ARREY AWO 674687750 FORM 2 BIOLOGY NOTES

FORM TWO (2) BIOLOGY

1.0. The need for Reproduction
 To fulfil the cycle of the life
 Guarantees the next generation
 To create variations in the species

1.1. Reproduction in plants

Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to new members of their species. Plants
based on their species can reproduce asexually, sexually or both.

1.2. Sexual reproduction in plants; from the flower to the seed and fruit; qualities of good grain:
germination.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

A flower is the part of the shoot modified for sexual reproduction. It is refereed to as the reproductive
organ of seed bearing plants.

Longitudinal section through a flower

function of parts
• Stigma: Receives pollen grains during pollination.
• Anthers: Produces and stores pollen grains under protection.
• Filament: Holds up and supports the anthers to ease the dispersal of pollen grains.
• Style: Suspends the stigma for pollination. It also connects the stigma to the ovary through the
pollen tube.
• Petals: Attracts insects with its bright colour and sweet smell.
• Ovary: Contains ovules.
• Ovules: Becomes seeds after fertilization.
• Sepals: Protects the flower at the early bud stage.
• Receptacle: Supports the floral parts.

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The reproductive structures in a flower

• The stamens are the male reproductive organs, they produce pollen
• Pollen consist of tiny grains which develop in the sacs of a stamen. The pollen grains give rise to
male gametes.
• The carpel are the female reproductive organs. Each usually consist of 3 main parts: the stigma,
style and ovary.
• The ovary contains one or more ovules.
• The ovule consists of the embryo sac enclosed in 2 integuments or coats. The embryo sac contains
several nuclei including the ovum or egg.
• Most flowers have both the male and the female parts. They are hermaphrodites but some have
either the male or female part ie they are unisexual.

Pollination
Def: pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of stamens to the stigma of a carpel and
is an essential stage in the life cycle of a flowing plant.
There are 2 types of pollination
A) Self pollination
B) Cross pollination

a) Self Pollination
Pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same
plants.

b) Cross Pollination
Pollen transferred from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant of
the same species.

Agents Of Pollination
Agent of pollination are the factors which are responsible for the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of a flower. There are two most common agents which are wind and insects.

Home Work: Differences between self pollination and cross pollination

Self Pollination Cross Pollination

Fertilization
Fertilization is the process by which the male gamete meets with the female gamete to form a zygote.

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After fertilization in flowers;

• The ovule becomes the seed
• The ovary becomes the fruit
• The other flower parts die off (anthers, stigma, style, filament, sepals, petals)

Seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering known as the seed coat. Seed is
the final product of sexual reproduction and seed becomes relatively dry. The metabolic activity of the
embryo slows down and in majority of cases the embryo enter into a phase of inactivity called
dormancy or in some case if favourable conditions are available they germinate. Dormancy help the
plants to survive under unfavourable conditions and ensures its germination only under favourable
conditions.

Function of parts
• Seed Coat: it covers and protects the seed from damage.
• Micropyle: it is a small pore (tiny hole) near the scar. It permits air and water to enter the seed.
• Scar: it is the mark left on the seed where the seed detached from its fruit.
• Embryo: it is been made up of the plumule (young shout) and the radical (young root). It
germinates to form first roots and leaves.
• Cotyledon (Seed Leaves): it contains food for the young plant. They can either be monocots or
dicots.
Monocots: have one cotyledon and the seed cannot be divided into two halves. E.g. corn seed.
Dicots: they have two cotyledons and can be divided into two halves. E.g. Bean seed

Qualities Of Good Seeds

1. It should have required level of physical purity:
2. Seed must be of true type i.e. genetically pure and suite the agro-climate and cropping system of the
locality.
3. Seed should be viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential

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4. Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infections.
5. Seed should be clean, free from seed weeds or any inert material.
6. Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged
7. Seed should be fresh as possible or of proper age.
8. Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture content (8-12%)
9. Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%)
10. Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.

Importance of seeds
• They help to ensure continuity of plant life.
• They help to disperse the plant.
• They are use in the production of medicine.
• Some seeds serve as food e.g. bean, maize, Millette, coco nut etc

Seed Dispersal: it is the transfer or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. Seeds can be
dispersed by wind, water, animals or explosion mechanism.

Importance of seed dispersal

• It prevents competition for useful substances like sunlight and nutrients
• It prevents overcrowding amongst plants
• It helps plants to colonize new environment

Germination
Germination is the process by which the embryo grows from the seed and establishes itself as a
seedling.
Types of germination: Germination can be of two types
(a) Epigeal germination; where cotyledons come above the ground and form the first leaves of the
new plant e.g. in castor, bean, plumule emerges from the cotyledon
(b) Hypogeal germination; where cotyledons remain underground and plumule emerges from the soil
and develops into the shoot system. e.g. maize, rice etc.

Conditions necessary for seed germination

1. Water
2. Passage through animal’s digestive system -seed coat may be too tough (some)
3. Oxygen -needed for respiration
4. Light
5. Temperature -vary species to species, also individual to individual
6. Increase in hormones -especially, gibberellins

Steps of germination
7. Imbibition of water (through the micropyle) and by the seed coat.
8. Seed swells up as it gets hydrated.

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9. Enzyme activity converts the reserved seed food into soluble forms (glucose, amino acid, fatty
acids)
10. The seed coat bursts and radicle emerges (grows into root) and then the plumule grows and
develops into shoots.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

1.3. Vegetation multiplication as the basis of cloning:
A. Vegetative propagation (multiplication) or asexual propagation: This is the method of
reproducing plants with the use of organs other than the seed and spore. Vegetative propagation results
in the formation of clones. A clone is an organism that is produced asexually and is genetically identical
(exact copy) to a single parent.
i. Natural vegetative propagation methods: The natural method of vegetative propagation utilizes
plant organs other than the seed and spore which, even without the involvement of man, serve as plants'
means of perpetuating their species. These plant organs include:
1. Clove - in garlic
2. Corm and cormel – in cocoyam
3. Rhizome - in ginger
4. Runner - in strawberry
5. Sucker - in banana and plantain
6. Stolon - bermuda grass and mint
7. Tuber and Tubercle – in Irish potato and yams
8. Tuberous root – in cassava and sweet potato
9. Bulb and bulblet - in onion
natural (plantains, sugar cane, onion, potato, cocoyam, etc.)

ii. Artificial forms of vegetative propagation: Artificial vegetative propagation does not occur
naturally. This type of propagation may be carried out in order to get healthier plants, desired traits,
more rapid and efficient production rate of offspring or for general experimentation. Methods include:
- Budding: It is the insertion of the mature bud (scion) with the piece of a bark underneath the bark of
the stock plant in such a way that the exposed tissues of both stock & scion are brought into contact
with each other.
- Cuttings: this is simply where a stem is cut from a plant and replanted. Not all plants can reproduce
in this manner. Examples include pineapple, plum and grapes.
- Grafting: In grafting two plants are used to develop a new plant with combined traits from the two

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parent plants. In grafting the scion is the above ground part of one plant. The scion is attached to the
stock which is the rooted part of the second plant.
- Marcotting or air Layering: In layering a shoot of a parent plant is bent until it can be covered by
soil. The tip of the shoot remains above ground. New roots and eventually a new plant will grow. These
plants can then be separated.
- Tissue culture: this is the growth of a new plant in a cultured medium containing all the substances
necessary for growth. *artificial (grafting, marcotting, cutting, layering…)

Layering Grafting Marcotting

1.4. Other forms of asexual reproduction asexual reproduction:

budding in brewer’s yeast, fission in bacteria

1.5 Reproduction in animals

Sexual Reproduction: In animals, sexual reproduction involves two parents that produce two distinct
gametes and fertilization.

2.2. Sexual reproduction: (Fertilization and Development)

Fertilization: This the process that involves the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote and
then leads to the development of an embryo (developing child). There are two types of fertilization:
Internal and external fertilization
- Internal fertilization is characterized by sperm fertilizing the egg within the female body. Internal
fertilization occurs in most land animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate (reptiles, birds and
mammals).
- External fertilization is characterized by the sperm fertilizing the egg outside of the organism.
External fertilization occurs mostly in animals living in aquatic environments (e.g. fishes, amphibians).
Development: After fertilization an embryo is formed, and animal tissues organize into organ
systems (development); some animals may also undergo metamorphosis which can be incomplete or
complete metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis: The changes in form that occur as an organism approaches adulthood. When the
immature insects and the adults are similar in appearance, the process is called simple metamorphosis,
and the juvenile insects are called nymphs. When the immature insects and the adults have different
forms, the process is called complete metamorphosis, and the worm, or grub, like juvenile insects are
called larvae. Metamorphosis also occurs in amphibians.

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Cycle of development in animals

Animals have two main types of development cycle which are complete metamorphosis and
incomplete metamorphosis.

Amphibian metamorphosis: Egg Embryo Tadpole Froglet Frog

Insect metamorphosis: Egg Larva Pupa Adult (Imago)

Impact of larval forms on plant yield

Insect’s larvae cause reduction in biological yield and economic yield. They cause:
 Complete plant death
 Partial plant death and
 Stunted growth

IMPORTANCE OF METAMORPHOSIS
• It helps the different stage of the life cycle to live in different habitats and exploit different food
thereby reducing the competition for food between various stag in the life cycle.
• It helps the lava and adult stage to be highly specialized for particular functions usually the lava
stage is for feeding while the adult for reproduction
• If a species has several stages on the life cycle the lava stage maybe able to disperse the species
further before maturing.

3. Rearing techniques/Animal husbandry (a few cycles of development-change of form/morphology

in animals, metamorphosis in insects and amphibians- Impact of larval forms on plant yield).
Animal breeding is the selective mating of animals to increase the possibility of desired
characteristics in the offspring. It is easily performed with domestic animals e.g., cows, goats, sheep,
dogs, cats etc.

Desirable characteristics to select for animal breeding

 Increase beef, milk or egg production
 Fast maturity
 Increased resistance to diseases
 Body form

Techniques of animal breeding

- Inbreeding: Crossing between closely related animals
- Outbreeding: Crossing of distantly related animals to produce hybrids.
- Artificial insemination: Process of collecting sperm from a male animal an introducing into a female.
- Artificial incubation: Hatching of eggs in an incubator
- Cloning: Producing many identical copies of an organism by asexual reproduction.

3. Improving the quality and quantity of production

This can be done through good management practices, one of which is the elimination of parasites.

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A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another organism called the host for food and
shelter causing harm to it. There are two types of parasites:
- Endoparasites: These are parasites which live inside the body of the host e.g. intestinal worms.
- Ectoparasites: These are parasites that live on the outer surface of the host. This group includes
ticks, jiggers, mites and the lice.
- Semi parasites or hemi parasites: These are parasites of plants, obtaining some food from a host but
undergoing photosynthesis e.g. African mistletoe.
- Complete or Holoparasite: It is a plant that is completely parasitic on other plants and has virtually
no chlorophyll e.g. mildew, rust, corn smooth.

3.1. Prevention/elimination of parasites

1 Keeping our animal's surroundings clean
2 keeping animals out of contaminated areas
3 Breeding parasite resistant animals
4 Controlling the density of livestock (stocking rate).
5 Periodic deworming of infected animals
6 Separating age groups from young groups in intensive production systems.
7 Assuring an adequate plan of nutrition.
8 Cultivating resistant varieties of plants
9 Using pesticides to kill pests on affected plants
10 Using biological control methods use natural predators such as ladybirds
11 Cutting off and throwing of diseased parts of plants
12 Crop rotation with a non-host plant is a very effective method to limit nematode growth
-animal parasites-- ecto-parasites (lice, ticks, jiggers)
-endo-parasites-(intestinal worms, plant parasites)
-semi-parasites (African mistletoe)
-complete parasites (mildew, rust, corn smut).

3.3. Biological and chemical control

a. Biological control of pests: Biological control involves using natural predators (natural enemies
of the pest) to kill the pests. Examples of biological control are;
• Fish eating mosquito such as Gambusia affinis Panchax and Minnows can be introduced into an
area with mosquito larvae.
• To control rats by using cats.

b. Chemical control: Chemical control of pests involves the use of chemicals (poisons) called
pesticides, which kill pests. Examples of pesticides are;
• Herbicides, which kill plants or herbs.
• Insecticides, which kill insects.
• Fungicides which kill fungi.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS.

a) advantages of chemical control of pest

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• The chemical kills the pest

• The chemicals are quite easy to use
b) disadvantages of chemical control of pest
• The chemicals are expensive
• They are non specific ie they may kill other organisms as well as pest
• Many are persistent ie they may remain in the bodies of organisms, for a very long time
• Many pesticides accumulate in the bodies of organisms over time, as they are passed along food
chains, the cause harm to the organism which eat them
• They may harm humans if taken into the body directly
• Pest may be become resistant to them, so they are no longer effective

4. Transformation of foodstuffs.
Food transformation is the conversion of raw food by physical or chemical manners, into other
forms of food.

Reasons why food is processed or transformed

• To improve taste
• Making food which are more nutritious
• Flavouring food to make them more attractive
• To create package food which are sold commercially
• To remove harmful organism such as bacteria in milk making it safe
• To preserve food thereby making available all year round

Disadvantages of processing food

• Some nutrients maybe lost during the processing of food. e.g. it destroys vitamin C
• Food additives maybe harmful to some people eg using sugar as an additive endangers diabetes

4.1. Role of microorganisms in the transformation of foods: fermentation (alcohol, lactic acid,
bread and yoghurt)
• Microorganisms which carry out fermentation (respire anaerobically) are used in industries in the
transformation of food.
• The industrial manufacture of food such as yoghurt, vinegar, bread involves the use of
microorganisms such as yeast(fungi) and bacteria.

BACTERIA AND THE MANUFACTURE OF YOGHURT

• In the making of yoghurt, a bacterium called Lactobacillus is used
• Raw milk is first of all pasteurized by heating it to a temperature of 90oC and then cooled to
between 40oC and 45oC
• Pasteurization is carried out in order to destroy microorganisms such as tuberculosis bacteria that
may be present in milk
• The bacterium is then added and the milk is kept at this temperature 24-36hrs
• Over time, the bacteria convert into lactic acid by anaerobic respiration

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• The lactic acid curdles the milk and also gives yoghurt its sour taste
• The flavour of the yoghurt cab be altered by adding fruits juice that has been sterilized.

BACTERIA AND THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEESE

• Raw milk is first pasteurized to destroy harmful microorganisms
• The milk is then cooled to around 30oC
• Lactic acid producing bacteria eg Streptococcus and the enzyme rennet are then added
• The bacteria ferment the lactose sugar in milk to produce lactic acid, creating a favourable
environment for rennet to work (rennet can only work in an acid medium)
• Rennet causes the milk to separate into a solid curd and liquid whey in a process called curdling
• The curd is separated from the whey
• The curds are pressed and moulded and left to mature or ripen. Sometimes further bacteria or fungi
are added to provide flavours.

YEAST AND THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL

Yeast is a fungus that is added to sugar solution to make alcohol
• The yeast is allowed to ferment the sugar at a controlled temperature in a vessel called fermenter
• The optimum temperature for the growth of yeast is about 20oC
• The yeast converts the sugar to alcohol by anaerobic respiration with CO2 evolved as a waste
product
• As the concentration of alcohol rises, it eventually kills the yeast, which must then be filtered from
the liquor to produce a yeast-free alcoholic drink
• Drinks with higher alcohol content, such as spirit(whisky) are produced by distillation of the
original alcoholic drink

YEAST AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BREAD

Baking uses the fungus yeast
• A process similar to the one described above occurs in bread making.
• Flour and water are used to make dough and then yeast and little sugar are added
• The yeast then carry out fermentation, producing CO2 bubble, which are trapped inside the warm
dough, causing it to rise and swell. This stage of bread making is called proving
• Although alcohol is produced by the anaerobic respiration of yeast, it is CO2 which is important
• The mixture id left in a warm place for around half an hour
• The CO2 gas causes the dough to rise giving it a light texture
• The dough is then baked at high temperatures in an oven
• The higher temperature cooks the bread and also evaporates the alcohol produced during
fermentation.

5.Quality Nutrition
5.1. Nutritional diseases
Nutritional disease, any of the nutrient-related diseases and conditions that cause illness in humans.
They may Include deficiencies or excesses in the diet, obesity and eating disorders, and chronic

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diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, cancer, and diabetes mellitus. Examples are:

5.1.1 Due to poor feeding (obesity, kwashiorkor, beriberi, marasmus)

1. Kwashiorkor: A protein-deficiency disorder found among children characterized by wasting,
loss of hair and skin pigmentation, anaemia, blindness, and other symptoms.
2. Marasmus: A protein- and calorie-deficiency disorder characterized by the wasting away of
muscle and skin in children.
3. Scurvy is the deficiency disease of vitamin C. Its symptoms include bleeding gums.
4. Rickets is the deficiency disease of both Vitamin D and Calcium in children in which bones soften
and become prone to fractures and deformity.
5. Anaemia is the deficiency disease of iron. The amount of haemoglobin decreases causes short
breath and tiredness.
6. Beriberi: it is a malnutrition condition which results from vitamin B1 (Thiamine) deficiency.

5.1.2. Body mass as an indication of overfeeding or underfeeding.

Body mass index (BMI)
Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based on height and weight that applies to adult
men and women. The body mass is an indication of over feeding or under feeding.

How is BMI calculated?

BMI is weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared. Because height is commonly
measured in centimetres, divide height in centimetres by 100 to obtain height in meters.
Formula = weight (kg) / [height (m)]2
Example: Weight = 68 kg, Height = 165 cm (1.65 m)
Calculation: 68 ÷ (1.65)2 = 24.98

How is BMI interpreted for adults?

For adults 20 years old and older, BMI is interpreted using standard weight status categories. These
categories are the same for men and women of all body types and ages.
The standard weight status categories associated with BMI ranges for adults are shown in the following
table.
BMI Weight Status
Below 18.5 Underweight
18.5 – 24.9 Normal or Healthy Weight
25.0 – 29.9 Overweight
30.0 and Above Obese

5.1.3. Others (diabetes, hypertension, etc.)

I. Hypertension: A condition present when blood flows through the blood vessels with a force
greater than normal. Also called high blood. Hypertension can strain the heart, damage blood

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vessels, and increase the risk of attack, stroke, kidney problems, and death. A blood pressure
reading has a top number (systolic) and bottom number (diastolic). The ranges are:
- Normal: Less than 120 over 80 (120/80)
- Prehypertension: 120-139 over 80-89
II. Diabetes: Diabetes is a disease in which the body is unable to properly use and store glucose (a
form of sugar) causing one’s blood glucose (sometimes referred to as blood sugar) to rise too
high. Symptoms are: frequent urination, excessive thirst, unexplained weight loss, feeling very
tired much of the time, very dry skin etc.
III. Obesity: It is eating too much of every nutrient, especially carbohydrates and fats. Obesity
doesn’t strike alone, it brings with it several other diseases such as high blood pressure, cardiac
diseases, diabetes, stress on joints and bones as well as other psychological issues like low self-
esteem and lack of confidence.

5.2. Calorific values of foods

The calorific value of a food item is the amount of energy available from an item of food when
digested, mostly from carbohydrates and fats. The energy value of a food indicates how much energy
the human body can gain through metabolism. The energy value is specified in kilojoules (kj) per 100g
or 100ml. In addition, the specification is often in kilocalories (kcal). The total energy value of a food
product results from the addition of the energy content of each nutrient component.

How to calculate the Energy available from foods

To calculate the energy available from a food, multiply the number of grams of carbohydrate, protein,
and fat by 4, 4, and 9, respectively. Then add the results together.
For example, 1 slice of bread with a tablespoon of peanut butter on it contains 16 grams carbohydrate,
7 grams protein, and 9 grams fat:
16g carbohydrate x 4 kcal/g = 64 kcal
7g protein x 4 kcal/g = 28 kcal
9g fat x 9kcal/g = 81 kcal
Total = 173 kcal
Food Item Quantity Calorific Value (apex.)
Egg boiled 1 80
Egg Fried 1 110
Bread slice 1 45
Bread slice with butter 1 90
Cooked Rice/Plain 1 cup 120
Cooked Rice/Fried 1 cup 150
Salad 1 cup 100
Tea/Black/without sugar 1 cup 10
Coffee with milk & sugar 1 cup 45
Beer 1 bottle 200

5.3. Project design to combat an identified deficiency or nutritional disease in the community.

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6.Food hygiene
Definitions
Food hygiene: Food hygiene is the practice of ensuring food is safe, sound and wholesome, by
protecting it from contamination, preventing bacterial multiplication and by the destruction of harmful
bacteria.
Food contamination: Contamination is the presence of any harmful or objectionable substance in
food.
Food poisoning: Food poisoning is an illness that occurs usually between 1 and 36 hours after eating
contaminated or poisoned food, the most common symptoms being diarrhoea, vomiting and
dehydration.
Food-borne disease: Food-borne disease is a disease or illness caused by micro-organisms carried by
food or water.

Essential principles of food hygiene

• Keep yourself clean and wear clean clothing.
• Wash your hands thoroughly: before starting work and after each break, before handling food,
waste or raw foods, and after using the toilet or blowing your nose.
• Do not handle food to be consumed by others if you have any skin, nose, throat, stomach or
bowel trouble or infected wound.
• Cover cuts and sores with a waterproof, high-visibility dressing.
• Avoid unnecessary handling of food.
• Never smoke, eat or drink in a food room, or cough/sneeze over food.
• Food should not be prepared too far in advance of service.
• Perishable food should either be kept refrigerated or piping hot.
• It is imperative that the preparation of raw and cooked food are kept strictly separate.
• Reheated food must get piping hot: 82° minimum.
• All equipment and surfaces should be kept clean.
• Follow any food safety instructions on food packaging’s

7. Physical and Social Health

7.1. Definition and importance of exercise to the body (muscles, brain, bones, body mass, blood
circulation)
Exercise: it is the movement and regular use of all body parts.

Importance of exercise
• It helps to prevent diabetes.
• It helps to reduce weight.
• It improves functioning of the immune system.
• It improves heartbeat and blood circulation.
• It gives the body good shape and posture.
• It improves gaseous exchange.

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• It helps the brain to function well.

• It helps prevent constipation.
• It makes our muscles stronger and function properly.

7.2. Practising work and recreational sports

7.3. Definition and importance of rest to the body.
Rest: it is the act of relaxing or sleeping bring all body activities to their minimum.

Importance of Rest
• When we are resting that is sleeping it helps in the repairs of worn out tissues in the body and the
building up of new ones, take place.
• It enables our body to recover and prevent fatigue.
• It enables the brain and muscles to relax and work well.

7.4. Health and social effects of Alcohol Consumption, Cigarette Smoking And Drug
Consumption on the body.
Alcohol Consumption
Health effects of alcohol consumption
• Drinking too much can weaken your immune system.
• Alcohol damages the brain (Alcohol interferes with the brain’s communication pathway).
• Cardiomyopathy – Stretching and drooping of heart muscle.
• Arrhythmia – Irregular heart beat.
• Increases the risk of Stroke.
• Increases the risk of Cancer (liver cancer, breast cancer, hand and neck cancer) .
• Heavy drinking takes a toll on the liver, and can lead to a variety of problems and liver
inflammations including: Stenosis, or fatty liver, Alcoholic hepatitis, Cirrhosis.
• High blood pressure.

Social effects of alcohol consumption

• it leads to crime.
• It leads to loneliness.
• It favours the risk of disease sprayed.
• It leads to poverty.
• there will be a decrease in work performance.
• It leads to dispute either with family members or neighbors.

Cigarette Smoking
Health effects of Smoking
• It is a risk factor for lung cancer, lip, mouth, blood (leukaemia) and throat cancer.
• It may lead to mental problems.
• It causes Heart diseases.
• For pregnant women, smoking leads to miscarriage, stilt birth, malformation of unborn child
and premature birth.

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• It leads to premature death.

• Smoking damages blood vessels and increases the risk of heart disease such as coronary heart
diseases and stroke.
• It affects the lungs leading to breathing difficulties diseases like bronchitis.
• Smoking can seriously affect your sex life and both men’s and women’s fertility. It can also
harm the unborn child during pregnancy and after he or she is born.
• The body of a smoker will take longer to repair itself and lead to other complications after an
operation.
• Smoking affects the health of your teeth and gums and can cause tooth loss.
• Smoking can increase your risk for cataracts (clouding of the eye’s lens that makes it hard for
you to see)

Social effects of Smoking

• It increases crime waves.
• Causes social isolation.
• It pollutes the air and causes irritation to the eyes.
• It gives bad body odour to smokers.
• It is wastage of money and resources.
• Can lead to fire accidents due to careless dumping of glowing cigarette stump after smoking.
• The smell of cigarette smoke is a nuisance to non-smokers (pollute the air).
• May cause diseases to non-smokers around due to passive inhaling of the smoke.
• It is economically wasteful as the smoker is always short of money since he spends much on
buying cigarette, and treating cigarette related diseases.
• Cigarette smoke affects the eyes of non-smokers.
• Nicotine stains the hands and teeth of smokers, and makes the smoker to have a bad body odour
and bad breath.

Drug Consumption
Health effects of Drugs
• Loss of memory and leads to mental problems.
• Reduced level of the hormone testosterone in males.
• It makes the individuals to become less sensitive.
• It reduces the desire for food and leads to lose of weight.
• It causes harm to the unborn child.
• Increases blood pressure causing irregular heartbeat.
• Weaken the immune system, increasing susceptibility to infections.
• Cause cardiovascular conditions ranging from abnormal heart rate to heart attacks. Injected
drugs can also lead to collapsed veins and infections of the blood vessels and heart valves.
• Cause nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain.
• Cause the liver to have to work harder, possibly causing significant damage or liver failure.
• Cause seizures, stroke and widespread brain damage that can impact all aspects of daily life by
causing problems with memory, attention and decision-making, including sustained mental

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confusion and permanent brain damage.

• Produce global body changes such as breast development in men, dramatic fluctuations in
appetite and increases in body temperature, which may impact a variety of health conditions.

Social effects of Drugs

• It leads to poor judgement.
• It is a risk factor to infections such as AIDS through the sharing of syringes.
• It leads to addiction and high crime wave.
• It leads to isolation and depression.
• It causes behavioural problems like aggressiveness and loss of self-control
• Drug addiction leads to forms of extreme behaviour.
• It leads to truanting from school by children.
• It leads to inefficiency at work, lateness for work, and poor personal hygiene.
• It increases the costs of policing, drug addiction helps lines, support groups and rehabilitation
clinics.
• People who are addicted very often turn to crime as stealing or fraud.

7.5. Raising awareness on the health consequences of alcohol, Cigarettes and drugs.
• Host a community wide event where friends and family can educate themselves on local
addiction resources.
• Join the NCADD (National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence) in spreading the
word on Alcohol and Drugs Awareness Month.
• Post information to your social media account about local alcohol screening events, or resources
for people looking to treat their alcoholism.
• Educate the public on the signs and symptoms of alcohol dependence.

8. Practices harmful to the adolescent reproductive health

1. Harmful traditional practices (HTPs)
Harmful traditional practices are those customs that are known to have bad effects on people’s health
and to obstruct the goals of equality, political and social rights and the process of economic
development. Some of the harmful traditional practices in Cameroon are:
1.1. Breast ironing:
"Breast ironing" is the Cameroonian custom of massaging young girl’s chests with hot tools like
spatulas and pestles in an attempt to flatten their developing breasts. This is done with the intention of
postponing their first sexual relationships by making their bodies less attractive to men. Parents often
fear that the girls won't finish their education if they meet a man and become pregnant.
The consequences of this can be disastrous for the victims' health—pains, abscesses, malformed
breasts, cysts, breast cancer, and breastfeeding issues are all common, not to mention the abundance of
psychological consequences like depression.
1.2. Female genital mutilation (FGM)

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The World Health Organization (WHO) defines female genital mutilation (also called ‘female genital
cutting’ or ‘female circumcision’) as any procedure which involves the partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia or which causes any other injury to the female genital organs whether for
cultural or any other non-therapeutic reasons. Instruments used include knives, scissors, razors, and
pieces of glass.
Consequences of FGM
• Severe pain, Bleeding, Infection, Failure to heal.
• Injury to the adjacent tissue of urethra, vagina, perineum and rectum
• Difficulty in passing urine
• Recurrent urinary tract infection
• Difficulties in menstrual flow
• Fistula.
• Psychosocial consequences like fear, depressions, sadness etc.
1.3. Marriage by abduction
It is the unlawful carrying away of woman for marriage. It is a form of sexual violence against the
woman
• Harmful effects of marriage by abduction
a. Maltreatment of girl including beating
b. Unhappy, unstable and loveless marriage
c. Psychological stress on the girl resulting to suicide
1.4. Polygamy
It is a form of marriage in which the man gets married to more than one wife
1.5. Rape
This is sexual intercourse that is forced on a person without his or her permission.
Effects of rape
• Vaginal bleeding
• Lack of interest in sex
• Painful sexual intercourse
• Unwanted pregnancy
• Sexually transmitted infections
1.6. Unsafe abortions
Abortion is the removal of a foetus from the womb before it is mature enough to live on its own
necessary skills to do it.
Traditional methods of abortion
1. Swallowing large doses of drugs
2. Inserting a sharp object into the uterus
3. Drinking or flushing the vagina with harmful liquids such as bleach
Harmful effects of unsafe abortion
• Some tissues might remain in the uterus and infect it
• Heavy bleeding results when incomplete abortion is not treated
• Other organs can be injured , including the cervix, ovaries, bladder etc

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9. Emergent behaviour to reproductive health (homosexuality, zoophily, pornography).

Homosexuality: it is the attraction between people of the same sex. Male homosexuals are called gays
and female homosexuals are called lesbians.
Effects of homosexuality
◦ There are higher chances of contracting STDs
◦ The is high risk of anal cancer, breast cancer, and cervical cancer
◦ Homosexual have very short life span
Zoophily or Bestiality: Zoophilia is the sexual attraction by humans to animals while bestiality is the
sexual activity between humans and animals.
Effects of zoophily
◦ Humans may be harmed by animals
◦ It leads to the transmission of diseases
◦ The is allergic reactions to animals’ saliva or semen
Pornography: it is the act of watching films, drawings, photographs and journals to arouse sexual
excitements in a person or people.
Effects of pornography
◦ It pushes youths to take part in early sexual relationships
◦ It gives young people wrong impression about sexual relationship and wrong sexual practices
◦ It leads to academic failure since the person spend his/her time in watching the movies rather
than studying.
Necrophilia: it is the feeling or sexual act with dead bodies. It may lead to the transmission of diseases.

10. STI, HIV/AIDS (as consequences of emergent harmful sexual behaviour).

STIs is an abbreviation for Sexually Transmitted Infections. They include; Gonorrhoea, Syphilis,
chlamydia, hepatitis B, HIV, herpes.

10.1. Gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia, hepatitis B

◦ Gonorrhoea: it is a bacterial infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea.
◦ Syphilis: it is a bacterial infection caused by Treponema pallidum.
◦ Chlamydia: it is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.
◦ Hepatitis B: it is a viral infection cause by the hepatitis B virus
Mode of transmission
◦ Through unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person
◦ By direct contact with body fluid of infected person.
Signs and Symptoms
◦ Rashes and pain
◦ Itches of the genital
◦ Genital ulcer
◦ Miscarriage and still birth (born dead)
◦ Lower stomach pain and back pain
◦ Burning sensation when passing urine
Effects of STIs

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◦ Infertility
◦ Inflammation of the liver in the case of Hepatitis B
◦ Eye infection of new born (for gonorrhoea)
◦ Neonatal sepsis (infection in baby’s blood stream)
◦ Miscarriages

10.2. HIV/AIDS
HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AIDS is caused by the virus called HIV which attacks human’s immune system and making them
vulnerable to all types of opportunistic diseases.
Signs and symptoms
◦ Prolonged chronic diarrhoea
◦ Unexplained weight loss
◦ Prolonged fever and headache
◦ Chronic cough
◦ General itching
◦ Constant fatigue
Mode of transmission
◦ By sharing blades, needles and other sharp objects with infected person
◦ Through unprotected sex with infected person
◦ From mother to child through breast feeding or during birth
◦ Through unscreened blood transfusion
◦ Through accidental work in the laboratory.

10.3. Prevention of STI, HIV/AIDS

• abstain from sexual intercourse
• use of condoms
• blood screen before transfusion
• sensitize the public about these infections

10.4. Hygiene of the reproductive organs.

How to Keep Your Genitals Clean
Remember, cleanliness is next to godliness and so a clean genital area is the most important step
towards genital hygiene.
• The genital area should be cleaned with soap and water once every day with a mild and
fragrance free soap.
• Cleaning the genitals just once every day and after sexual intercourse is quite enough. Anything
more or less may disturb your vaginal PH.
• The internal genitalia or vagina does not require cleaning, especially with soap. This area is
endowed with the good bacteria such as lactobacilli that produce lactic acid to destroy any

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harmful organisms. Washing may disrupt this pH resulting in the entry of unwanted infectious
organisms.
• Always clean the vulva or genital area before the anal region to prevent the entry of harmful
organisms from the anus into the genitals.
• While cleaning your genital area with a tissue or even while wiping it dry with a towel, always
pat dry and then go from front to back with a single stroke. This prevents the contamination of
the genitals with organisms from the anus that are known to cause urinary tract infections
among others.
• Avoid cleaning your genitals with hot or warm water, as doing so may result in dryness and
irritation. Using a hand held shower and some cold water is always recommended for this
purpose.
General Genital Hygiene Considerations:
• Do not share your undergarments and towels or washcloths with others. Always wash these
items immediately after use instead of leaving them in the laundry, particularly when suffering
from any infections of the genitals like vaginal thrush. Follow a strict one time use policy for
these items.
• Use only cotton and loose fitting underwear. While loose fitting underwear lowers perspiration
and the transmission of harmful organisms from the anal region to the genitals, cotton
underwear keeps the genital area dry by absorbing sweat and drying more quickly.
• Avoid spraying perfumes, deodorants, and other cosmetics around your genital area.

11.Greenhouse effect and climate change

11.1. Greenhouse effect
Definition: The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to the surface of the
Earth by “greenhouse gases”.

Causes
• Burning of Fossil Fuels.
• Deforestation.
• Increase in Population.
• Industrial Waste and Landfills.
• Use of inorganic fertilizers.

Effects
• Depletion of Ozone Layer.
• Global Warming.
• Smog and Air Pollution.
• Acidification of Water Bodies.
11.2. Climate change

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Definition: it is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere.

Causes
◦ Human activities such as deforestation, bush burning, industrialisation and agriculture
◦ Natural disasters like volcanic eruptions and solar variations
◦ Ozone layer depletion.
Effects
◦ Increase in the earth’s surface temperature (Global warming)
◦ Shrinking lakes due to decrease in precipitation
◦ Shortage of food and water
◦ Melting of glaciers and polar ice caps

11.3. Indicators of climate change and global warming

◦ Increase in temperature of the atmosphere
◦ Increase in oceanic temperature
◦ Oceans surfaces becomes darker
◦ Increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere
Control of climate change
◦ Avoid deforestation
◦ Avoid burning bushes during hunting
◦ Plant trees and encourage afforestation
◦ The use of chlorofluorocarbons should be stopped.

12. The ozone layer

12.1. Definition: it is a layer of the atmosphere that shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays of
light from the sun. this layer is very important and protects humans from getting skin cancer as a result
of ultraviolet light.

12.2. Role of the ozone layer

◦ It protects us from skin cancer caused by the sun
◦ It protects the earth against global warming

12.3. causes of destruction

◦ The use of chlorofluorocarbon fuels
◦ The use of methyl chloroforms in industries
◦ Bush burning
◦ Deforestation

12.4. Prevention of destruction

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• Limit private vehicle driving.

• Use eco-friendly household cleaning products.
• Avoid using pesticides and prevent ozone depletion.
• Banning the use of dangerous nitrous oxide.
• Developing stringent regulations for rocket launches.

13. Conservation of biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of all living things on earth, ie, plants, animals, fungi, etc and the
ecosystems in which they live and interact.

Biodiversity conservation
It is the preservation of all living things on earth including their ecosystems

13.1.Effects of civil engineering works, forest exploitation and intensive agriculture on

biodiversity

Effects of road construction, forest exploitation and intensive agriculture on biodiversity.

• As human population increases, large areas of forest are being cut down to build houses for human
settlement
• In order to link various towns together, extension road networks have to be constructed and this
involves the cutting down of trees
• As human population increases, there is need for more food to be cultivated to meet up with the
growing population

Effect of deforestation on biodiversity

• Removal of forest , destroys the habitat of animals and organisms are in danger of becoming
extinct.
• Many animal food supplies are taken away so, some starve to death
• Since carnivores feed on herbivores, they will also starve to death when the herbivores die.

13.2. Gardening (lawns, horticulture, green spaces…)

GARDENING
This is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture.

Importance of gardening
• Job creating and income generation from the sale of vegetables and spices
• It provides ready supplies of fresh vegetable s and spices
• Flower gardening around the house helps to beautify the environment
• Medicinal plants can be cultivated in the garden
• Gardening can also be practised as a relaxing activity

LAWNS

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This is an area of land planted with grass or other durable plants which are maintained at short height
and sued to beautify the environment.

HORTICULTURE
This is a branch of agriculture concerned with the cultivation of flowers, fruits,vegetables or
ornamental plants. People who practice horticulture are called horticulturalists. Horticulture is divided
into two branches
1. The cultivation of plants for food, which is also divided into two
a. Pomology : It deals with the cultivation of edible fruits and nut crops especially tree grown crops
b. Horticulture : It deals with the cultivation of vegetables eg carrots, tomatoes etc.
2. The cultivation of ornamental plants which are plants for decoration. It is also divided into two
branches:
a. Floriculture or flower farming: the cultivation and marketing of flowers or other plants used for
decoration
b. Landscape horticulture: The cultivation, marketing and maintenance of landscape plants.
Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land

GREEN SPACES
This is an area of grass, trees , set up for recreation or beautifying purposes in an urban area.
Benefits of green spaces
• It provides habitat for a variety of birds and other animals such as insects
• It prevents soil erosion and absorbs rain water thereby improving drainage
• It reduces noise pollution by the dense screen of trees and shrubs
• It provides a place for people to sit and relax and a place for children to play
• It serves as a shade, preventing sunlight from over heating the area beneath

Sustainable management of natural resources: water, air, soil

13.3. Sensitization and education

Sensitization literally means making people 'sensitive' about an issue. This is the core of awareness raising
and is what you ideally want to achieve - that people become aware and react to certain issues.

Activity: Choose a health danger or social danger to Sensitize form 4 & 5.

Education definition, the act or process of impacting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the
powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.

14. Common natural disasters in Cameroon.

A natural disaster is an extreme and sudden event caused by environmental factors , which causes a
large scale loss of life and property damage.

Examples of natural disasters in Cameroon

1. Limnic eruption : It is also called a lake overturn. It occurs when dissolve carbon dioxide

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suddenly erupts from deep lake waters, suffocating wild life, livestock and humans. E.g lake Nyos
Causes of limnic eruption
• The lake must be nearly saturated with carbon dioxide
• Carbon dioxide dissolves readily at very high pressure. In lakes , the bottom is at a much higher
pressure. This means that huge amount of carbon dioxide can be dissolved in large deep lakes.
• Once the lake is saturated with carbon dioxide, it is very unstable
Prevention of future eruption
• Remove carbon dioxide from the lake ( degassing)

2. Floods
A flood is a natural event where a piece of land that is usually dry land, suddenly gets submerged
( covered ) under water.
Causes of flooding
• Heavy rains
• Ice and snow melts
• River overflow
• Strong winds in coastal areas
• Landslides that block the flow of a river
Harmful effects of floods
• It causes loss of life and property
• Lack of proper drinking water due to contamination of water sources, leading to out break of
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, etc.
• Huge crop loss due to destruction of farm lands
• Land may become infertile due to removal of top soil layer
How to prevent floods
• Major developments should be avoided in areas that are subjected to flooding
• Walls should be built along water bodies such as rivers to prevent water from spilling out when the
volume of the water increases
• Education of the population on the dangers of flood
• Councils should not give building permits for construction in areas prone to floods
• Avoid deforestation
• Educate the population on the dangers of floods.

3. Volcanic Eruptions
This is simply an opening or vent on the earth surface through which magma escape onto the earth
surface.
Effects of volcanic eruptions
A) Negative effects of volcanoes
• Flowing lava may destroy houses, roads, natural vegetation
• Lava may flow into water bodies and later solidify, this will block passage of water leading to
flooding
• Volcanic eruptions can be accompanied by other natural hazards including earthquakes

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• Ash discharge very high into the stratosphere can have negative consequences on the ozone layer
• Gas and water supply pipes in towns can be destroyed by flowing lava, sparking fire and causing
flooding
B) Positive effects of volcanoes
• Erupting volcanoes provides touristic sides
• Some ash and lava breakdown become fertile soils that are rich in nutrients and become good areas
for crop planting activities
• Diamond is a precious mineral form when magma solidifies below the earth

Things to do in case of volcanic eruption

• Obey instructions from government officials be it to evacuate the area or not. Always keep your
radio or TV turn on.
• Wear face mask to avoid inhaling volcanic dust
• Keep away or move off to safer areas
• Avoid downward location from the eruption to avoid inhaling dust and ash particles.

4. Earthquakes
An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking or vibration of the earth surface due to movement of the
earth’s plates(plate tectonics)

Causes of Earthquakes
• It occurs due to movement of earth plates (plate tectonics) ie plates are huge layers that make up
the earth’s upper layer
• The vibration produced by earth quakes are called seismic waves

Negative Effects of Earthquakes

• Death of people due to the collapse of poorly constructed buildings
• It destroys bridges, roads,put down electric poles, crack water pipes and gas pipes under the ground
• Secondary effects include fire, dam failure and land slides, which may block water ways and causes
flooding
• Damage may occur to industries using dangerous materials resulting in possible chemical spills
• There may also be break down of communication facilities

How to prepare or reduce the risk in case of an earthquake

• Educate the population on the causes, effects and measures to be taken in the even of an earthquake
• Proper building permits and approvals must be given before people build in those areas
• During an earthquake, try to get away from \objects that will fall and break
• Families in regions at high risk should put together an earthquake kit. Ie the kit should contain first
aid supplies, canned food and water etc

5. Drought
Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a region for an extended

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period of time leading to general suffering in the society

Causes of Drought
• Lack of rainfall
• Dry out of surface water flows
• Deforestation exposes surface water to evaporation leading to drought
• Global warming: warmer temperatures turn to speed up drought

Effects of Drought
• Farmers spend more money to irrigate the crops and provide water for livestock on animal farms
and ranches
• It leads to low crop yield which may lead to famine
• It can lead to bush fires in which animals can die in the process
• It lowers the quality of soils because there is less organic activity, more wind erosion.
• It causes animals to migrate for long distances in search of water and they can be exposed to
predators
• It causes people to migrate to other places in search of better living conditions

Prevention of Drought
• Educate the population on the causes and effects of drought and things that can be done to prevent
drought
• Human activities such as deforestation should be discourage
• Water can be stored in reservoirs for irrigation and drinking
• By doing drought monitoring by observing and comparing with the existing water needs in various
sectors in the society.

The end

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