General Introduction

Science and Physics

The word science originated from the Latin word “Scientia” meaning ‘to know’. Science
is a systematic attempt to understand nature and its phenomena in as much details and
depth as possible and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control
phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from what we see
around us. The science unravels the secrets of nature.
Physics is the basic discipline of natural sciences. The word physics comes from a
Greek word ‘fusis’ which means ‘nature’. Its Sanskrit equivalent is ‘Bhautiki’ which
means study of physical world. Physics is the study of the basic laws of nature and
manifestation in different natural phenomena. It deals with the study of ‘nature’ and
‘natural phenomena’, involving ‘matter’ and ‘energy,’ and their interconversion.

Physical Quantities and Measurements

All quantities in terms of which laws of physics can be expressed and measured directly
or indirectly are called physical quantities.
The process adopted for knowing the magnitude of a physical quantity, is called
measurement. It is done by comparing the physical quantity with a standard of same
nature.
Measurement required a reference standard which is arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted is called unit. The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed
by a number accompanied by a unit.
Measurement is an important part in the study of physics. Physics is an exact science.
Physics is half mathematics.

Importance of Laboratory in Science

Science, like religion, is a search for truth. A laboratory is a place of worship, where this
search is carried on. Hence, to a scientist his laboratory should be as sacred and pious
as the place of worship to a devotee. In fact, laboratory is such a place of worship
where young scholars should equip themselves for something higher and nobler—a
search for truth and unraveling the mysteries of nature.

Aim of the Experimental Study

From a careful study of history of progress of science, we conclude that an experiment
is the basic foundation for the development and growth of science. The main aim of
experimentation in science is to verify a given law which has already been derived from
a theory. While doing an experiment with open eyes and attentive mind, new
discoveries have been made during experimentation. Physics is an experimental
science. A clear understanding of its principles can be made by demonstrating the
experiments by one’s own hands.
Scientific Method
A method involving systematic study of a phenomenon or systematic performance of a
process, is called a scientific method.
It involves following steps in the order given as follows:

1. Object. To fix the phenomenon to be studied.

2. Apparatus. To collect the equipment (instruments) required during the study.
3. Experimentation. To measure the quantities involved in the phenomenon with the
help of the acquired instruments.
4. Observation. To record the data (measured quantities) in a tabular form.
5. Hypothesis. To analyse the data and find how that effects the phenomenon. Also
to establish relationship between different quantities of a data, graphically or
otherwise.
6. Verification. It is done by applying the hypothesis to other similar phenomena.
7. Predictions. To name new phenomena by changing the variable (quantities)
involved in the study of main phenomenon.
8. New experiments. These are done to check the existence of predictions.
9. Modifications. With the passage of time more refined instruments become
available. Their use needs modification of old methods and procedures of
experimentation. The above cycle is repeated.
Thus, experimentation is an unending process which is quite vital for the
development of any kind of science. Physics is no exception.

Importance of Practical Work in Laboratory

1. Come prepared from home with the experiment you are going to perform. Read
directions very closely, as in every word there is a significance. In, no case should
an experiment be started without having a clear idea of what is to be done and
how and why is to be done. Doubts, if any, should be got removed from the
teacher before starting the experiment actually.
2. Collect the necessary apparatus by request and to avoid unnecessary waste of
time, the students should carefully checkup each item of the working apparatus. If
you do not understand the principle, construction and the use of the measuring
instruments you are to use, do not hesitate to consult your teacher. It is
particularly important for electrical instrument, where a slight negligence on the
part of the student may damage a costly apparatus.
3. Handle the apparatus very carefully, specially the small weights, nuts, screws and
glass apparatus. In the event of a loss or breakage, report the matter immediately
to the person concerned (Lab. Incharge). Do no wait to be detected.
4. Keep your table neat and clean and free from all unnecessary articles, such as
hats, bags, books, umbrella, etc. Place them at some convenient place in the
laboratory. Do not disfigure the table with chalk, pencil, ink or finger-nail marks.
5. Do not throw water, wasted items and acids on either the table or the floor. For
this purpose sink should be used.
6. Do not allow water, alcohol, mercury or other chemicals to come in contact with
the metallic parts of the apparatus. Apparatus so spoiled should be wiped clean
 with a wet cloth, dried and smeared with Vaseline. Do not disfigure the wooden
parts of the apparatus.
7. While setting the apparatus, take care to see that the apparatus which requires
frequent manipulation or reading, is within easy reach. The apparatus should be
arranged in an orderly manner.
8. Observe twice the each readings and record with a unit on the observation
notebook which should be checked and signed by the teacher incharge. After
getting checked the readings, calculation and result in observation notebook by
your teacher then record them in fair notebook.
Each quantity measured should be recorded in decimals and not in fractions. The
result too should be given in proper units except when the quantity is a pure ratio,
eg., specific heat, specific gravity etc.
9. Always take a series of observations and as far as possible record them in a
tabular form.
10. Long and tedious calculations should be done by logarithms; this saves time as
well as reduces the chances of error. Calculate neatly and in order on the note-
book.
11. Do your work honestly and never cook the result by recording false observations
or by
making wrong calculations to show a correct result.The students should remember
that the purpose of each experiment is to unmask the truth, hence nothing but
truth should be recorded. ,
12. Before leaving the laboratory:
(a) The student should get his notebook signed.
(b) The student should return all the apparatus to the laboratory assistant. No
apparatus should be left on the table. ,
(c) The student should get an experiment assigned for the next turn.

Recording of Experiment in the practical file

The practical file for physics is a well-stitched note-book having left hand page blank
and right hand page ruled. It has pages of useful formulae in the beginning and many
cm graph pages at the end. A neat and systematic recording of the experiment in the
practical file is very important for achieving complete success in the experimental
investigations.
A student may write the experiment under the following heads in his main practical note-
book. There may be slight variations in suggestions from the teacher. In that case,
teacher’s instructions must be followed.

On the Left-Hand Page (Blank Page)

1. Diagram. The diagram shows the sketch of the apparatus used. Different
important parts must be well-labelled. Sometimes more than one diagram may be
required to explain different stages of the experiment.
A circuit diagram for electricity experiment and a ray diagram for optical (light)
experiments is a must.
2. Observations. First, least count of the measuring instrument must be derived and
written in detail. Single observations are recorded in one or two lines. Two or more
observations must be recorded in tabular form. Observations taken in single step
must have three sets with changed values. For drawing a graph, six set of
observations must be taken.
3. Calculations. Formula used is written and observed values are substituted.
Simplification is performed. Use log tables for multiplications and divisions and
show steps of these calculations neatly in the note-book.
4. Percentage error. Percentage error gives the accuracy of the result. If the
standard value of the quantity is given then percentage error must be calculated
by using the following formula:

5. Verification. The result is obtained by some other direct method and results are
compared.

On the Right-Hand Page (Ruled Page)

(To be written by pen and completed at home)

Date……….. Experiment No………. Page

No…………..

1. Objective. The object of the experiment to be performed should be stated clearly

and precisely
2. Apparatus. Instruments and items required for performing the experiment, are
listed here
3. Theory/Working formula. In this head, the statement of the law to be verified or the
principle involved in the experiment must be written. The formula used must also
be written clearly explaining the symbols involved. The derivation of formula is not
necessary.
4. Procedure/Method. The different steps taken for performing the experiment must
be mentioned in short. The description must be in first person and past tense
(e.g., I did this. I did that).
5. Result. Express the result with proper unit and sign.
6. Precautions. Mention all those precautions which were actually taken on the
instructions from the book or the teacher. Keep in mind the reasons for taking
them.
7. Sources of error. These are related with the precautions to be taken.
Possible errors of observations
When a physical quantity is measured by an instrument then the results contain some
uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated quantity which is based on
measured values, also has an error. The discrepancy between true value and measured
value of a physical quantity is called error. The errors in measurement can be classified
as:
(i) Systematic error and
(ii) Random error.
(i) Systematic error. A systematic error is one that always produces same sign (either
positive or negative). This error is due to known causes. Systematic error can be sub
divided as :
(a) Instrumental errors. These errors arise due to imperfection design or calibration of
the measuring instrument e.g., zero error is the instrumental error. It has a constant
magnitude which can be found by measuring a known quantity from it. Suitable
corrections are applied to experimental values to eliminate this error.
(b) Personal error. They arise due to an individual bias, lack of proper knowledge
about the setting of apparatus, precautions or individual carelessness, e.g., parallax
error. Different experimentalist using the same apparatus do not obtain exactly the
same result. This error is personal error. It is because they may not be equally serious
and attentive in their performances. Oiie has to be alert to avoid it.
(c) External cause error. This error is caused when external factors such as
temperature and pressure change during experiment. The changes are noted and
correction formula is applied.
(d) Imperfection error. Sometimes, errors arise due to imperfection in experimental
technique or procedure, e.g., the temperature measured by a thermometer of a human
body will be more accurate when thermometer is placed inside the mouth than in armpit.
(ii) Random errors. These errors occur irregularly without knowing the cause and
hence are random with respect to sign and size. It can be called chance error, e.g., To
determine the resistivity of a given wire by using a meter bridge, a screw gauge is used.
Due to non-uniform
area of cross-section of the wire at different places, the screw might have been
tightened unevenly in the different observations. In such a case, it may not be possible
to indicate which observation is most accurate. Therefore, such error can be reduced by
taking a large number of observations and then taking their mean.

Least count and permissible error of a measuring instrument

A measuring instrument measures a quantity. The least amount of the quantity, which
can be correctly measured by the measuring instrument, is called the least count (L.C.)
of the instrument. All the readings or measured values are good only upto this value.
This error associated with the resolution of the instrument. The least count puts limit on
the accuracy of the measuring instrument and hence, some error always creeps in. This
error is called the permissible error of the instrument. This error occurs with both
systematic and random errors. This error can be reduce by using instruments of higher
precision (resolution), improving experimental techniques etc. It is equal to the half of
the least count.
Accuracy of the observations
When a quantity is measured by a measuring instrument, an error equal to half the least
count is introduced in the measurement. The error will be less, if least count is less and
relative error will be insignificant if the measured quantity is very large. Therefore, the
accuracy of measurement increases with the decrease in the least count of the
measuring instrument.

Accuracy of result
The result in an experiment is generally obtained by multiplying different observed
quantities. The accuracy of this result depends upon the least accurate observation
involved in the experiment. Hence, after making calculations, the result should be
expressed in such a manner that the number of decimal places in the result is the same
as in the least accurate observation. The number of decimal places is reduced by
rounding off the right most digit.

Rounding off
If right most digit is less than 5, it is neglected. If it is more than 5 (say 6 to 9), then it is
considered as 10. It means that the digit first left to right most digit is increased by 1. If
the right most (insignificant digit) is 5 then preceding digit left unchanged if it is even and
is raised by 1 if it is odd. Thus, rounding off has reduced decimal place by one. The
same is repeated till required number of decimal places have been left.

Percentage error
The accuracy of a result is not known by the actual amount of error, which is the
difference between the actual and the experimental (or observed) value of the quantity
being determined. The accuracy is known by the percentage error, which is obtained as
Significant figures
Measurement of any physical quantity is never absolutely correct. The accuracy
depends upon the least count of the measuring instrument, which becomes clear by the
manner in which the result is written. If the length of an iron cylinder measured by a
metre rod is 2.2 cm, it may be 2.17 cm when measured by a Vernier calipers and further
2.176 cm when measured by a screw gauge. The results written have 2, 3 and 4 figures
respectively. It clearly shows that measuring instruments have least count 0.1 cm, 0.01
cm and 0.001 cm respectively. The figures (2, 3 and 4) in above example are called
significant figures. In these figures the right most figure (digit) is reasonably correct
while others are absolutely correct. “The significant figures in a measured quantity
indicate the number of digits in which we have confidence” rules for finding the
significant figures are:

1. All the non-zeros digits are significant, e.g., 2857 contain four significant figures.
2. All the zeros between two non-zeros digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal
point is placed, e.g., 280057, 2.80057 and 280.057 have six significant figures.
3. If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to the left
of
the first non-zeros digit are not significant, e.g. 0.002857, the underlined zeros are
not significant. It contains four significant figures.
4. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant, e.g., 32800
contain
only three significant digits.
5. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant, if they come from a
measurement, e.g., the distance between two stations is measured 600 km then it
has three significant figures.
6. The trailing (last) zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant, e.g.,
30.00 contain four significant figures.
7. The significant figures of a measured values does not change when it is changed
from one system to another system of measurement e.g., the length of a rod 234
cm = 2.34 m, both have three significant figures.

Graph

(a) Definition: A graph is a line, straight or curved, showing the relation between two
variable quantities (or their powers or functions) of which one varies as a result of the
change in the other. The quantity that is made to alter at will, is called the independent
variable and the other which varies as a result of this change, is called the dependent
variable. Thus, the relation between natural numbers (independent variable) and their
squares (dependent variable) can be shown by means of a graph.
(b) Importance: A graph gives not only the relation between two variable quantities in a
pictorial form, it also enables us

1. to verify certain laws such as Boyle’s Law,

2. to find some unknown values such as the length of a second’s pendulum,
3. to calibrate certain instruments such as an ammeter, and
4. to find the maximum or the minimum value of a dependent variable such as angle
of minimum deviation.

(c) Plotting a graph: Graphs are generally plotted on a paper ruled in millimeter or
centimetre. The following are a few simple rules that will help a student a lot in plotting a
good graph:

1. For drawing a graph, take at least six observations extending equally over a wide
range.
2. Take a properly ruled graph paper and draw two thick lines at right angle to each
other at the bottom and the left hand edge of the paper to indicate the axes of
reference. Take the horizontal line as the abscissae or X-axis and the vertical as
the ordinate or Y-axis, intersecting at a point O, called the origin.
3. Represent the independent variable along X-axis from left to right and the
dependent variable along Y-axis from below upwards. Write clearly under the X-
axis and on the left of the Y-axis, the quantity which is represented on each.
4. Examine carefully the experimental data and note the range of variation of the
two variables (physical quantities) to be plotted. Examine the number of divisions
available on the two axes drawn on the graph paper. Now, choose a suitable
scales for the axes keeping in mind that resulting graph should cover almost the
entire portion of the graph paper as shown in Fig. This gives a suitable curve. If
both variables have zero values to begin with or you are required to find the zero
position of one of the variables, take zero as the origin on both the scales. In all
other cases the origin need not represent zero but it should represent a round
number nearest to but less than the smallest value of the corresponding variable.
Mark the ends only of the thick lines to indicate the values of the variable in round
numbers.
Of course, it will be more complicated to take the actual least values of the two
variables at the origin.
5. Plot the points for various pairs of corresponding values of the two variables and
draw a small circle O or put a cross (x) around each of the plotted points.
6. If the points plotted appear to be nearly in a straight line, draw a straight line pass-
ing exactly through most of the points and symmetrically through the rest. If the
points do not appear to be in a straight line, draw a free hand smooth curve so
that the maximum number of points lie exactly on it and the rest are evenly
distributed on either side of it.
7. Write the name of the graph at the top of the graph paper in words “graph
showing the relation between x (independent variable) andy (dependent variable).”
8. Write down the proper scales taken along both the axes on the top of graph paper,
under the graph heading.
 9. Use a millimeter graph paper for greater accuracy in the result.

Some well- known geometrical figure obtained by graph

Logarithms
Logarithm literally means a rule to shorten Arithmetic, reduces to a few days the labour
of many months, and doubles, as it were, the life of a mathematician besides freeing
him from the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations. —Laplace
Logarithms were invented by Napier.
“My lord, I have undertaken this journey purposely to see your person, to know by what
engine of wit or ingenuity you came first to think of this most excellent help in
Mathematics, viz., the logarithms.” —Briggs to Napier
Definition and Notation. If ax = N, then x is called the logarithm of N to the base a, and
is denoted by loga N [read “log N to the base a”].
[In words. The logarithm of a number to a given base is the index of the power to which
the base must be raised to equal that number].
Example: ... 23= 8 ∴ 3 is the logarithm of 8 to the base 2 i.e., log2 8 = 3.
Logarithms are of two types : (i) Naperian, in which the base is e. They are not used in
practice, (ii) Common, in which the base is 10. They are commonly used. When the
base is not mentioned, it is implied that the base is 10. Tables of logarithms of natural
numbers to the base 10 are given at the end of the book.
 Common Logarithm

Logarithm of a number consists of two parts:

1. Characteristic is the integral part [whole or natural number].

2. Mantissa is the fractional part generally expressed in decimal form.

Note. The mantissa is always positive.

How to find the Characteristic of a number? The characteristic depends on the
magnitude of the number and is determined by the position of the decimal point. For
number of the decimal point. For numbers smaller than one [decimal fractions], it is
negative and one
more than the number of zeros between the decimal point and first digit.

How to find the Mantissa of a number? The value of mantissa depends on the digits
and their order and is independent of the position of the decimal point. As long as the
digits and their order is the same the mantissa is the same, whatever be the position of
the decimal point. The logarithm tables give the mantissa only. They are usually meant
for numbers con- taining four digits, and if a number consists of more than four figures,
it is rounded-off to four figures after determining the characteristic. To find mantissa the
tables are consulted in the following manner :
(i) The first two significant figures of the number are found at the extreme left vertical
column of the table where in the number lying between 10 and 99 are given. The
mantissa of the figures which are less than 10 can be determined by multiplying the
figures by 10.
(ii) Along the horizontal line in the topmost column the figures are given. These
correspond to the third significant figure of the given number.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(iii) Further difference column under

 123 456 789

Corresponds to the fourth significant figure

Example 1. Find the logarithm of368.6.

The number has 3 figures to the left of the decimal point. Hence, its characteristic is 2.
To find the mantissa ignore the decimal point and look for 36 in the first vertical column
and 8 in the central topmost column. Proceed from 36 along a horizontal line towards
the right and from 8 vertically downwards. The two lines meet at a point where the
number 5658 is written. This is the mantissa of368. Proceed further along the horizontal
line and look vertically below the figure 6 in difference column. You will find the figure 7
there. Hence, the mantissa of 3686 is 5658 + 7 = .5665.
∴ The logarithm 368.6 is 2.5665 (log 368.6 = 2.5665).

Example 2. Find the logarithm of368600.

The characteristic of this number is 5 and the mantissa is the same as in example 1.
∴ log 368600 = 5.5665.

Example 3. Find the logarithm of .00368633.

The characteristic of this number is 3 as there are two zeros following the decimal point.
We can find the mantissa of only 4 significant figures. Hence, we neglect the last 2
figures (33) and find the mantissa of 3686 which is 5665.
∴ log .00368633 = 3.5665.
When the last figure of a number consisting of more than 4 significant figures is equal to
or more than 5, the figure next to the left of it is raised by one and so on till we have only
4 significant figures and if the last figure is less than 5 it is neglected as in the last
example.
If we have the number 3686.58, the last figure is 8, therefore, we shall raise the next
figure to 6 and since 6 is again more than 5, we shall raise the next figure to 7 and find
the logarithm of 3687.

Antilogarithm. The number whose logarithm is x, is called the antilogarithm of x and is

denoted by antilog x.
Thus, since log 2 = .30103, antilog .30103 = 2.

Example 1. Find the number whose logarithm is 1.6078.

1. Removing 1 (the integral part) from the given logarithm, we get .6078. The first
two figures from the left are .60, the third figure is 7 and the fourth is 8.
2. In the table of the antilogarithms, look in the first vertical column for .60. In this
horizontal row under the column headed by 7, we find the number 4046 at the
intersection.
 3. In the continuation of this horizontal row and under the mean differences column
on the right headed by 8, we find the number 7 at the intersection. Adding 7 to
4046, we get 4053. Now 4053 is the figure of which .6078 is the mantissa.
4. The characteristic = 1. This is one less than the number of digits in the integral
part of the required number, hence, the number of digits in the integral part of the
required number = 1 + 1 = 2. The required number is 40.53 i.e., antilog 1.6078 =
40.53.

Example 2. Find the Antilogarithm of 2.6078.

As the characteristic is 2, there should be one zero on the right of decimal in the
number.

Laws of Logarithms: From the laws of indices, we obtain the following laws of
logarithms:
Trigonometrical ratios (T-ratios)
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle having a right angle at C (Fig). Let the angle at A be
denoted by θ. In this triangle, AB is the hypotenuse, AC is the base and BC is the
perpendicular.
T-ratios of complimentary angles

T-ratios of angles between 90° and 180°.

The following simple formulae can be utilised to find the trigonometrical ratios of the
angles between 90° and 180°.

T-ratios of angles between 180° and 360°.

The following simple formulae can be utilised to find the trigonometrical ratios of the
angles between 180° and 360°.

Trigonometrical formulae
T-ratios of some common angles

For T-ratios of angles 210°, 225°, 240°, 270°, 300°, 315°, 330° and 360°, formulae can
be used.