer, Deror avi, Discospinster, Docu,
Dtgriscom, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EH101, ERcheck, EarthPerson, El Mariachi, Eliyak, Ember of Light, Erianna, Eric-Wester, Evan1975, Excirial, Faradayplank, Fcueto, Femto, Friginator,
Gacole, Gary King, Gene Nygaard, Gilliam, Gogo Dodo, GoldenGoose100, Greenguy1090, Griffinofwales, Gurch, Gökhan, Headbomb, Heightwatcher, Hgrosser, Holon67, Homer Landskirty,
Hu12, Huw Powell, Huwr, Hydrogen Iodide, Ibbn, Ichiru, Ikiroid, Ilyushka88, Imroy, Infrogmation, Insanity Incarnate, [Link], JForget, JHunterJ, Jake Wartenberg, James086, JavierMC,
Joeyboyfresh, Johnflux, Jusdafax, Justin Eiler, K kokkinos, Kaelorr, Kalmia, Karkaputto, Kasperl, Kbdank71, Keeves, Keilana, Kember, Kerkyra, Kotukunui, [Link], Krawi, Ktthom, Kuru,
LarryMorseDCOhio, Lawrence Cohen, Leonardo Da Vinci, Leuqarte, Lightmouse, Magnius, Majorclanger, Mark Richards, Maxbox51, McSly, Meelar, Mejor Los Indios, Metzenberg, Mike
Halterman, Mike Rosoft, Mikesolo, Mikiwikipikidikipedia, Modeha, Morven, Mrath, Munboy, Mwanner, [Link], NathanLee, NawlinWiki, Newone, Nickj, Njaelkies Lea, Oobopshark,
OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, Paolor, Papaya07, Patiwat, Paxse, Philip Trueman, Phoebe, Pianoplonkers, Picaroon, Pinkadelica, Pjf, Poeloq, Polobird, Proper Spelling, Quebec99, Quentonamos,
Quinnanya, R, Radiojon, Raryel, RazorICE, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rlsheehan, Roadrunner, RxS, SCEhardt, Samanthasin96, Science3456, Scientus, Scoreoneforaids, Seglea,
Sherbrooke, Sina7, Sixtiesman69, SmellySock, Someguy1221, Sorenbj, Splarka, Stephan Leeds, Styrofoam1994, T.J.V., Taxman, Template namespace initialisation script, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Thingg, Thumperward, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, TinaTimpton, Topaz, Utcursch, Vsmith, Wikipelli, William Avery, Wizard191, Wmahan, WordsAndNumbers, Yelyos, Zanimum,
‫יש דוד‬, 389 anonymous edits

Aluminum wire Source: [Link] Contributors: Analogue Kid, Ariel., ArnoldReinhold, Barticus88, Beetstra, Bryan Derksen, Btyner, Catgut,
Chriskt, DMacks, DanielJFriedman, Dbrunner, Debresser, Dkendr, Dual Freq, Earlypsychosis, Gary King, Headbomb, Hellbus, JWGreen, Jacostilla, Kjkolb, MPF, Marokwitz, Mattmia2,
Melligem, Mooinglemur, MrFiver, Norlanson, O, Philip Trueman, Quale, RG2, Random832, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rifleman 82, Rock4arolla, Ronz, Rupertslander, SCEhardt, Satori Son,
Sigmund, Spitfire, Srleffler, Tabletop, Teknikingman, Thiseye, Ttogreh, Utcursch, Vuo, Watch37264, Wizard191, 78 anonymous edits

Hydrogen gas porosity Source: [Link] Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Ibbn, Jasmin Proulx, Wizard191, 4 anonymous edits

Aluminium alloy inclusions Source: [Link] Contributors: Ewen, Jasmin Proulx, Katharineamy, Omideiran, Wizard191, 3 anonymous edits

The Aluminum Association Source: [Link] Contributors: GrahamHardy, Headbomb, Rjwilmsi, Rl, TheFeds

Institute for the History of Aluminium Source: [Link] Contributors: Headbomb, Phlegm Rooster, RHaworth, Utorak-sedamdeset

Alcoa Source: [Link] Contributors: AEMoreira042281, Acroterion, Actarux, Alan Liefting, Alcoa, Aliwalla, Amcbride, Amcl, Anastrophe, Anna
Lincoln, Ark25, Arsenikk, Aussiblue, Avriette, B.katz12, BD2412, Barek, Beland, Benzocane, BertholdD, Biggspowd, Blicarea, Blueboy96, Bobblewik, Boothy443, Brighterorange, Butterfly
Effect 27, Chadlupkes, ChrisGriswold, Chrisbolt, Christofurio, CliffC, Cmroane, Colonies Chris, Conk 9, Cowpriest2, CrabshackJoe, [Link], DIEXEL, DMG413, Dan128, Davidandrade,
Dysprosia, Ed Poor, Ejohnsequilar, Elf, Esurnir, Evanwidloski, Financial Zorro, Firsfron, Fivemack, Gacole, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Jones, Garrett Albright, Gdh, Golbez, GrahamP, Great Scott,
Greenshed, GregorB, Grosscha, Ground Zero, Gump Stump, Gwernol, Harro5, Headbomb, Hephaestos, Hholt01, Hirudo, Hmains, Interiot, Iridescent, JEN9841, Jamcib, Japanese Searobin,
Jayen466, Jde0907, Jerryseinfeld, Jetlagbleu, Jmgonzalez, JoeCrabshack, Jogar2, John D. Croft, John Kenney, Johnandbob, Joseph Solis in Australia, Katscanned, Ken Gallager, Kingturtle,
Koavf, Krun, Kwertii, Laurasmith76, Leeannedy, Leuqarte, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LizP3, Loganljs, LonelyMountain, Mark, Maxim, McTrixie, MementoVivere, Mendaliv, Michael Hardy, Mike
Article Sources and Contributors 102

J B, Mikeblas, Millere08, Mramsey68, Msr69er, Nachoman-au, Nick, Niteowlneils, Notinasnaid, Notmyrealname, Noybwiki, OHFM, OldCommentator, Orbitalwow, Oreofuchi, Paranomia,
Patricknoddy, PaulHanson, Petri Krohn, PhilHibbs, Pig de Wig, Quixada, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, RFBailey, RJII, RadicalBender, Rebroad, Retired username, Reuben005, RevelationDirect,
Rhadamante, Ridge Runner, Rjwilmsi, Rlquall, Ronz, Rusty, RyanGerbil10, SQGibbon, Saepe Fidelis, Sandcherry, Sardanaphalus, Sentinel75, Shoeofdeath, Shubopshadangalang, SimonP,
SleppingAwake, Smack, Smalltalkman, Solarisworld, Spangineer, Stevejabs, SusanLesch, T. Anthony, Takiman, Taxman, Tell, Tevildo, The wub, Thepangelinanpost, Tmangray, Tommy2010,
Tortoise1975, Triadian, TrueColour, Tsemii, [Link], User A1, Vchimpanzee, Vim-Hogar, VitaleBaby, Waprap, Weatherman1126, WhisperToMe, WideArc, Wongm, Woohookitty,
Work permit, Wrightchr, Wsjnewsupdater, Xeno, Xnatedawgx, Xyzzyva, Yako987, Yellowdesk, Youssefsan, 188 anonymous edits

Rio Tinto Alcan Source: [Link] Contributors: -Majestic-, Ali@[Link], Anonymous editor, Bantman, Bearcat, Burgundavia, Burvelle,
Catapult, Chameleon, Charles Matthews, CliffC, Colonel Cow, Cowpriest2, Dave Bass, Davenry007, David Levy, Decumanus, Dhonyin, Diasimon2003, Dmehus, Funandtrvl, GrahameS, Gump
Stump, Headbomb, Husond, Indefatigable, J2rome, JForget, Jamcib, Japanese Searobin, Jeffpw, Jguk, Jim62sch, Jmg38, JoJan, JzG, Kevlar67, Koman90, Kosmotheoria, Kurieeto, Lapaz,
LonelyMountain, MarkRose, Maxim, McTrixie, Meelar, Mendaliv, Mikaey, Mlaffs, Modulatum, Mtl4040, Mvc, Neelix, Newspaperman, Omicronpersei8, Paxse, Plazak, Predator.z6,
ProhibitOnions, Qutezuce, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, RadRafe, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roche-Kerr, Royalguard11, RucasHost, Rusty, Sherool, SimonP, Skookum1, Spacepotato,
Supergloom, Surge79uwf, Svgalbertian, Themepark, Tightyfist, Tolivero, TorontoStorm, TreveX, User A1, Ventur, Walter Moar, WereSpielChequers, Who, Xezbeth, YUL89YYZ, Yellowdesk,
Ytrottier, 94 anonymous edits

United Company RUSAL Source: [Link] Contributors: Ark25, BrokenSphere, Bryan Derksen, Colchicum, Dabystru, Denis tarasov, Egorscha,
Fivemack, Gacole, Ghirlandajo, Gump Stump, Headbomb, Horatio, Hucz, Jamcib, Jarkeld, Jimbhapy, [Link], Kanġi Oĥanko, LonelyMountain, Matthew hk, McTrixie, Mervyn, Morpheios
Melas, Otebig, Palmerparteram, Qwertytam, Records, Rich Farmbrough, Ricky@36, Russavia, Serouj, Shans eW, User A1, Yako987, Yuribear, 44 anonymous edits

List of alumina refineries Source: [Link] Contributors: Caragan1970, Dawn Bard, Docu, Headbomb, Janorri, Jeepday, Mario1987, Pairadox,
Patos, PigFlu Oink, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, Rjwilmsi, Samuel Pepys, ScottDavis, Stepheng3, 42 anonymous edits

List of aluminium smelters Source: [Link] Contributors: Blythe025, BrainMarble, Brybry26, Crusoe8181, Dispenser, Docu, Eleassar,
Headbomb, Hmains, Indefatigable, Jasmin Proulx, Kallumama, Lisiate, LonelyMountain, Mapoz, Mario1987, Pigsonthewing, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, SEWilco, Squids and Chips,
[Link], User A1, Wizard191, Wwoods, 33 anonymous edits

List of countries by aluminium production Source: [Link] Contributors: AlexNebraska, Colonies Chris, Cybercobra, Greyhood, Hmains,
Jasmin Proulx, John, Mario1987, Sarah, Skäpperöd, ‫دمحأ‬.‫يدماغ‬.24, 12 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 103

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

file:[Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: unknown
file:Aluminum [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mrgoogfan
File:Speaker [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, [Link], Mobius, 2 anonymous edits
File:Aluminium bar surface [Link] Source: [Link] License: Attribution Contributors: User:Alchemist-hp
Image:Bauxite hé[Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: saphon
Image:Aluminium - world production [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Leyo
Image:Aluminium [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Anwar_saadat/bubble_maps_(FAQ)
File:41 ALU Recycling [Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Karl A
Randall / User: k4rlR
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Kerkyra, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Austin A40 Roadster ca [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Charles01
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:ALIquotob
Image:Aluminium [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Stehfun
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bhoeble, Doruk
Salancı, [Link], Gerardus, Hanzo86, Jastrow, Joanjoc, Justinc, Korrigan, Montrealais, Pseudomoi, Saperaud, Simonxag, Wst, Xenophon, 4 anonymous edits
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Wongm
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Moebius1
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: User:Friman
Image:shredded aluminium [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Nbritton
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown
Image:Bauxite with unweathered rock core. C [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Werner Schellmann
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Mdd, Tano4595, Toony
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Ian Fieggen
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Lưu Ly
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Brazilian Government
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the People's Republic of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) (talk)
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: Various
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Anime Addict AA, Fry1989, Homo
lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Krun, Mattes, Mikewazhere, Mmxx, Nightstallion, Pfctdayelise, Reisio, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, 15 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: -xfi-, AnonMoos, Artem Karimov,
Bsadowski1, Davepape, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Krinkle, Mattes, Mnmazur, Nightstallion, Potatoswatter, Reisio, Rocket000, Vonvon, Winterheart, Zscout370, 19 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Bastique, Denelson83, George McFinnigan,
Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Infrogmation, Klemen Kocjancic, Ludger1961, Neq00, Nightstallion, Reisio, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, Wikisole, Zscout370, 9 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: AndriusG, Artem Karimov, Davepape, Dmitry
Strotsev, Drieskamp, Enbéká, Fred J, Gleb Borisov, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Kiensvay, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwj2772, Mattes, Maximaximax, Miyokan, Nightstallion, Ondřej Žváček, Pianist,
Pumbaa80, Putnik, R-41, Radziun, Rainman, Reisio, Rfc1394, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Sasa Stefanovic, SeNeKa, Srtxg, Stianbh, Wikiborg, Winterheart, Zscout370, Zyido, ОйЛ, 34 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of the United [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,
User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Tim Ross
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Original uploader was Kashkhan at [Link]
Image:Thermite [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Unununium272
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at [Link]
Image:Thermite [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
User:Unununium272
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Skatebiker
Image:Thermite residues (railway welding).JPG Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Bjornwireen
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was
Talbotron22 at [Link]
Image:Mig-29 on [Link] Source: [Link] License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Dmottl
File:Lingot [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Ies, Romary,
WikipediaMaster, Wizard191, 1 anonymous edits
File:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Idus trabajo propio
File:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Vincent Maurin
File:Slabs [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Borvan53
Image:Aluminium foil [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
Splarka at [Link]
File:Glückskäfer (Schokolade).JPG Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mattes
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 104

File:Spinel and MgO [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jasmin Proulx
File:[Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jasmin Proulx
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: Cflm001, Jeff G., Presidentman, Remember the dot,
Weatherman1126
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:Mzajac
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: see below
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Pedro A. Gracia Fajardo, escudo de Manual de Imagen
Institucional de la Administración General del Estado
Image:Rio Tinto [Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: Gump Stump
File:Alcan [Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: Koman90, Svgalbertian
Image:[Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: Hucz
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of the United Arab [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime
Addict AA, Avala, Dbenbenn, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, Fukaumi, Gryffindor, Guanaco, Homo lupus, Kacir, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Madden, Neq00, Nightstallion, Piccadilly Circus, Pmsyyz,
RamzyAbueita, 4 anonymous edits
File:Flag of South [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Pumbaa80
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: AFBorchert, Anime Addict AA,
FedericoF, Fry1989, Hautala, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Mattes, Nemo5576, Nightstallion, Ratatosk, ThomasPusch, 3 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Spade, Anime Addict AA, Apatomerus,
EugeneZelenko, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Nameneko, Neq00, Nightstallion, Rinkio, Zscout370, Умед Джайхони, 3 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp,
User:SKopp, User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of New [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Adambro, Arria Belli, Bawolff,
Bjankuloski06en, ButterStick, Denelson83, Donk, Duduziq, EugeneZelenko, Fred J, Fry1989, Hugh Jass, Ibagli, Jusjih, Klemen Kocjancic, Mamndassan, Mattes, Nightstallion, O, Peeperman,
Poromiami, Reisio, Rfc1394, Shizhao, Tabasco, Transparent Blue, Väsk, Xufanc, Zscout370, 35 anonymous edits
File:Flag of the [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: AdiJapan
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: unknown Contributors: 16@r, Alnokta, Anime Addict AA, ArséniureDeGallium,
BomBom, Denelson83, Dinsdagskind, Duesentrieb, F l a n k e r, Flad, Foroa, Fry1989, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Iamunknown, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Ludger1961, Lumijaguaari,
Mattes, Moroboshi, Neq00, Nightstallion, OsamaK, Permjak, Reisio, Rimshot, Str4nd, ThomasPusch, Thyes, Vonvon, Wikiborg, Wikimedia is Communism, Überraschungsbilder, 27 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gabbe, User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Fry1989, Homo lupus, Indolences, Jarekt, Klemen
Kocjancic, Neq00, SKopp, ThomasPusch, Threecharlie, Torstein, Zscout370, 4 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jhs
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:B1mbo, User:Froztbyte
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Vzb83, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jon Harald Søby, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Bosnia and [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime Addict
AA, Dead-pain, Denelson83, DzWiki, Editor at Large, Fry1989, George McFinnigan, Himasaram, Klemen Kocjancic, Kseferovic, MKay, Madden, Mattes, Myself488, Neq00, Nightstallion,
Quahadi, SKopp, Sojah, Torstein, Zscout370, 21 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Hejsa, Herbythyme, J budissin, Jon Harald Søby,
Klemen Kocjancic, Lefna, Mattes, Meno25, Odder, Peeperman, Quilbert, Reisio, Sir Iain, Str4nd, Tabasco, Tene, Thomas Blomberg, Thuresson, Wiklas, Zscout370, 31 anonymous edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code)
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:AlexCovarrubias, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mareklug, User:Wanted
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Marc Mongenet,
User:Zscout370
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Spade, Brandmeister, Charismaniac,
Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Enbéká, Er Komandante, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Jacobolus, Mattes, NTK, Neq00, Proger, Reality006, SKopp, Sir Iain, ThomasPusch, Tiptoety, Zscout370, 8 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: Various
File:Flag of [Link] Source: [Link] License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
License 105

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/