Chapter 16

Positive Psychological Interventions

in African Contexts: A Scoping Review

Tharina Guse

Abstract Research on positive psychology interventions (PPIs) are expanding, also

in non-Western contexts. This study examined literature on PPIs in African countries
through a scoping review. Databases were searched for studies implemented
between 2006 and 2019. The bibliographic search used a broad and inclusive
definition of PPIs and yielded 23 studies for analysis. The results indicated that the
majority of studies were implemented in group settings among adults in
South Africa, using quantitative research designs. However, research elsewhere on
the continent is starting to emerge. There is a need for more research among youth,
older persons and clinical populations. Future studies should also focus on cultural
adaptation of existing PPIs, and take cultural practices and traditions into account.

Keywords Positive interventions · Positive activities · African · South Africa ·

Scoping review

16.1 Introduction

A major aim of positive psychology is to enhance individual, group and community

well-being. Accordingly, research on interventions to increase well-being, or posi-
tive psychological interventions (PPIs), has expanded rapidly in the past decade.
Some meta-analyses indicated that PPIs are effective in increasing well-being and
decreasing depression (Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Weiss et al.,
2016) but most published studies were implemented in Western countries. A recent
review on the origins of studies on PPIs indicated that 78% originated in Western,
industrialised countries and only two originated from Africa, both from South Africa
(Hendriks et al., 2019). However, this review only included randomized controlled
trials (RCTs) which are less likely to be implemented in lower income countries due

T. Guse (*)
Department of Psychology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 375

L. Schutte et al. (eds.), Embracing Well-Being in Diverse African Contexts: Research
Perspectives, Cross-Cultural Advancements in Positive Psychology 16,
[Link]
376 T. Guse

to financial and logistical constraints (Hendriks et al., 2019; Struck et al., 2014). The
question arises: What interventions with the aim to enhance well-being have been
implemented in African countries? This chapter examines what is known about the
nature and implementation of PPIs in Africa. First, we consider what PPIs are,
followed by a brief discussion of evidence regarding the effectiveness of PPIs. We
then situate PPIs in the African context through a scoping review.

16.1.1 Positive Psychological Interventions

Despite the large number of studies reporting on the effect of PPIs, there is still a lack
of consensus on what constitutes a PPI. In the broadest sense PPIs are activities
which aim to enhance people’s well-being and psychological resources. Originally,
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) broadly referred to activities which are
specifically designed to build positive emotions, behaviours and psychological
capacities that will ultimately lead to flourishing individuals and communities.
Later Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) defined positive psychology interventions as
intentional activities designed to increase the frequency of positive emotions, behav-
iours, and cognitions. The authors argued that interventions aimed at decreasing
pathology or deficits are not PPIs, as PPIs are more focused on building strengths
than decreasing distress.
Bolier et al. (2013, p. 3) narrowed this definition by specifying that PPI’s only
entail interventions that “have been explicitly developed with the theoretical tradi-
tion of positive psychology”. This elicited criticism from other scholars for being too
narrow and excluding interventions which may not explicitly self-identify as PPIs,
for example mindfulness meditation and physical exercise interventions (Schueller
& Parks, 2014; Schueller et al., 2014). Parks and Biswas-Diener (2013) added a
further criterion for interventions to qualify as PPIs, positing that there should be
empirical evidence for increasing positive feelings, behaviours, and/or cognitions.
Other terms used include positive activity interventions (Layous & Lyubomirsky,
2014; Shin & Lyubomirsky, 2017), positive interventions (Parks & Biswas-Diener,
2013) and positive psychological interventions (Schueller et al., 2014; Van Zyl et al.,
2019).
While it is clear that PPIs aim to enhance well-being, Schueller and colleagues
(Schueller & Parks, 2014; Schueller et al., 2014) suggested that, in addition to this
goal, PPIs follow specific pathways or strategies, conceptually embedded in positive
psychology theories. These are: (1) savouring experiences and sensations, which
entails intensifying pleasurable experiences in the moment; (2) cultivating or
expressing gratitude; (3) engaging in acts of kindness; (4) promoting positive
relationship processes; and (5) pursuing and enhancing hope and meaning. Schueller
et al. (2014) further argued in favour of the term “positive psychological interven-
tions” to underscore the importance of including interventions that are theoretically
or conceptually aligned with the aims of positive psychology, even if positive
psychology is not explicitly mentioned in the study.
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 377

Recently, Ng and Lim (2019) proposed that definitions of PPIs should be

expanded to include multiple avenues to reach well-being, including activities that
are not necessarily regarded as inherently positive, but which could facilitate optimal
functioning, such as building resilience. Moreover, PPIs should not be limited to
intentional individual activities to increase well-being, but also include new activi-
ties more suited to collectivistic contexts, such as interventions focusing on families
and communities.
In this study, we followed Schueller et al.’s (2014) definition, using the term
“positive psychological interventions”. We also included suggestions by Hendriks
et al. (2018) as well as Ng and Lim (2019). Accordingly, we conceptualized PPIs
broadly and more inclusively as interventions that aim to enhance well-being
through multiple avenues, including increasing positive emotions, behaviours and
cognitions, and that also utilize pathways or strategies that are conceptually based on
processes that support well-being. Thus, as proposed by Ng and Lim (2019), we
considered PPIs to be interventions broadly focused on enhancing psychological
functioning and facilitating optimal functioning.

16.1.2 Outcomes of Implementing Positive Psychological

Interventions

Numerous studies have investigated the effect of PPIs on both hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. Interventions have been evaluated in single-component
studies (SPPIs) as well as multi-component studies (MPPIs). SPPIs consist of one
or more activities that aim to enhance only one component of well-being (Hendriks
et al., 2020), most often hedonic well-being. For example, gratitude interventions
(e.g., Cunha et al., 2019; Lai & O’Carroll, 2017), the best possible selves interven-
tion (see Loveday et al., 2018 for a review) and savouring interventions
(e.g. Quoidbach et al., 2010; Smith & Hanni, 2019).
MPPIs contain several activities, often integrated in a programme which aim to
promote components of both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Hendriks et al.,
2020). These include, for example, interventions to enhance job satisfaction and
well-being of physicians (Dyrbye et al., 2016), strength-based interventions to
enhance well-being and alleviate depression (Gander et al., 2013) and an online
intervention to promote multidimensional well-being (Myers et al., 2017).
According to a recent meta-analysis, MPPIs have a small effect on subjective
well-being and depression, as well as a small to moderate effect on psychological
well-being (Hendriks et al., 2020).
Overall, PPIs seem to have a positive effect on well-being, but the effects may be
smaller than previously suggested (White et al., 2019). Reported effect sizes of PPIs
were larger in non-Western countries, compared to Western countries, which may be
due to lower quality of the studies but could also be due to a good cultural fit of
378 T. Guse

certain PPIs with participants in collective cultures (Hendriks et al., 2018). It is

evident that more research is needed on PPIs beyond the Western context.

16.1.3 Positive Psychological Interventions in African

Contexts

After its initial development in Western contexts, positive psychology has gradually
expanded to other countries and regions. However, a recent review reported that
70% of positive psychology research still originates from Western countries (Kim
et al., 2018). There are some indications of increasing research emanating from the
Middle East and North African region (MENA) with most studies being reported
from Israel, Turkey, and Iran, but African studies are still limited (Rao et al., 2015).
Eloff et al. (2008) found that positive psychology was not clearly studied or
practiced in six African countries surveyed. Rather, it was implicitly practiced and
linked to indigenous knowledge systems. Similarly, most research on PPIs have
been implemented in Western countries and were informed by Western understand-
ings of well-being (Hendriks et al., 2019; Ng & Lim, 2019). However, this may be
because previous international reviews may have been too narrow, focusing on
limited definitions of PPIs and ignoring methodologies other than RCTs. Interven-
tions to enhance well-being may have been implemented in African contexts albeit
in different formats and using different research designs.
It is increasingly being accepted that PPIs may not work equally well across
cultures. In particular, PPIs focused on Westernized, individualistic values such as
self-enhancement, may be less effective in societies that emphasize collectivistic
values and social well-being (Ng & Lim, 2019), such as African societies. Under-
standing the nature and breadth of PPIs in African countries is therefore important
and can shed light on the outcomes and culture-activity fit of these PPIs (see Layous,
2018). Effective and relevant implementation of PPIs may make mental health care
more accessible and decrease stigma associated with seeking such care (Hendriks
et al., 2019), thus further exploration on PPIs in African contexts is warranted.

16.1.4 Present Study

Since previous reviews on PPIs in non-Western countries only considered RCTs,

and no information exist on the extent of the implementation of PPIs in the broader
sense in the African context, we implemented a scoping review (Arksey &
O’Malley, 2005) to establish what is known about implementing PPIs in African
countries. In particular, we report on the origin of the PPIs, the nature of the
intervention, the research design, population targeted, as well as important outcomes
of the interventions.
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 379

16.2 Method

Scoping reviews are appropriate to obtain an overall picture of a research field and to
identify knowledge gaps. It is also useful to examine emerging evidence (Munn
et al., 2018). Unlike systematic reviews, scoping reviews examine broader topics and
can include different research designs (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). In this study, our
main research question was: What is known from the existing literature about the
implementation of PPIs in Africa? The aim was to explore and describe existing
research on PPIs in the African context. We did not assess research quality due to the
exploratory nature of the study, as indicated in scoping review methodology.
Between May and September 2019, a bibliographic search for published journal
articles was conducted on the EbscoHost, Sage-Pub, Scopus, Proquest, PsyNet, and
Google Scholar databases. Additionally, a search for unpublished dissertations or
theses was conducted within the institutional repositories of the North-West Uni-
versity (NWU), the University of Johannesburg, and the University of Pretoria. The
search was restricted to the mentioned institutions as those institutions constituted
the majority of references in the scoping search within the Google Scholar database.
We also searched the reference lists of relevant publications. We limited our search
to studies published from January 2006 to September 2019, published in English,
based on practical and time constraints. We also considered the fact that international
literature on positive psychology interventions started to appear from the 2000’s
onwards (e.g., Rashid, 2009; Seligman et al., 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).
Studies were considered eligible if the primary focus was on an intervention
aimed at enhancing well-being or building positive psychological resources and not
on symptom reduction, and if the intervention was implemented in an African
country. Studies were excluded if the research reported on case studies for the
development of an intervention or proposed interventions without reporting on
actual implementation.
The key terms used were: “Positive Psychology” OR Wellbeing OR Well-being
OR “Psychological Well-being” OR Happiness OR Resilience) AND (interventions
OR Strategies OR Best Practices) AND Africa. Two independent evaluators
reviewed and selected the studies. By the end of the reviewing process, 23 studies
were identified for analysis, as reflected in Fig. 16.1.
We then set out to chart the data, a descriptive-analytical approach proposed by
Arksey and O’Malley (2005) which involves applying a common analytical frame-
work to all the studies obtained. We reported the information in several columns
including author/s, year, title, nature of publication, country of origin, methodology,
target population, nature of intervention, aims of intervention and important
outcomes.
380 T. Guse

Records identified through

database search (n = 38)
Identification

Records after duplicates removed

(n = 35)

Records excluded: n = 6
Records screened
Not an intervention
Screening

(n = 35)

Records excluded with reasons

n = 2 not implemented in Africa
Eligibility

Full texts assessed for eligibility

(n = 29) n = 3 focused on symptom
reduction only
n = 1 not primarily focused on
enhancing well-being

Studies included in final analysis

Included

(n = 23)

Fig. 16.1 Search strategy and results

16.3 Results

As reflected in Fig. 16.1, 38 studies were identified through the database search, and
23 were finally included in the analysis. The included studies are contained in
Table 16.1. The findings will be presented along three dimensions. First, the type
of research output, country of origin of participants, research design and participants.
Second, the nature and aims of the intervention and specific positive activities
implemented. Finally, we presented the important outcomes of the studies.
Table 16.1 Description of included studies
16

Implemented Positive
in/author activities
# Author, year Type origin Design Sample Nature of intervention Aims implemented Outcomes
1 Guse et al., Journal SA Quantitative Females Individual delivery of a To evaluate the Improved in
2006 article (n ¼ 23) structured six-session effect of a prena- psychological
programme tal well-being at
implementing hypnosis hypnotherapeutic 2 weeks post-
with a focus on mobiliz- programme on partum, concep-
ing psychological the postnatal psy- tualized as
strengths. chological well- increased mater-
being of first-time nal self-
mothers. confidence,
sense of coher-
ence and
decreased nega-
tive affect.
At 10 weeks
postpartum
fewer symptoms
of depression.
2. Pretorius Journal SA Quantitative White young A hope enhancement To enhance Increased hope,
et al., 2008 article adults programme based on dimensions of sense of coher-
(n ¼ 8) Snyder’s Hope theory, hope and evaluate ence and life
consisting of six its effect on well- satisfaction.
two-hour sessions being.
conducted over 5 days.
Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review

3. Edwards & Journal SA Quantitative Zulu-speak- A counselling program To enhance Significant

Edwards, article ing south which provided person dimensions of improvements in
2009 African centred, group counsel- well-being in perceptions of
adults living ling interventions for accordance with autonomy, per-
with inpatients infected with sonal growth,
381

(continued)
Table 16.1 (continued)
382

Implemented Positive
in/author activities
# Author, year Type origin Design Sample Nature of intervention Aims implemented Outcomes
HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS. The Ryff’s (1989) environmental
in a rural programme was well-being scales mastery, posi-
setting underpinned by empow- tive relations
(n ¼ 30) erment theory. with others and
self-acceptance.
4. Bonthuys Journal SA Mixed Adults living Implementation of the To explore the Increase in gen-
et al., 2011 article methods in rural Lifeplan® programme,a effect of the eral psychologi-
towns in the combination of human Lifeplan® cal and
Taung com- development and training programme on emotional
munity. in life skills, in order to psychological wellbeing
Majority improve wellbeing in wellbeing.
Setswana- terms of health, nutrition
speaking. and choice, thus holistic
(n ¼ 47) promotion of health.
5. Fourie & Journal SA Qualitative One woman An integrated, individual To reduce symp- Self-reported
Guse, 2011 article who experi- hypnotherapeutic toms associated decrease in
enced child- approach applied with a with childhood symptoms of
hood sexual specific focus on “symp- sexual abuse and distress,
abuse. toms” of health, increase psycho- increased life
strengths, and well-being. logical well- satisfaction and
being. positive affect.
6 Grobler, Disserta- SA Mixed Adults Participants watched five To examine Increased psy-
2012 tion methods (n ¼ 5) movies identified as pos- whether existing chological well-
itive psychology movies. character being and emo-
strengths and tional well-
well-being can be being; slight
augmented or decrease in
T. Guse
 16

developed by social well-

viewing films that being. Increase
specifically por- in several
tray the strengths. strengths, but a
decrease in
others.
7 Van Zyl & Journal SA Quantitative University A programme presented To encourage Strengths- Increase in over-
Rothmann, article students, in three phases: (a) initial participants to based activi- all happiness, in
2012 majority orientation, (b) a three become aware of ties; Grati- particular higher
female and day personal and group their signature tude activi- levels of overall
black. development programme strengths and ties; Savour- life satisfaction,
(n ¼ 109) and (b) six sessions of apply it in their ing, Best meaning,
individual coaching. own lives in order possible self engagement,
to increase their Forgiveness positive affect
experience of activity balance, authen-
happiness. ticity, person-
environment fit,
autonomy, com-
petence and
relatedness.
8 Wood et al., Journal SA Qualitative Young chil- Read-me-to-resilience Explored whether Increased self-
2012 article dren (Rm2R) intervention, and how cultur- esteem as well as
orphaned by consisting of telling ally sensitive more positive
HIV/Aids 22 culturally sensitive stories can relations with
(n ¼ 32) stories to children. encourage others. Bolstered
resilience. indicators of
resilience and
Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review

resilience
processes.
(continued)
383
Table 16.1 (continued)
384

Implemented Positive
in/author activities
# Author, year Type origin Design Sample Nature of intervention Aims implemented Outcomes
9 Kruger, Disserta- SA Mixed Adolescents Four-week gratitude To increase grati- Gratitude Quantitatively
2013 tion method (n ¼ 112) intervention. tude, hedonic and activities no increases in
White (41%) eudaimonic well- gratitude or
Black (37%) being. well-being;
Indian (17%) qualitative indi-
Coloured cations of
(4.5%) increased grati-
tude and
improved inter-
personal
relationships.
10 Van Chapter SA Mixed Adolescents Structured programme To promote psy- Strengths Increased well-
Schalkwyk method (n ¼ 64) consisting of 10 sessions chosocial well- based being and
& Wissing, White (66%) of 50 minutes each, based being and activities flourishing and
2013 Coloured on Keyes’ (2005) model flourishing fewer symptoms
(31%) of well-being as well as of distress.
Black (3%) Peterson and Seligman’s
(2004) conceptualization
of character strengths.
11 Eloff et al., Journal SA RCT HIV-positive Structured programme of To promote chil- Significant
2014 article women 24 weekly sessions dren’s resilience. improvements in
(n ¼ 161) focused on parent-child children’s exter-
and their communication and nalizing behav-
children parenting. iours, communi-
(n ¼ 151) cation, and daily
living skills as
indicators of
resilience.
T. Guse
12 Davies, Disserta- SA Quantitative Early adoles- Four week To enhance Gratitude No increase in
16

2015 tion cents multicomponent PPI hedonic and exercise facets of well-
(n ¼ 44) delivered in group setting eudaimonic well- Acts of being but
being kindness decreased anxi-
Savouring ety and
Identifying depression
and using
strengths
Best possi-
ble self
13 Chidrawi Journal SA Quantitative People living Comprehensive HIV To evaluate well- Identifying Well-being were
et al., 2015 article with HIV stigma reduction and being of both strengths more sustained
(n ¼ 18) wellness enhancement groups over over in people living
People close community intervention time close to people
to those liv- implemented as work- with HIV over
ing with HIV shops in three phases. time following
(n ¼ 60) the intervention.
Majority
Setswana-
speaking
14 Van der Thesis SA Quantitative Adolescents A self-help online anger To facilitate cop- Written grat- Increased posi-
Smit, 2015 (n ¼ 40) management programme ing with anger itude tive emotions,
implementing positive and enhance well- exercise better coping
psychology activities. being skills, decreased
anger.
15 Miano, 2016 Disserta- SA Mixed Female uni- A six-week group To increase life Three good Increased life
tion methods versity stu- programme based on satisfaction and things satisfaction and
Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review

dents at a enhancing Well-being decrease Identifying decreased

university based on the PERMA depression and using depression
counselling model strengths in
Centre a new way
(n ¼ 10) Acts of
kindness
385

(continued)
Table 16.1 (continued)
386

Implemented Positive
in/author activities
# Author, year Type origin Design Sample Nature of intervention Aims implemented Outcomes
16 Cherrington Journal SA Qualitative Primary Visual participatory To strengthen Strengthened
& De Lange, article school chil- research-as-intervention hope personal hope,
2016 dren in a to facilitate enhanced rela-
rural village co-construction of hope. tional hope, and
in QwaQwa mobilised
(n ¼ 12) collective hope.
17 Hatzipapas Journal SA Mixed Community Laughter therapy To examine if Increase in posi-
et al., 2017 article method care workers intervention laughter therapy tive emotions
(n ¼ 10) had an effect on and positive
well-being, in coping as well as
particular improved inter-
protecting against personal rela-
stress tionships;
deceased stress,
anxiety and
depression
18 Theron Journal SA Mixed African A bibliotherapy interven- To explore if spe- Increased
et al., 2017 article method orphans and tion based on African cifically chosen awareness of
vulnerable stories African stories personal and
children could facilitate community-
(n ¼ 345) resilience based protective
resources.
19 Berger et al., Journal Tanzania Quantitative Primary A 16-session school- To evaluate the Improved over-
2018 article school chil- based intervention efficacy of the all functioning,
dren including stress- programme to promoted
(n ¼ 183) reduction strategies increase resil- pro-social orien-
(body-oriented and nar- ience and tation and better
rative therapy techniques)
T. Guse
 16

as well as pro-social prosocial school

strategies (based on behaviour. adjustment.
social-emotional learning
and contemplative prac-
tices); culturally adapted.
20 Dow et al., Journal Tanzania Quantitative Adolescents A comprehensive mental To improve treat- Increased resil-
2018 article living with health intervention, Sauti ment adherence, ience as evident
HIV ya Vijana (the voice of reduce mental in new coping
(n ¼ 58) youth); ten group ses- health symptoms, skills, improved
sions and two individual and increase interpersonal
sessions developed youth resilience relationships,
around resilience reduced stigma,
domains. and improved
confidence to
live positively
according to
personal values.
21 Marsay Journal SA Mixed Black ado- Six group sessions based To facilitate hope Increase in three
et al., 2018 article method lescent juve- on theory of fundamental and assist with components of
nile sexual hope (Scioli & Biller, making decisions hope
offenders 2009). about the future
(n ¼ 10)
22 Baranov Journal Kenya Quantitative Adults resid- Daily exercises to pro- To increase psy- Gratitude Increased grati-
et al., 2020 article ing in an mote gratitude, self- chological well- lists tude but no
(first informal set- affirmation, and prime being and facili- effect on self-
published tlement aspirations over a period tate economic reported happi-
online, of 16 days decision-making ness, life satis-
Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review

(n ¼ 120)
2019) faction, affect,
depression or
decision-making
(continued)
387
Table 16.1 (continued)
388

Implemented Positive
in/author activities
# Author, year Type origin Design Sample Nature of intervention Aims implemented Outcomes
23 Teodorczuk Journal SA Quantitative Adolescents A multicomponent PPI To increase hope Gratitude No effect on
et al., 2019 article living in a presented over 6 weeks and well-being. lists well-being or
child and Acts of hope
youth care kindness
Centre Identifying
(n ¼ 29) and using
strengths
Best possi-
ble self
Savouring
T. Guse
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 389

16.3.1 Type of Research Output, Country of Origin,

Participants and Research Design

The vast majority of studies (n ¼ 17) were journal articles, followed by masters’
dissertations. One book chapter and one thesis were identified. Most of the studies
reported on interventions implemented in South Africa (n ¼ 20) while two were
implemented in Tanzania and one in Kenya. These latter three studies were all
published since 2018 but the lead authors were affiliated with non-African univer-
sities. In terms of research design, the majority of studies (n ¼ 12) implemented a
quantitative approach, followed by mixed methods (n ¼ 8), and qualitative studies
(n ¼ 3). Most interventions comprised of relatively small samples.
The participants in the studies varied substantially. From a developmental per-
spective, most interventions were implemented among adults (n ¼ 11), followed by
adolescents (n ¼ 7), and children (n ¼ 5). One study included children and their
mothers (Eloff et al., 2014). Among the studies with adults, three comprised
university students.
None of the studies were conducted in clinical settings or with clinical
populations, but one study recruited participants from a student counselling centre
(Miano, 2016) and one in an individual therapeutic context (Fourie & Guse, 2011).
Several interventions (n ¼ 10) were implemented among participants who may be
more vulnerable to develop psychological distress or mental illness. These included
people living with HIV/Aids (n ¼ 4), orphaned children (n ¼ 2), adolescents living
in a youth care centre (Teodorczuk et al., 2019), juvenile sexual offenders (Marsay
et al., 2018), and community care workers (Hatzipapas et al., 2017).
Only some studies reported racial or ethnic information of the participants. After
reading the description of the research settings, we ascertained that 14 studies
included mostly or only Black African participants.

16.3.2 Nature and Aims of the Interventions

The majority of the interventions (n ¼ 18) were implemented in group settings while
three studies conducted interventions with individuals. Of the remaining two studies
one was implemented online (Van der Smit, 2015) and one was not clear on whether
delivery occurred in group or individual format (Grobler, 2012). Most were struc-
tured programmes (n ¼ 20) including one or more activities, while two were
therapeutic interventions (Fourie & Guse, 2011; Hatzipapas et al., 2017) and one
consisted of a visual-participatory activity (Cherrington & de Lange, 2016).
The content of the interventions varied substantially. Several (n ¼ 9) included
classic positive psychology activities such as gratitude activities, strength-based
interventions, engaging in acts of kindness and the best possible self-intervention.
Three focused on activities to enhance hope (Cherrington & de Lange, 2016; Marsay
et al., 2018; Pretorius et al., 2008) while another two interventions comprised of
390 T. Guse

reading stories to children (Theron et al., 2017; Wood et al., 2012). Four studies were
implemented in a therapeutic context. Of these, two studies implemented hypno-
therapy with a focus on clients’ strengths without engaging in specific positive
psychology activities (Guse et al., 2006; Fourie & Guse, 2011). A group counselling
intervention was based on empowerment theory as well as Ryff’s (1989) conceptu-
alization of well-being and followed a person-centred approach (Edwards &
Edwards, 2009) while another intervention implemented laughter therapy
(Hatzipapas et al., 2017).
The remaining programmes focused on activities as diverse as life skills devel-
opment (Bonthuys et al., 2011), parent-child-communication (Eloff et al., 2014),
contemplative practice and stress-reduction strategies (Berger et al., 2018) and
watching positive psychology movies (Grobler, 2012). One comprehensive inter-
vention included activities to identify and reduce stress, foster strong familial and
social relationships, and cultivate a safe and healthy environment (Dow et al., 2018).
As outlined in the criteria, all the interventions aimed to enhance one or more
facets of well-being or optimal functioning, broadly defined. Most of the studies
explicitly mentioned well-being as outcome (n ¼ 14). Among these, five studies
referred to psychological well-being specifically and two studies focused on enhanc-
ing both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Davies, 2015; Kruger, 2013). Five
studies aimed to strengthen resilience, of which one added reducing distress and
increasing medical treatment adherence (Dow et al., 2018) and another increasing
prosocial behaviour (Berger et al., 2018). Two studies aimed to increase hope,
without mentioning well-being (Cherrington & de Lange, 2016; Marsay et al.,
2018) and one intended to increase happiness (Van Zyl & Rothmann, 2012). One
study aimed to enhance life satisfaction and decrease depression (Miano, 2016).

16.3.3 Outcomes of Interventions

The majority of the studies (n ¼ 19) reported increases in facets of well-being or

associated constructs such as increased sense of coherence, hope, life satisfaction,
positive affect, resilience, gratitude, and improved interpersonal relationships. Some
studies also reported a decrease in symptoms of distress, including depression,
anxiety, anger, and externalizing behaviour. Four studies failed to find increases in
well-being, but only two were published in peer-reviewed journals (Baranov et al.,
2020; Teodorczuk et al., 2019). In sum, most of the PPIs reported in this review did
enhance well-being.

16.4 Discussion

This scoping review aimed to explore and describe existing research on

implementing PPIs in African countries. The results indicated that studies are still
limited, even when the search was broadened through using more flexible criteria
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 391

(see Ng & Lim, 2019; Schueller et al., 2014). Most studies followed quantitative
designs, among adult participants, in group settings, and were implemented in
South Africa. While Hendriks et al. (2019) pointed out the lack of research on
PPIs in non-Western countries in general, our study further points to limited imple-
mentation of PPIs on the rest of the African continent beyond South Africa. This
may be because until now, positive psychology as a field was not explicitly studied
in most African countries (Eloff et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2018; Rao et al., 2015).
Another possible reason could be that psychotherapeutic interventions in general are
not widely included in mental health treatments in low and middle-income countries,
such as those on the African continent (Rathod et al., 2017). Yet, studies in Tanzania
and Kenia are starting to emerge.
Although several interventions were implemented among participants who may
be more vulnerable to develop psychological distress, no studies were done among
clinical populations. This finding supports previous research reporting that PPIs in
clinical contexts were mostly conducted in Western countries (Chakhssi et al.,
2018). Most interventions were delivered in group settings, but the content varied
substantially. Just under a third of the studies implemented the more well-known
PPIs, such as increasing gratitude or strength-based interventions, while the
remaining interventions varied from reading stories to children (Theron et al.,
2017; Wood et al., 2012) to psychotherapeutic strategies (Edwards & Edwards,
2009; Fourie & Guse, 2011; Guse et al., 2006). It is evident that activities to promote
well-being in African contexts cover a broad range, unlike earlier narrower descrip-
tions (e.g., Bolier et al., 2013).
The majority of studies explicitly aimed to increase well-being, with some
focusing on either hedonic or eudaimonic well-being, or both. Therefore, there is
some evidence of emerging research on SPPIs and MPPIs (Hendriks et al., 2020). In
terms of outcomes, almost all studies reported increases in well-being, broadly
defined, while some also found decreased psychological distress. Only two peer-
reviewed studies failed to find positive outcomes, which may be due to publication
bias (Franco et al., 2014; Hendriks et al., 2018).
Taking all into consideration, this scoping study suggests that implementation
and evaluation of PPIs, broadly viewed, are starting to emerge. However, several
research gaps need to be addressed in future studies. First, it is unclear to which
extent PPIs were adapted to suit cultural contexts. Although several well-known
positive activities were included in more than half of the studies identified in this
review, there was limited information regarding the language used in the interven-
tions or considerations given to cultural traditions and practices. It was thus difficult
to establish culture-activity fit (Layous, 2018). Future studies could pay more
attention to these elements when implementing and reporting on interventions. In
addition, research is needed on how and when PPIs could be adapted to be
implemented by community health workers. Through a process of task shifting
(Rathod et al., 2017), where specific tasks are moved from highly qualified health
professionals to health workers who received shorter training, PPIs could be useful
in mental health promotion on a broader scale. This is especially important in in
resource-constrained contexts, such as those in many African countries.
392 T. Guse

Second, there seems to be a lack of studies exploring the effect of PPIs on

adolescents and children and most studies were implemented among adults. While
this trend is also seen in international research (Gillham et al., 2019), young people
constitute more than 50% of the population on the African continent (United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa, 2016). It is crucial to develop and evaluate well-
being interventions among African youth as positive mental health in adolescence
seem to predict adult well-being (O’Connor et al., 2017). In addition, the current
review also found an absence of research on interventions to enhance the well-being
of older persons. Implementing PPIs among older adults could facilitate positive
aging and contribute to associated individual and societal benefits (Bartholomaeus
et al., 2019; Friedman et al., 2019). In terms of demographics, there were also no
studies on PPIs among people diagnosed with psychological disorders. PPIs could
be useful in supplementing existing treatment approaches to psychological disorders
(Johnson & Wood, 2017; Ruini, 2017). International research pointed to promising
results when implemented among people diagnosed with specific disorders such as
mood disorders (Chaves et al., 2017), anxiety disorders (Ruini & Fava, 2009) and
psychotic disorders (Sims et al., 2015). Since culture influences the prevalence and
symptomatology of psychological disorders (Kirmayer & Ryder, 2016) it is evident
that more research on implementing PPIs among clinical populations in the African
context is needed.
Third, as research on PPIs in African contexts move forward, it is important to
take note of existing criticism on the value of PPIs (e.g., Wong & Roy, 2017), and to
pay careful attention to planning, structuring and reporting on interventions. Van Zyl
et al. (2019) offered extensive guidelines for best practice in implementing PPIs, and
we recommend considering these guidelines in future research. Robust and replica-
ble studies are needed to advance knowledge on the effect of PPIs in individuals and
groups on the African continent.

16.5 Conclusion

This scoping review found that African research on PPIs are limited but emerging.
There is a need for more studies on the cultural adaptation of PPIs as well as for
research among youth and older populations. We acknowledge that this review may
have omitted relevant research not published in English, or that may have used other
terms than those included in our search. However, through pointing out several
research gaps, this study may contribute to further exploration of well-being inter-
ventions in the African context.

Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge Lebogang Ramalepe and Maham Hassan for
their assistance with the literature search for this review.
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 393

References1

Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework.
International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. [Link]
1364557032000119616
*Baranov, V., Haushofer, J., & Jang, C. (2020). Can positive psychology improve psychological
wellbeing and economic decision-making? Experimental evidence from Kenya. Economic
Development and Cultural Change, 68, 1345–1376. [Link]
Bartholomaeus, J. D., Van Agteren, J. E., Iasiello, M. P., Jarden, A., & Kelly, D. (2019). Positive
aging: The impact of a community wellbeing and resilience program. Clinical Gerontologist,
42(4), 377–386. [Link]
*Berger, R., Benatov, J., Cuadros, R., VanNattan, J., & Gelkopf, M. (2018). Enhancing resiliency
and promoting prosocial behavior among Tanzanian primary-school students: A school-based
intervention. Transcultural Psychiatry, 55(6), 821–845. [Link]
1363461518793749
Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive
psychology interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Public
Health, 13(1), 119.
*Bonthuys, A., Botha, K. F., Nienaber, A. W., Freeks, F. E., & Kruger, A. (2011). The effect of the
Lifeplan® programme on the psychological wellbeing of a rural community in South Africa.
Journal of Psychology in Africa, 21(3), 421–428. [Link]
10820476
Chakhssi, F., Kraiss, J. T., Sommers-Spijkerman, M., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2018). The effect of
positive psychology interventions on Well-being and distress in clinical samples with psychi-
atric or somatic disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 211.
[Link]
Chaves, C., Lopez-Gomez, I., Hervas, G., & Vazquez, C. (2017). A comparative study on the
efficacy of a positive psychology intervention and a cognitive behavioral therapy for clinical
depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(3), 417–433. [Link]
016-9778-9
*Cherrington, A. M., & De Lange, N. (2016). ‘I want to be a hope champion!’–Research as hope
intervention with rural South African children. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 26(4),
373-378. doi:[Link]
*Chidrawi, H. C., Greeff, M., Temane, Q. M., & Ellis, S. (2015). Changeover-time in psychosocial
wellbeing of people living with HIV and people living close to them after an HIV stigma
reduction and wellness enhancement community intervention. African Journal of AIDS
Research, 14(1), 1–12. [Link]
Cunha, L. F., Pellanda, L. C., & Reppold, C. T. (2019). Positive psychology and gratitude
interventions: A randomized clinical trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–9. [Link]
10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00584
*Davies, J. C. (2015). The effect of a positive psychology intervention on psychosocial wellbeing
among a group of early adolescents (Unpublished master’s dissertation). University of
Johannesburg.
*Dow, D. E., Mmbaga, B. T., Turner, E. L., Gallis, J. A., Tabb, Z. J., Cunningham, C. K., &
O’Donnell, K. E. (2018). Building resilience: A mental health intervention for Tanzanian youth
living with HIV. AIDS Care, 30(Suppl 4), 12–20. [Link]
1527008
Dyrbye, L. N., West, C. P., Richards, M. L., Ross, H. J., Satele, D., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2016). A
randomized, controlled study of an online intervention to promote job satisfaction and well-

1
References preceded by an asterisk were included in the scoping review.
394 T. Guse

being among physicians. Burnout Research, 3(3), 69–75. [Link]

06.002
*Edwards, S. D., & Edwards, D. J. (2009). Counselling for psychological well-being in persons
living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 19(4), 561–563. [Link]
1080/14330237.2009.10820329
Eloff, I., Achoui, M., Chireshe, R., Mutepfa, M., & Ofovwe, C. (2008). Views from Africa on
positive psychology. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 18(1), 189–194. [Link]
14330237.2008.10820185
*Eloff, I., Finestone, M., Makin, J. D., Boeving-Allen, A., Visser, M., Ebersöhn, L., Sikkema, F. R.,
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Forsyth, B. W. (2014). A randomized clinical trial of an intervention to
promote resilience in young children of HIV-positive mothers in South Africa. AIDS, 28(03),
S347–S357. [Link]
*Fourie, G., & Guse, T. (2011). An integrated hypnotherapeutic model for the treatment of
childhood sexual trauma: A case study. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 53(3), 193–205.
Franco, A., Malhotra, N., & Simonovits, G. (2014). Publication bias in the social sciences:
Unlocking the file drawer. Science, 345(6203), 1502–1505. [Link]
1255484
Friedman, E. M., Ruini, C., Foy, C. R., Jaros, L., Love, G., & Ryff, C. D. (2019). Lighten UP! A
community-based group intervention to promote eudaimonic well-being in older adults: A
multi-site replication with 6 month follow-up. Clinical Gerontologist, 42(4), 387–397. https://
[Link]/10.1080/07317115.2019.1574944
Gander, F., Proyer, R. T., Ruch, W., & Wyss, T. (2013). Strength-based positive interventions:
Further evidence for their potential in enhancing well-being and alleviating depression. Journal
of Happiness Studies, 14(4), 1241–1259. [Link]
Gillham, J., Leventhal, K. S., Rashid, T., Anjum, A., & Leventhal, S. (2019). Positive psychology
programs for youth in diverse communities. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann (Eds.), Evidence-
based positive psychological interventions in multi-cultural contexts (pp. 197–225). Springer.
*Grobler, L. (2012). An exploration of the use of positive psychology movies to enhance wellbeing
(Unpublished master’s dissertation). North West University.
*Guse, T., Wissing, M., & Hartman, W. (2006). The effect of a prenatal hypnotherapeutic
programme on postnatal maternal psychological well-being. Journal of Reproductive and Infant
Psychology, 24(2), 163–177. [Link]
*Hatzipapas, I., Visser, M. J., & Janse van Rensburg, E. (2017). Laughter therapy as an intervention
to promote psychological well-being of volunteer community care workers working with
HIV-affected families. SAHARA-J: Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS, 14(1), 202–212.
[Link]
Hendriks, T., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., De Jong, J., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2020). The
efficacy of multi-component positive psychology interventions: A systematic review and meta-
analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(1), 357–390. https://
[Link]/10.1007/s10902-019-00082-1
Hendriks, T., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., Graafsma, T., Bohlmeijer, E., & De Jong,
J. (2018). The efficacy of positive psychology interventions from non-Western countries: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Wellbeing, 8(1), 71–98. https://
[Link]/10.5502/ijw.v8i1.71
Hendriks, T., Warren, M. A., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., Graafsma, T., Bohlmeijer,
E., & De Jong, J. (2019). How WEIRD are positive psychology interventions? A bibliometric
analysis of randomized controlled trials on the science of well-being. The Journal of Positive
Psychology, 14(4), 489–501. [Link]
Johnson, J., & Wood, A. M. (2017). Integrating positive and clinical psychology: Viewing human
functioning as continua from positive to negative can benefit clinical assessment, interventions
and understandings of resilience. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(3), 335–349. [Link]
org/10.1007/s10608-015-9728-y
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 395

Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete
state model of health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 539–548.
Kim, H., Doiron, K., Warren, M. A., & Donaldson, S. I. (2018). The international landscape of
positive psychology research: A systematic review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 8(1),
50–70. [Link]
Kirmayer, L. J., & Ryder, A. G. (2016). Culture and psychopathology. Current Opinion in
Psychology, 8, 143–148. [Link]
*Kruger, T. (2013). The effect of gratitude interventions on the psychological wellbeing of a group
of adolescents in Gauteng (Unpublished master’s dissertation). University of Johannesburg.
Lai, S. T., & O’Carroll, R. E. (2017). ‘The three good things’ – The effects of gratitude practice on
wellbeing: A randomised controlled trial. Health Psychology Update, 26, 10–18.
Layous, K. (2018). Malleability and intentional activities. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.),
Handbook of well-being. DEF Publishers.
Layous, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). The how, why, what, when, and who of happiness:
Mechanisms underlying the success of positive interventions. In J. Gruber & J. Moscowitz
(Eds.), Positive emotion: Integrating the light sides and dark sides (pp. 473–495). Oxford
University Press.
Loveday, P. M., Lovell, G. P., & Jones, C. M. (2018). The best possible selves intervention: A
review of the literature to evaluate efficacy and guide future research. Journal of Happiness
Studies, 19(2), 607–628. [Link]
*Marsay, G., Scioli, A., & Omar, S. (2018). A hope-infused future orientation intervention: A pilot
study with juvenile offenders in South Africa. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling,
46(6), 709–721. [Link]
*Miano, P. W. (2016). Positive psychology interventions in a student counselling centre: An
exploratory study (Unpublished master’s dissertation). Nelson Mandela Metropolitan
University.
Munn, Z., Peters, M. D., Stern, C., Tufanaru, C., McArthur, A., & Aromataris, E. (2018). System-
atic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or
scoping review approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18(1), 143. [Link]
1186/s12874-018-0611-x
Myers, N. D., Prilleltensky, I., Prilleltensky, O., McMahon, A., Dietz, S., & Rubenstein, C. L.
(2017). Efficacy of the fun for wellness online intervention to promote multidimensional well-
being: A randomized controlled trial. Prevention Science, 18(8), 984–994. [Link]
1007/s11121-017-0779-z
Ng, W., & Lim, W. S. (2019). Developing positive psychological interventions: Maximizing
efficacy for use in Eastern cultures. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann (Eds.), Positive psycho-
logical intervention design and protocols for multi-cultural contexts (pp. 277–295). Springer.
O’Connor, M., Sanson, A. V., Toumbourou, J. W., Norrish, J., & Olsson, C. A. (2017). Does
positive mental health in adolescence longitudinally predict healthy transitions in young adult-
hood? Journal of Happiness Studies, 18(1), 177–198. [Link]
9723-3
Parks, A. C., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2013). Positive interventions: Past, present, and future. In
T. Kashdan & J. Ciarrochi (Eds.), Mindfulness, acceptance, and positive psychology: The seven
foundations of well-being (pp. 140–165). Context Press.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and
classification. American Psychological Association.
*Pretorius, C., Venter, C., Temane, M., & Wissing, M. (2008). The design and evaluation of a hope
enhancement programme for adults. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 18(2), 301–308. https://
[Link]/10.1080/14330237.2008.10820202
Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Positive emotion regulation
and well-being: Comparing the impact of eight savoring and dampening strategies. Personality
and Individual Differences, 49(5), 368–373. [Link]
396 T. Guse

Rao, M. A., Donaldson, S. I., & Doiron, K. M. (2015). Positive psychology research in the Middle
East and North Africa. Middle East Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 60–76.
Rashid, T. (2009). Positive interventions in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5),
461–466. [Link]
Rathod, S., Pinninti, N., Irfan, M., Gorczynski, P., Rathod, P., Gega, L., & Naeem, F. (2017).
Mental health service provision in low-and middle-income countries. Health Services Insights.
[Link]
Ruini, C. (2017). Positive psychology in the clinical domains: Research and practice. Springer.
Ruini, C., & Fava, G. A. (2009). Well-being therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 510–519. [Link]
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological
well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. [Link]
10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Schueller, S. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Parks, A. C. (2014). Synthesizing positive psychological
interventions: Suggestions for conducting and interpreting meta-analyses. International Journal
of Wellbeing, 4(1), 91–98. [Link]
Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2014). The science of self-help: Translating positive psychology
research into increased individual happiness. European Psychologist, 19(2), 145–155. https://
[Link]/10.1027/1016-9040/a000181
Scioli, A., & Biller, H. B. (2009). Hope in the age of anxiety. Oxford University Press.
Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American
Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. [Link]
Seligman, M. E., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). Positive psychotherapy. American Psycholo-
gist, 61(8), 774–778.
Shin, L. J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2017). Increasing well-being in independent and interdependent
cultures. In M. A. Warren & S. I. Donaldson (Eds.), Scientific advances in positive psychology
(pp. 11–36). Praeger.
Sims, A., Barker, C., Price, C., & Fornells-Ambrojo, M. (2015). Psychological impact of identify-
ing character strengths in people with psychosis. Psychosis, 7(2), 179–182. [Link]
1080/17522439.2014.925485
Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms
with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 65(5), 467–487. [Link]
Smith, J. L., & Hanni, A. A. (2019). Effects of a savoring intervention on resilience and well-being
of older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 38(1), 137–152. [Link]
073346481769337
Struck, R., Baumgarten, G., & Wittmann, M. (2014). Cost-efficiency of knowledge creation:
Randomized controlled trials vs. observational studies. Current Opinion in Anesthesiology,
27(2), 190–194. [Link]
*Teodorczuk, K., Guse, T., & Du Plessis, G. A. (2019). The effect of positive psychology
interventions on hope and well-being of adolescents living in a child and youth care centre.
British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 47(2), 234–245. [Link]
2018.1504880
*Theron, L., Cockcroft, K., & Wood, L. (2017). The resilience-enabling value of African folktales:
The read-me-to-resilience intervention. School Psychology International, 38(5), 491–506.
[Link]
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. (2016). The demographic profile of African
countries. UNECA.
*Van der Smit, E. (2015). A computer-based self-help programme facilitating anger management
using positive activity interventions (Unpublished doctoral thesis). North West University.
*Van Schalkwyk, I., & Wissing, M. P. (2013). Evaluation of a programme to enhance flourishing in
adolescents. In M.P. Wissing (Ed.), Wellbeing research in South Africa (pp. 581–605).
Springer.
16 Positive Psychological Interventions in African Contexts: A Scoping Review 397

Van Zyl, L. E., Efendic, E., Rothmann, S., & Shankland, R. (2019). Best-practice guidelines for
positive psychological intervention research design. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann (Eds.),
Positive psychological intervention design and protocols for multi-cultural contexts (pp. 1–32).
Springer.
*Van Zyl, L. E., & Rothmann, S. (2012). Beyond smiling: The evaluation of a positive psycho-
logical intervention aimed at student happiness. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(3),
369–384. [Link]
Weiss, L. A., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016). Can we increase psychological well-
being? The effects of interventions on psychological well-being: A meta-analysis of randomized
controlled trials. PLoS One, 11(6), e0158092.
White, C. A., Uttl, B., & Holder, M. D. (2019). Meta-analyses of positive psychology interventions:
The effects are much smaller than previously reported. PLoS One, 14(5), e0216588. [Link]
org/10.1371/[Link].0216588
Wong, P. T. P., & Roy, S. (2017). Critique of positive psychology and positive interventions. In
N. J. L. Brown, T. Lomas, & F. J. Eiroa-Orosa (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of
critical positive psychology (pp. 142–160). Routledge.
*Wood, L., Theron, L., & Mayaba, N. (2012). ‘Read me to resilience’: Exploring the use of cultural
stories to boost the positive adjustment of children orphaned by AIDS. African Journal of AIDS
Research, 11(3), 225–239. [Link]