English IV | Carla González Salgado

GRAMMAR
1. Breve repaso
 Present perfect simple
 Describing a period from some time in the past until
now: I´ve been to Rome three times in my life.
 Describing an activity, state or habit which started in
the past and is still going on: I´ve lived in the same
place since 1960.
 Emphasizing the present result of past events: I think
my battery has run out.
 Present perfect progressive
 Describing an activity, state or habit which started in
the past and is still happening I´ve been living in the
same place since 1960.
 Describing a past activity which has a direct result now.
The result comes from the activity, and it does not
matter if the activity is finished or not: I´ve been
painting my room.
 Past simple
 A momentary action: The teacher sat down.
 A number of actions: Messi scored five goals.
 A habitual action: We visited my aunt aunt every
summer.
 An activity or state which lasted for a period of time: I
lived in Paris for five years.
 Past perfect simple
 To show that something happened earlier than another
event in the past: She told me that she had cheated in
the exam.

 FUTURE
After many time words and phrases, such as when, while, once,
as soon as, etc, we do NOT use will or be going to. We use:
 Present simple: I´ll give you a pay rise when you start
working harder.
 Present continuous: I´ll give you a pay rise once you´re
bringing in three new costumers a week.
 Present perfect simple: I´ll give you a pay rise as soon as
you´ve proved you´re a hard worker.
 Present perfect continuous: I won´t give you a pay rise
until you´ve been working here for three years.
FUTURE IN THE PAST:
Will Would

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Present simple Past simple

Example:
- Then: I think the factory will open in September
- NOW: I thought the factory would open in
September
- Then: I´m in a rush because the train leaves at
4PM
- NOW: I was in a rush because I thought the train
left at 4PM

 PASSIVE VOICE AND CAUSATIVES

The passive:
 When we don´t know who does/did something: The car
was stolen at approximately 1:30 am.
 When it´s obvious who does/did something: Having
been introduced in 1988, the Road Traffic Act regulates
all vehicle use on UK roads.
 When it´s not important who does/did something: The
XL500 was designed with young families in mind.
 To emphasize new information (which appears at the end
of the sentence): This type of submarine was developed
during the IIWW by the Americans.
 To avoid starting clauses with long expressions: We were
surprised by the number of people trying to leave the
city for the long weekend.
 To produce a formal style: All passengers are required to
present their ticket to the inspector.

Impersonal passive:
Form Common verbs
Noun+verb in passive+ inf/perfect infinitive agree, assume, believe,
claim, consider, estimate,
expect, feel, know, mean,
presume, say, suppose,
think, understand
There+ verb in passive+ inf/perfect infinitive

It+ verb in passive+ that clause

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT

Some verbs in active sentences can be followed by both a direct
and indirect object (usually a person).
Active sentence: Michael gave the plane tickets to Jill.
- With indirect object as subject of passive verb:
Jill was given the plane tickets (by Michael).

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- With direct object as subject of passive verb:

The plane tickets were given to Jill (by
Michael).

CAUSATIVE: get/have something done:

 Actions we arrange for other people to do for us: Did you
finally get your bike fixed?
 Things we experience (usually negative and not
intended): I heard that Susie had her motorbike stolen.
In general, get is more informal than have in causative
structures.
We can use other verbs instead of get and have with a
causative meaning. They include need, want and would
like: I would like those cars washed by this evening,
please.

CAUSATIVE: get somebody to do/have sb do:

Actions we make somebody/something do for us: Did you get
Alex to drive you all the way to London?
CAUSATIVE: get/have somebody doing:
Actions we make somebody/something start doing: Don´t
worry. We´ll soon have your car running like new.

4. MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS

 The nine main modals (will, would, can, could, may,
might, shall, should, must) have only one form (they do
not change tense or person) and are followed by a simple
or continuous bare infinitive (eg could + do, be doing,
have done, have been doing).They can also be followed
by a bare infinitive in the passive (eg could + be done,
have been done).
 Semi-modals have similar meanings to modals. They
include: need (to), ought to, had better and have (got) to.
 Some semi-modals, such as had better, do not change
tense or person. Others, such as have (got) to, do.
 Some semi-modals can be used in combination with
modals, producing phrases such as might have to.
Ability
Real ability Current or general Can, can´t You can´t really speak
languages, can you?
seven
ability Could, couldn
There´s no way you could read
Past ability ´t when you were two!

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Decisions made now Can, can´t, I can get you a paper when I go
to the shop, if you like.
about future ability could, couldn
Future ability ´t One day, maybe, all adults will
Will/won´t be be able to read and write.
able to
Hypothetic Current or general Could, couldn I couldn´t go on a quiz show. I
´d be too scared!
al ability hypothetical ability ´t
I could go with them to the
Future hypothetical cinema tomorrow, but I won´t
ability Could, couldn because I´ve already seen the
´t film.
They could have asked the
Past hypothetical ability Prime Minister much more
Could have, searching questions.
couldn´t have
Watch out!
We don´t usually use could for a past ability on one occasion.
We use was/were able to, managed or succeeded, etc.: Luckily,
she was able to finish on time.
However, with verbs such as see, hear, feel,… we can use could
for past ability on one occasion: I could see that she was tired.
Permission:
Asking for permission - may, could, couldn´t, can, can´t. Can I
finish watching this before I go to bed?
Giving/refusing permission – may, may not, could, couldn´t, can, can´t .
No, you can´t.
Watch out!
 May is more polite and formal than could, and could is more
polite and formal than can.
 We don´t usually use modals to talk about past permission. We
can use: was/were allowed to.
 However, we DO use could to talk about past permission in
reported speech: Mum said we could buy one comic each.
Advice
Asking for and giving advice: You should try get that poem
published.
Criticism
Criticizing past Should have, should´t You shouldn´t have
behavior have, could have, spoken to Mrs Todd
couldn´t have, ought like that.
to have, oughtn´t to
have
Expressing annoyance (bis)??? You could/might
at past behavior have told me you
were going to be late!
Criticizing general Will He will slam the door
behavior every time he goes
out.
Criticizing a specific Would You would take the
example of someone car just when we
´s general behavior wanted to go out.

Obligation
(inserter captura)

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5. CONDITIONALS
*Ojas extra

6. UNREAL TIME

Sometimes we use the past simple and continuous to refer to

the present, the future or a general situation.
 Sometimes we use the past perfect simple and continuous to
refer to a hypothetical past that didn´t actually happen.
Watch out!
 For all the situations below with past simple and past
continuous, with the verb to be after I and he/she/it, there
is a choice of was or were. I wish I was rich. I wish
I were rich.
 Both, was and were are common in informal English but
were is sometimes more appropriate in formal written
English and is always used in the phrase If I were you….
Conditionals:
- For hypothetical and unlikely current, future or general
conditions: I wouldn´t accept a job unless I was absolutely sure
what the salary was. // If you were travelling to Russia, would
you get rubles (?) before you left or when you arrived?
- For hypothetical past conditions: If I had known, I would have
taken some dollars with me. // If I had been running the bank,
I would have given you an overdraft!
Imagine/ what if/ suppose/ supposing
- To consider hypothetical or unlikely current, future or general
situations: Supposing you were given ten million euros, what
would you spend it on?
- To consider hypothetical or unlikely past situations: Suppose
you had won the lottery the last night. What would you have
done.

Watch out!
- We can also use a present tense instead of past simple or past
continuous after these words and phrases. This indicates that
the situation is more likely to happen.
o Supposing you become a millionaire, how will it change
your life?
(+ more likely)
o Supposing you became a millionaire, how would it change
your life?
(- less likely)

As if/ as though

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- For current, future or general untrue, hypothetical comparisons: She acts as

if/though she was a millionaire. // Mark acts as if/though he were making a
million pounds a month.
- For past untrue, hypothetical comparisons: Mark looks as if/though someone
had just handed him a million euros. // It´s almost as if/though they had been
working for free.
Watch out!
- When the verb before as if/though is in a present or present perfect tense, we only
use a past tense for comparisons that we know aren't true: She behaves as if she
were really wealthy. (= She's not really wealthy.)
- When the verb before as if/though is in a present or present perfect tense, for
comparisons that are possible, we use a present or present perfect tense after as
if/though: She looks as if she's really wealthy. (= It's very possible that she is
wealthy.)
- • When the verb before as if/though is in a past tense, we use a past tense after as
if/though for comparisons that are either true or hypothetical: She looked as if
she was really wealthy but I knew she wasn't / so maybe she was.

Questions and requests

- To make questions and requests more polite: How much money did you want to
spend, Madame? // I was wondering whether you might be able to give me
some advice.
Wish / if only
- Wishes about now, the future or generally: Do you wish you had a bigger
house? // If only I was earning a reasonable salary.
- Wishes about the past: If only l'd bought a lottery ticket this morning. // Carla
wished she'd been keeping a much closer eye on her investments.
- When wish is in the past simple, it is still followed by the past simple or past
continuous for current, future or general wishes: Simon dearly wished that he
had a bigger house. // I sat there and wished I was earning a reasonable salary.

7.ADJECTIVES AND VERBS

Position of adjectives
Before a noun: I love your new house.

After verbs such as appear, be, become, feel, get, grow, look, seem, smell,
sound, taste and turn: The material this dress is made out of feels rough.
Position of multiple adjectives
- When more than one adjective is used before a noun, they usually appear in the
following order, sometimes separated by commas: judgement, size, shape,
colour, origin, material, purpose:
o We've got a lovely little wooden cabin in the mountains.
o I love your long, red, Chinese, silk curtains.

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o What you need for your living room is a large oak dining table.
Adjectives used as nouns

To refer to members of a general social We need to provide better housing for the
group poor.
To refer to members of a specific group When the building collapsed, the injured
were rushed to hospital.
To refer to some nationalities The French have introduced new housing
regulations in Paris.

Comparisons
Comparative: to compare things or people that are different: Your flat is much bigger
and more comfortable than ours.
Superlative: to compare one member of a group of people or things with the whole
group: Mexico City is probably my least favourite city. // I think my home town is the
best place in the world.

Comparative and superlative modifiers

- Modifiers with comparatives: (quite) a bit, a great deal, a good deal, a little,
(quite) a lot, any, considerably, even, far, just, little, much, no, slightly,
somewhat: This area has become considerably more crowded and far noisier in
the last ten years.
- Modifiers with superlatives: by far, far and away, easily, far from, much, quite:
If you ask me, Ladybridge is easily the nicest area of town to live in.

Structures used to make comparisons (nearly/almost/just/half/twice/easily/etc) as ...

as not (nearly/quite) as/so ... as and Nothing like as ... as / nowhere near as ... as the ...,
the ...:
- Platinum is about twice as expensive as gold.
- Iron isn't nearly as hard as diamond.
- Iron is nothing like as / nowhere near as hard as diamond.
- The taller the building, the greater the fire risk.
Watch out!
Paper is not nearly as strong as plastic. (large difference between the things being
referred to)
Gold is not quite as valuable as it was last month. (small difference between the things
being referred to)
Confusing cases:
Some words have the same form as an adjective and as an adverb and some also form
adjectives with -ly. The different forms can have different meanings. These include:

fair / fairly free / freely late / lately short / shortly fast hard / hardly
near / nearly straight fine / finely high/ highly right / rightly wide / widely

- Sandstone is not a very hard material.

- I could hardly hear the music.
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- Hit it too hard and you'll break it.

- X: Hit it too hardly and you'll break it.

8. CLAUSES
 Relative pronouns in relative clauses:
Who, which, whom, that, when, where, why, whose, what.
 Defining and non-defining relative clauses:
 Defining:
- Nos indican de qué grupo de personas o cosas estamos hablando. La
frase no suele tener sentido completo si quitamos la cláusula relativa:
That´s the doctor who did Karen´s operation.
- Además, podemos usar that, en lugar de who/which/etc. Esto es más
informal: That´s the doctor that did Karen´s operation.
- No se usan comas.
- Podemos omitir el pronombre relativo si es el objeto: That´s the doctor
who she saw. (formal) // That´s the doctor she saw. (less formal)
- When, where and why pueden ser omitidos: I´ll never forget the day
when I broke mi arm. // I´ll never forget the day I broke my arm.

Non-defining
- Estas simplemente nos dan más información sobre alguien o algo.
Además, la frase tiene sentido completo, aunque quitemos el pronombre
relativo: Dr. Lake, who has been working here for over ten years, is a
very experienced surgeon. No podemos sustituír por that.
- Debemos usar comas y no podemos omitir el pronombre relativo: Dr
Lake, who is my uncle, is 50 years old.
- No se usa why.
- No se pueden omitir when ni where.: Harley Street, where she was born,
is famous for its clinics.
- Podemos poner un número o un determiner como, some, none, much and
many antes de which o whom: I bought some drugs, some of which were
expensive.

Participle clauses
To replace a relative clause She was the nurse looking after the patients at the time. (who was looking)

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The boy taken to hospital was 13 years old. (who was taken)
With prepositions and After giving blood, I went home.
conjunctions After having given blood, I went home.
To explain the reason for Being frightened of needles, Tony was not looking forward to the injection.
something Having had several operations before, Ali wasn't particularly nervous this
time.
To talk about actions happening Sitting in the waiting room, I could hear the sound of the dentist drilling.
at the same time
To talk about actions happening Having found an optician close to the office, I made an appointment for that
in sequence evening.
As an alternative passive form Given an aspirin, I began to feel better. (when/because I was given an
aspirin)
As an alternative conditional Given the chance, l'd definitely study pharmacology. (if I were given the
form chance)

 Infinitive clauses

To start a sentence To be a successful surgeon is the dream of many young children.

(= It is the dream of many young children to be a successful surgeon.)
After the verb to be My job was to give the patients their lunch.
 Concession clauses
although / though / Even though she'd put on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
even though Tamsin got burnt, though she had put on sun cream.
Tasmin put on sun cream. She still got burnt, though.
in spite of / despite (+ Despite putting on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
noun or -ing) In spite of the fact that she put on sun cream, Tamsin got burnt.
Despite the sun cream, Tamsin still got burnt.
while/whereas While antibiotics are effective against bacteria, they do not work against
viruses.
Bacterial infections can be cured with antibiotics, whereas viruses cannot.
however Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic. However, some people are allergic to it.
Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic. Some people are allergic to it, however.
Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic. Some people, however, are allergic to it.
other phrases and Try as he might, he couldn't put up with the pain.
structures However hard he (might have) tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.
Hard though/as he tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.
Much as he tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.

◦ With in spite of / despite + ing, both parts of the sentence must refer to the same
subject.
◦ Even if , is used to emphasise that it doesn't matter if something happens or is
true, another situation remains the same: Even if they found a cure for cancer
tomorrow, it would take several years before it was available.
◦ Even if, is used to suggest that something may or may not happen, whereas even
though suggests that the action actually takes place.
Even if she tried to give her an injection, she couldn't. (= She probably hasn't
tried yet.)
Even though she tried to give her an injection, she couldn't. (= She tried and
was unsuccessful.)

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9. Complex sentences
- Si la oración subordinada va primero, usa una coma antes de la
principal.
- Si la principal va primero, no necesitas coma.

INVERSIONS
■ Inversions with negative adverbial words and phrases:
- Hardly had the new law been introduced when the mistake
was realised.
- No sooner had the alarm gone off than the police arrived.
- Only in an emergency you should dial 999.
- Little did Ralph know that the burglar was still inside his house.
- Only when we agree what measures are needed will we be
able to solve the problem.
- Never have I heard such a ridiculous suggestion.

■ With not until and only (when/after), you have to be careful to invert
the verb and subject in the main clause. *Example*: Not until /only
when this government realizes what a mistake it is making will things
change.

 Inversiones con expresiones adverbiales de lugar (+ verb of

movement/position)
Here
There
Adverbial phrases
Participle phrases
- Here comes the Minister now.
- There stood the next King of England.
- At the top of society are the aristocracy.
- On the corner of the street sat a homeless man.
- Running down the road was a young man with a woman´s
handbag under his arm.

in short answers “I voted for Smith” “I don't believe a word this government
using so, neither and says.”
nor “Did you? So did I” 'No, neither do I.'
after as, than, so andI am very worried about bullying in the school, as are a lot of
such the parents.
The police in this area make more arrests than do officers in
other parts of the country.
So rare is burglary here that many people don't bother to lock
their doors.
in conditional Were the Foreign Secretary to resign, it would cause serious
sentences (see Unit problems for the Prime Minister.
11) Should the Foreign Secretary resign, it would cause serious
problems for the Prime Minister.
Had I known about the crime problem, I would never have
moved here.

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