MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION

HANDOUT FOR THE COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE

SMART AGRICULTURE

NOVEMBER 2022

TULUAWILYA, ETHIOPIA
 UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE AGRICULTURE

CONCEPT

1.1 General overview of Climate change and the agriculture

Climate change (CC) is the most serious environmental threat that adversely affects
agricultural productivity. This climate change mainly caused by greenhouse gases (GHGs)
accumulation in the atmosphere, which results in increased greenhouse effect. Greenhouse
gas, any gas that has the property of absorbing infrared radiation (net heat
energy) emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiating it back to Earth’s surface, thus
contributing to the greenhouse effect. The most common and powerful GHG are:

 Carbon dioxide, mainly derived from deforestation, fossil fuels and industrial
activities
 Methane which is caused by livestock production and rice cultivation and
 Nitrous oxide that caused by the mismanagement of manufactured agricultural
inputs.

Therefore, the main driver of climate change is the greenhouse effect. Moreover, many of
these greenhouse gases occur naturally, but human activity is increasing the concentrations of
some of them in the atmosphere. Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes,
both of which take place on a global scale.

Agriculture has to address simultaneously three intertwined challenges: ensuring food

security through increased productivity and income, adapting to climate change and
contributing to climate change mitigation. However, agricultural activities are affected by
climate change due to their direct dependence on climatic factors. Conversely, agriculture
sector affects climate through emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs. These emissions come
directly from use of fossil fuels, tillage practices, fertilized applications and livestock manure
in large proportion. On other hand, agriculture could be a solution for climate change by the
widespread adoption of mitigation and adaptation actions.
Impacts of climate change on agriculture

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Agricultural activities involves natural processes that frequently require fixed proportions of
nutrients, temperatures, precipitation, and other conditions. Hence, not surprisingly,
agriculture is deemed to be an economic activity that is expected to be vulnerable to climate
variability and change. Therefore, Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways;
including:
 Change in average temperature;
 Changes in rain patterns;
 Increased variability both in temperature and rain patterns;
 Changes in water availability; the frequency and intensity of ‘extreme events’;
 Sea level rise and salinization;
 Perturbations in ecosystems, all will have profound impacts on agriculture, forestry
and fisheries.

The extent of these impacts will depend not only on the intensity and timing (periodicity) of
the changes but also on their combination, which are more uncertain on local conditions. The
impacts of it will have major effects on agricultural production, with a decrease of production
in certain areas and increased variability of production to the extent. Local impacts will bring
global imbalances. Regional impacts are likely to be substantial and variable, with some
regions benefiting from an altered climate and other regions adversely affected. Generally,
food production is likely to decline in most critical regions (e.g. subtropical and tropical
areas), whereas agriculture in developed countries may actually benefit where technology is
more available and if appropriate adaptive adjustments are employed. Among the most
affected areas economically vulnerable countries already food insecure. Particularly,
smallholders and pastoralists will suffer complex, by localized impacts. This will induce
significant changes in trade, impacting prices and the situation of net food importing
countries. Consequently, climate change is expected to increase the gap between developed
and developing countries. As a result of more severe impacts in already vulnerable
developing regions, exacerbated by their relatively lower technical and economical capacity
to respond to new threats. In addition, as the International Food Policy Research Institute
reports, it will cause an increase of between 8.5 and 10.3 percent in the number of
malnourished children in all developing countries, relative to scenarios without climate
change.

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Agriculture’s impact on climate change

Agriculture creates both direct and indirect emissions. Direct emissions mainly come from
fertilized agricultural soils and livestock manure. Whereas, the most significant indirect
emissions are changes in natural vegetation, use of fossil fuels for mechanization, transport
and agro-chemical and fertilizer production. Moreover, traditional land use, including
deforestation and soil degradation, deforestation (for agricultural expansion and fuel wood) is
the main cause of climate change in Ethiopia. Intensive tillage is also one of traditional land
use practices which involve continuously disturb the land. This practice increases CO2
emissions by causing decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) and soil erosion.

The sector directly accounted for 13.5 percent of global GHG emissions from crop and
livestock activities. This figure is based on activities carried out in the fields and with
livestock. Expanding our consideration of agriculture’s role in climate change is warranted
because some of the on farm emissions are not included in the 13.5 percent figure, but are
grouped in other sectors, such as electricity used in farm buildings and fuel used in farm
equipment and food transport. Also, agriculture is a major driver of deforestation, which
roughly accounts for an additional 17 percent of global GHG emissions.

The sector is the main sources of carbon dioxide (CO2), and it is also a source of nitrous
oxide (N2O), accounting for 58 percent of total emissions, mostly by soils and through the
application of fertilizers, from tillage practices and cattle production. Methane (CH4),
accounting for 47 percent of total emissions, essentially from livestock and rice cultivation.
These emissions are dependent on natural processes and agricultural practices, which makes
them more difficult to control and measure. As agricultural production is projected to
increase in developing countries, so are agricultural emissions. IPCC estimates that N2O
emissions will increase by 35 - 60 percent by 2030 and CH4 by 60 percent.

1.2. Definition of Climate change (CC)

Weather and climate are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings and they are
different in spatial- and timescales. Weather refers to atmospheric conditions that occur
locally over short periods of time from minutes to hours or days. It involves the description of
the atmospheric condition at a single instant of time for a single occurrence. Simply, weather
means the current atmospheric condition in given place and is the day to day changes of
temperature, precipitation, wind, sunshine, cloudy and humidity in the atmosphere.

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Therefore, the major difference between weather and climate: time scale (hours to days;
months to years) and spatial scale (regional; global).

On the other hand, Climate refers to the long-term regional or even global average of
temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades. Climate is overall
pattern of weather, usually based on an average over 30 years. Climate is what you expect
and climate is changing. Climate may be thought of as an average of weather conditions over
a period of time including the probability for distributions from this average. Climate
classified largely in terms of Temperature and Precipitation. The major differences between
weather and climate: Time scale-hrs to days; months-years – beyond and spatial scale-
regional; global.

Similarly, the terms Climate change and global warming are sometimes confused. Global
warming means an increase in the temperature of the earth atmosphere that can contribute to
change in global climate pattern. It refers to the average increase of the Earth’s temperature
due to the greenhouse effect caused by carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), hydro fluorocarbon (HFCs), perfluorocarbon (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Therefore, the global warming is the cause while, climate change is the effect.

Climate change defined as a significant and lasting change in the statistical patterns of
precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and seasons over periods ranging from decades to
millions of years. Climate change alters ecosystems, impacting on humans and livestock that
rely on a given landscape for food crops, pastures and water. Higher temperatures eventually
reduce yields of desirable crops while encouraging proliferation of weeds and pests. Changes
in precipitation patterns increase the likelihood of short-run crop failures and long-run
production declines. Therefore, the global warming is the cause while, climate change is the
effect.

1.3. Causes of Climate Change

Climate change occurs because of internal variability within the climate system and external
factors. The external causes may be natural or human activity.

Natural causes include

• The change in solar activity, (Variable energy from the Sun over time, luminosity,
sunspots)
• Volcanic eruption,

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 • Change in the earth’s orbit (Obliquity of Earth’s axis, Precession of Earth’s axis)
• Land formation
• Ocean formation

On the other hand, artificial causes are include

• Greenhouse gas emission from industry and agricultural production activities,
• Land use change
• Deforestation, (including deforestation for expansion of both cultivated and grazing
land, for timber production, for fuel wood).
• Urbanization
• The destruction of the ozone layer by the increase of greenhouse gases.
These adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the
atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.

1.4. Consequence of Climate Change

Climate change poses the major threats to agricultural production and world food security
such as:
 Decline productivity – overall production of
– Crop
– Livestock
– Fishes and
– Forestry production
 Threat to food and health security of million
 Increase in poverty
 New health problems
 Depletion of agricultural soils
 Lack of clean water
 Damage to coastal infrastructure, homes, and property
 Dislocation of populations
 Disruption of educational services
 Damage to tourism sector
 Psychological distress
 Salinization of irrigation water

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1.5. Methods to Control Climate Change Effect on Agricultural Production

1. Organic farming: With the right type of agriculture, emissions leading to climate change
can be minimized and the capacity of nature to mitigate climate change can be harnessed to
sequestrate significant quantities of atmospheric CO2 especially in the soil. So, organic
agriculture can be a better option for this.

Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and
people. It utilizes ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. It combines tradition, innovation and
science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality
of life for all involved. Organic agriculture affordably captures carbon from the air and
effectively stores it in the soil in high levels for long periods. Global adoption of organic
agriculture has the potential to sequester up to the equivalent of 32% of all current man-made
GHG emissions. According Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),
organic agriculture is an effective strategy for mitigating climate change and building robust
soils that are better adapted to extreme weather conditions associated with climate change. It
optimally combines different practices in a systematic manner and sustains agricultural
production in resource-limited regions.

2. Conservation agriculture and resource conservation technologies (RCTs):

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a way of farming that conserves, improves and makes more
efficient use of natural resources through integrated management of available resources
combined with external inputs. It encompassing farming practices which have three key
characteristics:

i) Minimal mechanical soil disturbance (i.e. reduced tillage and no-tillage);

ii) Maintenance of a mulch of C-rich organic matter covering and feeding the soil
(e.g. straw and/or other crop residues); and
iii) Rotations or sequences and associations of crops which could include nitrogen-
fixing legumes.
i) No-till agriculture: No tillage is a practice in which seeds are sown by cutting a
narrow slot in the soil, and weeds are controlled with herbicides. Since soil
disturbance tends to stimulate soil carbon losses through enhanced decomposition

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 and erosion. Reduced or no-till agriculture often results in soil C gain and it can
also reduce CO2 emissions from energy use. Conversion from conventional tillage
to no-tillage is often considered to be an efficient carbon sequestration strategy
with a sequestration rate of 367-3667 kg CO2ha-1year-1.

ii) Cover crops: Systems that retain crop residues also tend to increase soil C
because these residues are the precursors for soil organic matter, the main C store
in soil. Avoiding the burning of residues (eliminating the need for pre-harvest
burning) also avoids emissions of GHGs generated from fire, although CO2
emissions from fuel use may increase. Furthermore, growing vegetative cover
between successive agricultural crops, or between rows of tree add C to soils and
also extract plant available N unused by the preceding crop, thereby reducing N 2O
emissions.

iii) Crop rotation: This conservation farming is help to employ diversified crop
rotations to help moderate/mitigate possible weed, disease and pest problems.
Moreover, it help to utilize the beneficial effects of some crops on soil conditions
and on the productivity of subsequent crops. Crop rotation with legumes increases
SOC content in soil as compared to traditional subsistence farming.

3. Agro-forestry and forest management: is an integration of trees and shrubs into crop and
animal farming systems to create environmental, economic, and social benefits. It is the
production of crops on land that also grows trees for timber, firewood, or other tree products.
Agroforestry practices can reduce or remove significant amounts of GHGs through increased
carbon storage in biomass above-ground and below-ground and in soil organic carbon.

4. Nutrient management: Nutrient management refers to the maintenance of soil fertility

and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through
optimization of the benefits from all possible sources. Judicious nutrient management is also
crucial to SOC sequestration. Application of bio-solids as soil amendments (e.g. compost,
manure) is extremely important in improving productivity and creating a positive C budget
and enhancing the ecosystem C pool. N applied through fertilizers, manures, bio-solids and
other N sources is not always used efficiently by crops. Improving N use efficiency can
reduce N2O emissions and indirectly reduce GHG emissions from N fertilizer. Practices that
improve N use efficiency include: adjusting application rates (e.g. precision farming);

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applying N when least susceptible to loss, often just prior to plant uptake (improved timing);
placing the N more precisely into the soil to make it more accessible to crop roots; or
avoiding N applications in excess than the plant requirements.

5. Conserving water resources and water management: Efficient use of water or using
more effective irrigation measures can enhance Carbon storage in soils through enhanced
yields and residue returns. Judicious use of irrigation water in a drought prone soil can
enhance biomass production, increase the amount of above-ground and the root biomass
returned to the soil and improve SOC concentration. Enhancing water use efficiency holds
the key to tackling water scarcity and climate change issues in smallholder agricultural
systems.

6. Developing and adopting resilient varieties and building resilient farming systems:
Widening the array of crop varieties and broadening the range of crops – can be an effective
way to moderate the effects of weather variability and extreme events associated with climate
change. Modern rice and wheat varieties were developed during the Green Revolution to feed
the growing population of the developing world. Their adoption has helped to build food
barriers against hunger, protecting millions from malnutrition.

7. Resilient ecosystems: Improving ecosystem management and biodiversity can lead to

more resilient, productive and sustainable systems that may also contribute to reducing or
removing greenhouse gases. It includes; control of pests and diseases, regulation of
microclimate, decomposition of wastes, regulating nutrient cycles and crop pollination.

8. Rice production: Flooded rice soils emit significant quantities of methane. So,
replacement of flooded rice by aerobic rice is important for water saving, mitigation of GHGs
emission and sustaining crop yields. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) method also
reduces the methane gas emissions as compared to flooded rice cultivation. Alternate Wetting
and Drying (AWD) method developed by IRRI can also be a better option for rice
production. AWD generates multiple benefits related to methane emission reduction,
reducing water use (adaptation where water is scarce), increasing productivity and
contributing to food security. In the off-rice season, methane emissions can be reduced by
improved water management, especially by keeping the soil as dry as possible and avoiding
water logging. CH4 emissions can be reduced by adjusting the timing of organic residue
additions (e.g. incorporating organic materials in the dry period and by composting the
residues before incorporation.

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9. Weed Management: Elevated CO2 due to climate change could provide an even greater
competitive advantage to weeds, with concomitant negative effects on crop production due to
physiological plasticity of many weeds and their greater genetic diversity relative to crops.
There is also huge pool of invasive plants available to colonise bare spaces left by climate
change (drought, fire and storm damage), and wind and flooding waters help spread weeds.
Therefore, weed management requirements in agriculture and non-agricultural situation.
Aggressive growth of C3 and C4 weeds will require more energy and labour intensive
management.

10. Restoring degraded soils: A large proportion of agricultural lands have been degraded
by unnecessary disturbance, erosion, organic matter loss, salinization, acidification, or other
processes that curtail productivity. Restoring these degraded soils have a high potential for
sequestrating soil C. Most degraded soils have lost a large fraction of the antecedent SOC
pool, which can be restored through adopting judicious land use practices including: re-
vegetation (e.g. planting grasses); improving fertility by nutrient amendments; applying
organic substrates such as manures, bio-solids and composts; reducing tillage (zero tillage or
minimum tillage) and retaining crop residues; and conserving water. Where these practices
involve higher N amendments, the benefits of C sequestration may be partly offset by higher
N2O emissions.

11. Erosion management: Soil C losses can occur both as a result of mineralization as well
as through erosion often making it a complex relationship. Where water erosion dominates, a
high proportion of soil C may be washed into alluvial deposits close to the erosion site and
stored there in the forms which decay more slowly than in the parent soils. Therefore, this
kind of erosion may have a positive effect on soil C sequestration. Three main type of erosion
preventive techniques are
i) Those that increase the soils resistance against agents of erosion;
ii) Soil surface management techniques that help establishment of quick ground
cover and;
iii) Techniques that provide a buffer against rainfall and runoff erosivity.

12. Management of organic/peaty soils: Organic or peaty soils contain high densities of C
accumulated over many centuries because decomposition is suppressed by absence of oxygen
under flooded conditions. To be used for agriculture, these soils are drained, which aerates
the soil, favouring decomposition and therefore, high CO2 and N2O fluxes. CH4 emissions are

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usually suppressed after draining, but this effect is far outweighed by pronounced increases in
N2O and CO2. Emissions from drained organic soils can be reduced to some extent by
practices such as avoiding row crops and tubers, avoiding deep ploughing and maintaining a
shallower water table. But the most important mitigation practice is avoiding the drainage of
these soils in the first place or re-establishing a high water table.

13. Integrated Pest management: A system that maintains the population of any pest, or
pests, at or below the level that causes damage or loss, and which minimizes adverse impacts
on society and the environment. The word integrated means combination, implemented as
bringing together of individual control measures into a collective operation. A systems
approach to pest control that utilizes all appropriate strategies to minimize pest impact while
protecting the environment and providing acceptable economic return. Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological,
cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and
environmental risks.

Aim of IPM:
• Reduction of pesticide loading by more than 50%.
• Effective pest management
• The concept of integrated pest management includes a threshold concept for the
application of pest control measures and reduction in the amount/frequency of
pesticides applied to an economically and ecologically acceptable level.

14. GM crops: Genetically modified (GM) crops could help in addressing water scarcity
through water stress tolerance traits, and through a reduction in pesticide use, thus lowering
the risk of soil and water pollution. GM cash crops can also contribute to food security along
with maximizing farm profitability by; reducing crop yield losses, protecting against pest and
diseases, reducing pesticides and herbicides usage, reducing exposure of farmers to toxic
chemicals, reducing machinery, labour and fuel costs and multiplier effects on total
production and demand for goods and services and resultant welfare impacts.

15. Pasture and grazing-land management: Excessive and uncontrolled grazing of lands is
a major cause of the acceleration of the desertification process. Adoption of improved grazing
practices can improve C sequestration through conservation and better management of
surface residue. Restoring degraded grazing lands, improving forage species and converting

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marginal croplands to pastures is also important in sequestering SOC. Furthermore, similar to
cropland, management options for improving pastures include judicious use of fertilizers,
controlled grazing, sowing legumes and grasses or other species adapted to the environment,
improvement of soil fauna and irrigation.

1.6. Climate Change Mitigation in Agricultural Production

Mitigation refers dealing with the causes of climate change by reducing emissions. It is a
human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.
Wherever and whenever possible, CSA should help reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. This implies that we reduce emissions for each calorie or kilo of food,
fiber and fuel that we produce. For example avoiding deforestation from agriculture,
managing soils and trees in ways that maximizes their potential to acts as carbon sinks and
absorb CO from the atmosphere. Mitigation can be effective in agricultural production
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through;

Reducing greenhouse gas emission: The emission of GHG from agriculture can be reduced
by more efficient management of Carbon and Nitrogen e.g. practices that deliver added N
more efficiently to crops often reduce N2O emissions, and managing livestock to make most
efficient use of feeds often reduces amounts of CH4 produced.

Locking up Carbon in soil and vegetation: Practices those increase the photosynthetic
input of Carbon and slow the return of stored Carbon to CO2 via respiration, fire or erosion
will increase C reserves, thereby ‘sequestering’ Carbon or building Carbon ‘sinks’.
Significant amounts of vegetative C can be stored in agro-forestry systems or other perennial
plantings on agricultural lands. Agricultural lands also remove CH4 from the atmosphere by
oxidation but less than forests.

Replacing fossil fuel with renewable bioenergy sources: Crops and residues from
agricultural lands can be used as a source of fuel, either directly or after conversion to fuels
such as ethanol or diesel. These bio-energy feed-stocks still release CO2 upon combustion,
but now the C is of recent atmospheric origin (via photosynthesis), rather than from fossil C.
The net benefit of these bio-energy sources to the atmosphere is equal to the fossil-derived
emissions displaced, less any emissions from producing, transporting and processing. So,
affordable novel technologies and energy resources that do not emit greenhouse gases are

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needed. Diffusion of hydropower (including micro-hydropower), solar energy, bio-gas, and
wind energy are notable examples.

1.7. Climate Change Adaptation in Agricultural Production

Adaptation- Adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual

or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities. It also defined as the process by which strategies to moderate, cope with and
take advantage of the consequences of climatic events are enhanced, developed, and
implemented. CSA aims to reduce the exposure of farmers to short-term risks, while also
strengthening their resilience by building their capacity to adapt and prosper in the face of
shocks and longer-term stresses. As climate changes proceed in agricultural regions, there are
three stages of adaptation related to the level of effort required.

Stage 1: When climate changes are relatively small, many current techniques are available to
help farmer’s adaptation. These adaptations include; varying sowing dates and cultivars,
fertilization and irrigation scheduling; as well as changing to better adapted alternative crops.

Stage 2: As climate change proceeds, more extensive changes may be required, including the
genetic improvement of crops to create greater tolerance to elevated temperatures and
drought and improved responsiveness to rising CO2 and the development of new
technologies.

Stage 3: In later decades, severe climate changes in agricultural regions may necessitate
transformative shifts to entirely different agricultural systems, such as from temperate-zone to
sub-tropical or semi-arid zone forms of agriculture.

Potential adaptation options

1. Changing planting date 8. Waste land management

2. Soil and water conservation 9. Use of biofuel

3. Crop diversification 10. Agro-forestry

4. Intercropping/mixed cropping 11. On/Off-Farm Activities

5. Rainwater harvesting 12. Organic farming Conservation agriculture

6. Improved nutrient management 13. Use of drought tolerant variety

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7. Relocating crops into alternate areas

1.5 Relationships between Climate change and agricultural production

The relationship between climate change and agriculture is twofold: agriculture contributes to
climate change in several ways, and climate change adversely affects the agriculture sector in
various ways.
Agriculture directly accounts for 13.5 % of greenhouse gas emissions and indirectly for
another 17% due to deforestation and land-use change. It is generally agreed that about 24%
of CO2 emissions are produced by agricultural sources, mainly deforestation, land conversion
and ploughing, the use of fossil fuel-based fertilizers and the burning of biomass. Most of the
methane (CH4) in the atmosphere comes from domestic ruminants, forest fires, wetland rice
cultivation and waste products, while conventional tillage, manure deposited on pasture,
synthetic fertilizer application and the decomposition of agriculture waste account for 70 %
of nitrous oxide (N2O). However, the sector holds a large mitigation potential, mainly through
reduced deforestation, soil management and increased productivity. Agriculture is therefore
part of the problem and part of the solution to Climate Change. It is both subject to and
responsible for climate change, while also being part of the solution.

Climate change is mainly associated with atmospheric CO2 concentration and the key
weather variables such as rainfall, temperature, and solar radiation as well as other climate
extremities like flood, drought, landslide etc. Carbon dioxide being one of the important
inputs in the photosynthesis process. Its atmospheric concentration is an important factor
affecting plant growth and yield. Its effect on plant growth and yield is both direct as well as
indirect. For instance, increase in photosynthesis and growth is a direct effect of CO 2 rise,
whereas reduction in plant water loss is an indirect effect of CO2 rise. The elevated level of
CO2 concentration leads to reduced stomata openness resulting in reduced water loss.
Increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 will also result in increased photosynthesis rate
and also increased stomatal resistance in crops leading to overall increased water-use
efficiency. Temperature and humidity will also play an important role in agricultural
production. Increase in temperature will affect growing seasons of crops, by shortening the
growing period of plants. Similarly, as a warmer atmosphere can hold more water vapor,
increase in precipitation will have beneficial effects on crops in some semi-arid locations.

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It is not always true that the climate change brings the positive effect on agriculture, it will
also have adverse effects on agriculture. For instance, Elevated CO2 and temperature levels
increase the rate of the plant development thereby shortening the growing period, which may
result in less potential growth. Increased temperature speeds up crops physiologies through
their growing cycle especially in the grain filling stage. Since total yield is a product of the
rate and duration of grain filling, shortening of grain filling duration due to higher
temperature tends to exert a negative pressure on the yield of most annual crops. In addition,
agriculture will also be affected by the elevated carbon dioxide concentration, increase in
weeds, pest and disease pressure. The climate change will have mostly a detrimental effect on
agriculture but different regions will have different degree of effect.

Further, livestock production will also be affected directly as well as indirectly, directly such
as physiological stress due to temperature increase and indirectly through changes in fodder
quality and availability. In addition to this, climate change will have an effect on the water
resource availability, which is the major input for agriculture. As water resources will become
scarce it will impact on the irrigation potential of the area and finally affecting the agriculture.

UNIT TWO

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA)

2.1. Concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture

Societal vulnerability to the risks associated with climate change may exacerbate ongoing
social and economic challenges, particularly for those parts of societies dependent on
resources that are sensitive to changes in climate (rain fed agriculture). Risks are apparent in
agriculture, fisheries and many other components that constitute the livelihood of rural
populations in Sub-Sahara Africa.
Many actors are promoting key agro-ecological farming technologies and practices that are
highly suited to enable farmers to adapt to climate change. These include agro-forestry, crop
rotation, intercropping, minimum tillage, soil cover maintenance, residue retention, water
conservation, rice systems that reduce methane emissions, improved management of
livestock and soil carbon as well as breeding plants and animals adapted for future climate
conditions. These practices have been documented to generate higher and more stable crop
yields and incomes and enhance resilience to climate change in some countries compared to
conventional agricultural production methods. Although these practices are not necessarily

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new, when used in the context of climatic change, they have been proved to be innovative for
farmers, herders and fishermen. Such practices are dubbed Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA).

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA); may be defined as an approach for transforming and

reorienting agricultural development under the new realities of climate change. The most
commonly used definition is provided by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), which defines CSA as “agriculture that sustainably
increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs
(mitigation) where possible, and enhances achievement of national food security and
development goals”. In this definition, the principal goal of CSA is identified as food
security and development; while productivity, adaptation, and mitigation are identified as
the three interlinked pillars necessary for achieving this goal.

2.2. The Pillars of CSA

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 Productivity: CSA aims to sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes from
crops, livestock and fish, without having a negative impact on the environment. This, in turn,
will raise food and nutritional security. A key concept related to raising productivity
is sustainable intensification.

 Adaptation: CSA aims to reduce the exposure of farmers to short-term risks, while also
strengthening their resilience by building their capacity to adapt and prosper in the face of
shocks and longer-term stresses. Particular attention is given to protecting the ecosystem
services which ecosystems provide to farmers and others. These services are essential for
maintaining productivity and our ability to adapt to climate changes.

 Mitigation: Wherever and whenever possible, CSA should help to reduce and/or
remove greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This implies that we reduce emissions for each
calorie or kilo of food, fiber and fuel that we produce. That we avoid deforestation from
agriculture. And that we manage soils and trees in ways that maximizes their potential to acts
as carbon sinks and absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.

2.3. Key Characteristics of CSA

 CSA addresses climate change: Contrary to conventional agricultural development, CSA

systematically integrates climate change into the planning and development of sustainable
agricultural systems.

 CSA integrates multiple goals and manages trade-offs: Ideally, CSA produces triple-win
outcomes: increased productivity, enhanced resilience and reduced emissions. But often it is
not possible to achieve all three. Frequently, when it comes time to implement CSA, trade-
offs must be made. This requires us to identify synergies and weigh the costs and benefits of
different options based on stakeholder objectives identified through participatory approaches
(see figure 1).

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 Figure 2: Synergies and trade-offs for adaptation, mitigation and food security
(Source; Vermeulen et al. 2012, p. C-3)
 CSA maintains ecosystems services: Ecosystems provide farmers with essential services,
including clean air, water, food and materials. It is imperative that CSA interventions do not
contribute to their degradation. Thus, CSA adopts a landscape approach that builds upon the
principles of sustainable agriculture but goes beyond the narrow sectoral approaches that
result in uncoordinated and competing land uses, to integrated planning and management.

 CSA has multiple entry points at different levels: CSA should not be perceived as a set of
practices and technologies. It has multiple entry points, ranging from the development of
technologies and practices to the elaboration of climate change models and scenarios,
information technologies, insurance schemes, value chains and the strengthening of
institutional and political enabling environments. As such, it goes beyond single technologies
at the farm level and includes the integration of multiple interventions at the food system,
landscape, value chain or policy level.

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 CSA is context specific: What is climate-smart in one-place may not be climate-smart in
another, and no interventions are climate-smart everywhere or every time. Interventions must
take into account how different elements interact at the landscape level, within or among
ecosystems and as a part of different institutional arrangements and political realities. The
fact that CSA often strives to reach multiple objectives at the system level makes it
particularly difficult to transfer experiences from one context to another.

 CSA engages women and marginalized groups: To achieve food security goals and
enhance resilience, CSA approaches must involve the poorest and most vulnerable groups.
These groups often live on marginal lands which are most vulnerable to climate events like
drought and floods. They are, thus, most likely to be affected by climate change. Gender is
another central aspect of CSA. Women typically have less access and legal right to the land
which they farm, or to other productive and economic resources which could help build
their adaptive capacity to cope with events like droughts and floods (Huyer et al. 2015). CSA
strives to involve all local, regional and national stakeholders in decision-making. Only by
doing so, is it possible to identify the most appropriate interventions and form the
partnerships and alliances needed to enable sustainable development.

2.4. Why Climate-Smart Agriculture Needed?

Between now and 2050, the world’s population will increase by one-third. It is also expected
most of these additional people will live in developing countries and at the same time, more
people will be living in cities. To meet and satisfy the demand of food and feed of the
expected growing population, FAO estimates that agricultural production will have to
increase by 60 percent by 2050. Therefore, Agriculture must transform itself if it is to feed a
growing global population and provide the basis for economic growth and poverty reduction.
On the other hand Climate change will make this task more difficult under a business-as-
usual scenario, due to adverse impacts on agriculture, requiring spiralling adaptation,
mitigation and related costs. As a general climate smart agriculture is needed due to the
following four main things.

• World population to increase by at least third by 2050 from 7.3 billion (2015) to 9.7
billion (2050).
• Agricultural production will have to increase by at least 60%.

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 • Climate Change a threat to food and nutrition security under a ‘business as usual’
approach
• Adaptation, mitigation & reduction of GHG emissions necessary. Therefore, adoption
of Climate Smart Agriculture paramount to increased food productivity.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) also helps address a number of important challenges:

1. CSA addresses food security, misdistribution and malnutrition

Despite the attention paid to agricultural development and food security over the past
decades, there are still about 800 million undernourished and 1 billion malnourished people
in the world. At the same time, more than 1.4 billion adults are overweight and one third of
all food produced is wasted. Before 2050, the global population is expected to swell to more
than 9.7 billion people. At the same time, global food consumption trends are changing
drastically, for example, increasing affluence is driving demand for meat-rich diets. If the
current trends in consumption patterns and food waste continue, it is estimated we will
require 60% more food production by 2050. CSA helps to improve food security for the poor
and marginalized groups while also reducing food waste globally.
2. CSA addresses the relationship between agriculture and poverty

Agriculture continues to be the main source of food, employment and income for many
people living in developing countries. Indeed, it is estimated that about 75% of the world’s
poor live in rural areas, with agriculture being their most important income source. As such,
agriculture is uniquely placed to propel people out of poverty. Agricultural growth is often
the most effective and equitable strategy for both reducing poverty and increasing food
security.

3. CSA addresses the relation between climate change and agriculture

Climate change is already increasing average temperatures around the globe and, in the
future, temperatures are projected to be not only hotter but more volatile too. This, in turn,
will alter how much precipitation falls, where and when. Combined, these changes will
increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods,
heat waves, snowstorms and droughts. They may cause sea level rise and salinization, as well
as perturbations across entire ecosystems. All of these changes will have profound impacts on
agriculture, forestry and fisheries.

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The agriculture sector is particularly vulnerable to climate change because different crops and
animals thrive in different conditions. This makes agriculture highly dependent on consistent
temperature ranges and water availability, which are exactly what climate change threatens to
undermine. In addition, plant pests and diseases will likely increase in incidence and spread
into new territories, bringing further challenges for agricultural productivity.
2.5. The Climate-Smart Agriculture Approach

CSA is not a single specific agricultural technology or practice that can be universally
applied. It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments to identify suitable
agricultural production technologies and practices. This approach:
1. Addresses the complex interrelated challenges of food security, development
and climate change, and identifies integrated options that create synergies
and benefits and reduce trade-offs;
2. Recognizes that these options will be shaped by specific country contexts and
capacities and by the particular social, economic, and environmental situation
where it will be applied;
3. Assesses the interactions between sectors and the needs of different involved
stakeholders;
4. Identifies barriers to adoption, especially among farmers, and provides
appropriate solutions in terms of policies, strategies, actions and incentives;
5. Seeks to create enabling environments through a greater alignment of policies,
financial investments and institutional arrangements;
6. Strives to achieve multiple objectives with the understanding that priorities
need to be set and collective decisions made on different benefits and trade-
offs;
7. Should prioritize the strengthening of livelihoods, especially those of
smallholders, by improving access to services, knowledge, resources
(including genetic resources), financial products and markets;
8. Addresses adaptation and builds resilience to shocks, especially those related
to climate change, as the magnitude of the impacts of climate change has
major implications for agricultural and rural development;
9. Considers climate change mitigation as a potential secondary co-benefit,
especially in low-income, agricultural-based populations;

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 10. Seeks to identify opportunities to access climate-related financing and
integrate it with traditional sources of agricultural investment finance.

UNIT THREE

CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA) PRACTICES AND

TECHNOLOGIES

3.1. Definition of CSA Practices

This section introduces a range of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and technologies
within seven entry points for CSA; soil management, crop management, water management,
livestock management, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, and energy management. Practices
are understood broadly as ways of doing things, for example, precision farming, tillage, and
fertilization; these are all CSA practices. Technologies are new materials introduced into new
or old practices, and might include new drought-tolerant varieties; a hardy breed of cattle, or
a new slow-release fertilizer. Many of the entry points involve interventions at the farm level.
However, in many instances, the management of natural resources will also need to be
considered at the landscape level

3.2. Major Components of CSA Practices and Technologies

3.2.1. CSA practices for water management

Agriculture is the largest consumer of the world's freshwater resources, requiring 70% of
available supply of which almost 40% are used for rice production. As the world's population
rises and consumes more food and industries and urban development expands, water scarcity
is becoming an increasingly important issue; improved water management systems are a
must. Given the fundamental role of water in agriculture, the scope of water management is
both wide-ranging and complex. Due to this complexity, many options for improved water
management relate to other entry points. In this section, the focus will be on improved water
management in rainfed and irrigated agricultural systems that across different scales,
including
(i) Farm level,
(ii) Irrigation systems or catchment level, and

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 (iii) National or river basin level.

Under rained agriculture, improved water management can be achieved through water
harvesting, soil management practices that result in the capture and retention of rainfall and
through soil fertility and crop management innovations that enhance crop growth and yield
and hence water use efficiency, or through supplemental irrigation of dry-land crops. In
irrigated systems, improved water management for greater water use efficiency is achievable
at many stages in the process of irrigation, from the source of the water, through conveyance
and application systems, scheduling and the availability of water in the root zone of the plant.

Contribution to CSA

 Productivity: In the absence of other limitations to crop growth, all innovations which aim to
reduce crop water stress through the improved capture and retention of rainfall or the
improved scheduling and application of irrigation water will boost crop productivity.

 Adaptation through short-term risk management: Many water management innovations

(e.g. supplemental irrigation and rainfall capture) are specifically designed to reduce or
eliminate the risk of crop water stress and yield reduction.

 Adaptation through longer term risk management: The implications of climate change for
water management are context specific. However, in many regions, it will likely include
increased water demand and reduced water availability. Under such scenarios, especially
where human populations are projected to increase substantially, all innovations which
increase water availability or target reduced water use through greater water use efficiency in
rainfed agriculture or irrigations systems are an important longer-term adaptation mechanism.

 Mitigation: Flooded rice systems emit substantial amounts of the greenhouse gas (GHG)
methane (CH4). Alternate wetting and drying cycles in such systems not only save water, but
also result in greatly reduced methane emissions. In addition, irrigation strategies that reduce
the amount of water required can reduce energy consumption for pumping, thereby reducing
emissions.

3.2.2. CSA practices for Soil Management

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 Maintaining or improving soil health is essential for sustainable and productive agriculture.
‘Healthy’ soil will help to push sustainable agricultural productivity close to the limits set by
soil type and climate. Key aspects of ‘healthy’ soil include the following:

 A comprehensive soil cover of vegetation.

 Soil carbon levels close to the limits set by soil type and climate.
 Minimal loss of soil nutrients from the soil through leaching.
 Zero or minimal rates of rainfall run-off and soil erosion.
 No accumulation of contaminants in the soil.
 Agriculture, which does not rely excessively on fossil energy through inorganic fertilizers.

In many regions of the world, soil health is severely threatened by human and livestock
population increases. This has resulted in the intensification of soil cultivation in existing
high potential areas, the expansion of farming into forests and marginal environments with
fragile soils, and the over stocking and overgrazing of natural pastures. Combined with the
constraints that small-scale farmers face with regard to the availability and cost of organic
and inorganic nutrient inputs, these factors have resulted in the wide scale decline of soil
health and, hence, productivity in those regions. The good management of soil-crop-water
interrelations can maintain and increase soil organic matter, improve the soil’s nutrient
retention capacity and enhance soil biodiversity. This integrated management can create
optimal conditions for crop production, while simultaneously increasing the resilience of
production systems to climate change. In crop production systems, good management
practices to increase soil organic matter include:
• Direct seeding (no-tillage) in combination with protective soil cover, crop
diversification and crop rotation,
• The elimination of the burning of crop residues,
• Integrated soil fertility management to increase the soil's nutrient retention capacity
and the availability on nutrients to plants; the precise management of nitrogen,
• Integrated pest management, which includes the sustainable use of herbicides,
• The construction of soil conservation structures, such as stone and earth terraces and
bunds, and check dams,
• The harvesting and proper use of rainwater and,
• Appropriate soil erosion control practices.

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 In grazing systems, soil organic matter can be increased through controlled grazing, which
reduces the degradation of vegetation and restores grassland diversity. Reducing burning to
the absolute minimum also increases soil organic matter.
Contribution to CSA

So that, improved soil management aims to enhance soil health and contributes to CSA from
several important perspectives:

 Productivity: All interventions that improve soil fertility, soil water availability and reduce
the loss of nutrient-rich topsoil through erosion, will straightforwardly improve productivity.

 Adaptation: In many parts of the world, intense rainfall events are already a common
occurrence and result in a high risk of rainfall run-off and soil erosion, especially on sloping
land. Climate change projections suggest that the frequency and severity of such events are
very likely to increase. There is a wide range of soil management interventions, which help
reduce the risk of run-off and soil erosion, ranging from field or farm level interventions such
as contour ploughing or contour tillage with tied ridges, micro-catchments and surface
mulching, to landscape level approaches such as land terracing, contour stone bunds or
reforestation.

 Mitigation: Soil management can help mitigate climate change as well through a range of
interventions. Soils are an important below ground ‘sink’ for carbon sequestration, and soil
management interventions can help to harness this characteristic. For example, the organic
matter additions recommended in Conservation Agriculture, the inclusion of trees in crop
fields, and the improved grazing management of natural pastures are all practices that help to
increase the sequestration of carbon. The emission of the greenhouse gas (GHG) nitrous
oxide from inorganic fertilizer use can also be reduced through integrated approaches to the
management of nitrogen fertilizer. For example, Integrated Soil Fertility Management
advocates reduced amounts and more strategically placed inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. Rice
lowlands with submergence are known to maintain much higher soil C then lowlands which
go through wetting and drying cycles used in rice-wheat cultivation or uplands with maize-
wheat rotations.

3.2.3. CSA practices for Crop production management

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 Crop production for food, fiber and animal feed is practiced within a very diverse range of
farming systems. Each is subject to widely differing socio-economic, climatic and soil
conditions. For example, some are rain-fed while others are irrigated. Increasing attention is
now being given to the wide range of crop production practices that can be considered as
‘climate-smart’ either from an adaptation perspective, or for their mitigation potential. These
climate-smart opportunities can be found through a range of different entry points: from soil
and water management to agroforestry practices. In this section, the focus will be on how
‘crop specific’ innovations can substantially contribute to climate-smart agriculture (CSA).
The best CSA practices for crop management includes:

• Effective seedbed preparation and crop establishment

• Minimal use of pesticides and herbicides,
• Mechanical weeding,
• Monitoring systems (such as traps) to assess pest levels,
• Use of cover crops/green manures
• Improve habitat for predators to increase natural level of biological control

Contribution to CSA

 Productivity: Crop productivity can be increased through the breeding of higher yielding
crop varieties, though crop and crop nutrient management, and through the choice of crop
species that have higher yield potentials under given environmental conditions.

 Short-term adaptation through climate risk management: Some crop interventions can
substantially reduce the risk of yield reduction or crop failure. For example, crops can be bred
for greater drought tolerance and shorter-duration varieties can both be used for ‘terminal
drought escape’. Similarly, breeding for resistance to the pests and diseases that are triggered
by weather events provides another important source of climate risk reduction. Plant breeding
for drought, pest and disease resistance becomes more important since the risk of drought is
projected to increase in many regions and the distribution and severity of pest and disease
outbreaks will also change as climates change (FAO 2008).

 Longer-term adaptation through change: As the world continues to warm, longer-term

adaptation will become necessary. This can be achieved through development and planting of
heat-tolerant, drought-tolerant or salinity-tolerant crop varieties, or by switching to crops that

25
 have higher tolerance to temperatures and the greater risk of drought. For example, cereals
like millets and sorghum are the hardiest crops for harsh, hot and dry environments. Farmers
who currently grow maize may have to switch to these alternative cereals in the future.
Another adaptation strategy is the substitution of potentially vulnerable annual crops with
more hardy perennials. Furthermore, in regions which are already marginal for crop
production, farmers may well have to adapt more radically by abandoning cropping for
livestock production.

 Mitigation: The mitigation potential of crop production largely stems from soil and water
management, or the agroforestry system under which crops are grown. However, perennial
crops are able to sequester greater amounts of carbon below ground than annual crops.

3.2.4. CSA practices for Livestock and range land Management

In response to population growth, income increases and shifting consumption patterns, the
livestock sector is growing rapidly throughout the developing world. However, climate
change is likely to have considerable impacts on livestock production in the coming decades.
These will include a substantial reduction in the quantity and quality of forage available in
some regions and heat stress in animals. Higher temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and
more frequent extreme weather events may also impact the spread and severity of existing
vector-borne diseases and macro-parasites, accompanied by the emergence and circulation of
new diseases. Fortunately, the sector offers a wide range of opportunities for
enhancing resilience, while mitigating emissions and increasing productivity. These
opportunities link to several other climate-smart agriculture (CSA) entry points, particularly
those revolving around soil and water management, insurance and value chains.

Contribution to CSA
There are various ways in which improved or modified livestock management can contribute
to CSA:

 Productivity: Interventions that target improved feed resources directly increase

productivity. This includes;
– The use of improved pasture and agroforestry species,
– The use of nutritious diet supplements,

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 – Improving animal health, such as appropriate vaccination programs and the use of
more disease-resistant animals,
– The management of herd size and age structure,
– Increasing heat tolerance through breeding and reducing heat stress through effective
animal cooling systems and
– Appropriate manure management are lead to increased productivity of both food and
fodder.

 Adaptation: In grazing systems, livestock insurance instruments and early warning

systems can help pastoralists to manage climate related risks associated with extreme events.
In mixed crop-livestock systems, risk can sometimes be ameliorated via the addition and/or
substitution of crop and livestock species and breeds that are more tolerant of heat or drought.

 Mitigation: There are many mitigation opportunities associated with feed interventions that
increase productivity while decreasing the amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
produced per kilogram of meat and milk. Emissions can be reduced by;
– Improving grazing management that increase carbon sequestration in soil,
– compacting and covering farmyard manure,
– appropriately timing the application of manure to crops which can reduce nitrous
oxide emissions,
– Using feed additives that modify the production of methane by ruminants. In addition,
management of herd size and age structure are other key measures for reducing GHG
emissions.

3.2.5. CSA practices for Sustainable forest management

Agriculture, forestry, and other land use sectors account for a quarter of global emissions.
Forests and trees on farms are an important carbon sink and this potential can be increased
through afforestation efforts. Deforestation is the major cause of emissions from the forestry
sector, and agriculture remains the key driver of deforestation.

In smallholder systems, farms and forests are often part of complex rural landscapes, which
collectively fulfil the livelihood needs of the rural populace. This means that efforts
of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) should adopt integrated approaches when developing
interventions. Increasing the resilience of forest systems to maintain and enhance the flow of
ecosystem services, mitigating emissions from the sector by reducing deforestation and

27
 increasing forest cover, and agroforestry are some of the possible interventions, but these
need to be considered in the context of the wider landscape. Ongoing efforts in Sustainable
Forest Management (SFM) provide a sound foundation for actions in the sector, and climate-
smart forestry will involve more widespread application of SFM principles.
REDD+ (Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), which is another
more recent approach promoted to protect forests. Practices for sustainable forest
management includes:
• Choice of tree species and site
• Site preparation
• Planting
• Spacing
• Weeding & Cleaning
• Thinning
• Pruning and
• Fertilization

Contribution to CSA
Actions in the forestry and agroforestry sectors can contribute to all three CSA pillars:

 Productivity: The production of ecosystem services, including provisioning services (food,

fiber, fuel, etc.) can be improved by using a CSA approach. For example, by adopting
agroforestry practices on farms, farmers are able to harvest tree products, supplement their
diets, and also develop additional income streams. Integrating trees in farming systems can
also improve soil quality, leading to higher and more stable crop yields. SFM, where, for
example, local communities are given concessions to harvest timber and non-timber products,
likewise adds to the productive portfolio of small-scale farmers.

 Adaptation: Healthy and diverse ecosystems are more resilient to natural hazards.
Agroferstry tress are important;

– Shelterbelts and windbreaks,

– Protecting against landslides, floods and avalanches
– Riverbanks and mitigate soil erosion
– Increase the absorptive capacity of soil and reduce evapotranspiration,

28
 – Reducing soil temperature for crops planted underneath, and reducing runoff velocity
and soil erosion caused by heavy rainfall.

 Mitigation: Actions that increase tree cover (afforestation, reforestation, and agroforestry)
and reduce deforestation and degradation, increase carbon sequestration through increased
biomass both above and below ground.

3.2.6. CSA practices for Capture fisheries and aquaculture

Capture fisheries and aquaculture support the livelihoods of 660 to 820 million people.
Producing over 150 million tons of fish per year, 85 percent of which is used directly for
food, the sector supplies protein and essential nutrition for 4.3 billion people around the
world. Currently, the sector generates first-sale values of over USD 218 billion annually and
fish products are among the world's most widely traded foods; more than 37% of output is
traded internationally. What's more, aquaculture is the world's fastest growing food
production system, expanding at a rate of 7% per year, so these figures should be expected to
increase in the future. However, current and projected climate change threatens
both productivity and livelihood security of those depending on this sector.

 Coastal communities: Changes in ocean acidity and temperature are causing major
disruptions in marine species’ biological cycles, migration patterns and food chains, leading
to decreased fish populations and to global changes of fish locations. Another possible effect
is the loss of biodiversity through the extinction of specialized or endemic fish species. In
addition, more frequent and extreme weather events, combined with a slow onset sea level
rise and increasing salinity, threatens fisheries and aquaculture installations along coastal
shorelines.

 Inland communities: Changing rainfall patterns and water scarcity is impacting on river and
lake fisheries and aquaculture production. In addition, more erratic rainfall and extreme
events are causing more frequent droughts and floods, modifying soil erosion and siltation
processes, thus causing major negative changes in rivers and water bodies.

Reducing vulnerability of fish production through, optimum utilization of resources and

increased production, productivity and returns to the farmer, improvement in the existing
technology and practices are necessary. Thus effective management of fish production
includes;

29
 Ownership and Usage of Fishing Nets,
 Treatment of Nets Post-harvesting,
 Pond Types,
 Sharing of Water Source,
 Flow of Water,
 Fertilization of Ponds,
 Disposal of Fish Waste after On-Farm Slaughtering.
Contribution to CSA

 Productivity: All innovations that;

(i) Enhance the management of coastal and inland fishery and aquaculture ecosystems and
(ii) Increase efficiency by sustainably intensifying production, using better integrated
systems, improving stocks and reducing losses from disease, will increase productivity.

 Adaptation through climate risk management: A wide range of possible responses to

climate-induced risk exists. Examples of adaptation practices in capture fisheries include;

 accessing higher value markets to offset reduced yield,

 Diversification of livelihoods to reduce the impact of yield variability,
 Flexible capture strategies to allow for change in fish distribution,
 Weather warning systems to reduce dangers of fishing and new physical or
 Biological defenses to alleviate sea level change and storm surges.

While aquaculture in itself is often seen as an adaptation strategy against the climate related
risks impacting marine fisheries or farming, it requires adaptation to climate change as well.
Examples include improved farm siting and weather forecasting to reduce the impact of
increased extreme weather events, selective breeding and genetic improvements to counteract
the impact of global warming and increased diseases, and short cycle production and water
sharing systems for greater incidence of drought.

 Mitigation: Around 30% of annual emissions are sequestrated in aquatic environments,

primarily in mangroves, sea grasses, floodplain forests and coastal sediments which is known
as ‘blue carbon, hence it is important to halt the disruption of carbon sequestration caused by
coastal habitat destruction. In addition, there are prospects for enhancing sequestration
through expanding planted areas of mangroves and floodplain forests. Reduced greenhouse

30
 gas (GHG) emissions are also achievable by regulating the fuel use of fishing fleets through
flexible quota allocations.

3.2.7. CSA practices for Energy management

Energy plays a crucial role in every stage of the agri-food system: in the pre-production stage
of inputs; in the production of crops, fish, livestock and forestry products; in post-production
and post-harvest operations; in food storage and processing; in food transport and
distribution; and in food preparation. These systems require two different types of energy:
direct energy, which includes electricity, mechanical power, solid, liquid and gaseous fuels;
and indirect energy, which refers to the energy required to manufacture inputs such as
machinery, farm equipment, fertilizers and pesticides.

Over recent decades, the increased use of energy inputs has contributed significantly to
feeding the world and currently, the food sector accounts for around 30% of the world’s total
end-use energy consumption. It is, however, highly dependent on fossil fuels, which could
potentially be a threat to food security. But, efficient management of energy sources
and diversification through the use of sustainable renewable energy can reduce reliance on
fossil fuels, increase energy supply and access, and reduce the impact on the environment.
Based on this, energy management has three main aims:
(i) Increasing energy efficiency,
(ii) Generating a supply of renewable energy from the sector, and
(iii) Broadening access to modern energy services.

The use of renewable energy sources at industrial facilities makes it possible to reduce
production costs, which can be used to save and preserve the natural environment in the
world, free the planet from harmful factors, and bring the enterprise to a higher ecological
level of production. Therefore, the establishment of such a system will allow people to save
and clean up the environment, save the financial balance at enterprises in emergency
situations and increase the economic status of the facility.

Contribution to CSA

 Productivity: Agricultural production can be increased by improving energy efficiency and

reducing losses; increasing energy diversification through the use of renewable energy

31
 sources; and opening up access to energy sources through efficient and affordable small-scale
systems.

 Adaptation through short-term risk management: Reducing reliance on fossil energy and
associated costs, as well as the adoption of alternative or more sustainable means of usage of
biomass (e.g. solid fuels such as wood and briquettes, or liquid biofuels), can result in
increased time and income becoming available which can be used to
enhance resilience to climate change impacts and reduce the vulnerability of farmers to price
shocks and resource shortage. Other adaptation benefits include improved health, rural
development, and increased food security.

 Mitigation: Bioenergy, solar energy, and other renewables such as hydro and geothermal
energy can replace fossil fuels and other high emissions energy sources (e.g. wood and
charcoal), and reduce CO2 emissions, in both the short- and long-term. Energy management
can help mitigate climate change by carrying out life-cycle assessments of energy systems,
identifying sustainable renewable energy resources, promoting efficient and replicable
technologies, and examining policies to look for areas of improvement.

3.3. CSA practices as a strategy to reduce climate risk in agriculture

CSA promotes the application of proven practices and approaches and recognizes the need
for increased scale. Knowledge and practice gained from Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
offers a resource pool from which to draw proven approaches and technologies that are
effective in building resilient livelihoods. Five elements of traditional knowledge systems can
be useful for climate change adaptation in agriculture:
1. Resilient properties (resilient crop species and varieties for adaptation);
2. Plant breeding (conservation of local landraces and seed selection for preferred and
adaptive characteristics);
3. Wild crop relatives (crop improvement and domestication as well as to supplement diets);
4. Farming practices (water, soil or pest management, erosion control and land restoration);
and
5. Climate forecasting (traditional knowledge for forecasting weather and predicting extreme
events).

3.3.1. Actions to enhance adoption of CSA

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A) Creating awareness about climate change and what CSA can do; an indigenous
(African) critical consciousness to climate change is still lacking. It is therefore important that
this consciousness is cultivated and raised at all levels in order to change perceptions of
climate change to take responsibility for addressing the challenges it presents. Most of the
challenges can be addressed through adoption of CSA. Whereas resource constraints may
limit the practice of CSA, increased consciousness about climate change can enable farmers
and farm communities to generate the resources to enable them practice CSA.
B) Facilitating access to finance and credit: Several approaches have been used to
overcome the dual financial constraints of the initial investment required for CSA and the
potential for negative returns for several years after adoption. Both of these constraints can be
overcome by providing low-cost inputs, extending credit to farmers through direct loans or
establishment of community financing operations, and educating farmers about the benefits
of CSA and ways to improve its profitability. Other rural finance mechanisms can also help
farmers overcome the short-term investment hurdle to adopt CSA practices that are more
profitable and sustainable in the longer term.

C) Mainstreaming gender equality in CSA initiatives: Climate-smart agricultural

initiatives are much more likely to achieve their desired outcomes if they encourage women
to take ownership and implement changes at the farm level, ensure that women have the
resources to do so by reforming institutional arrangements (structure), and work with men to
ensure that they value the contributions and ideas of women in regard to this role (relations).

D) Facilitating information and knowledge use in climate change and CSA: .Provision of
information and knowledge about the short- and long-term benefits of CSA practices need to
be strengthened to enable them collect, interpret, internalize and understand how climate can
influence their farm practices.

E) Enhancing the capacity of farmers to adopt and use new technologies and
innovations: The ability of farmers to apply new technologies and innovations is an
important determinant of CSA adoption. Farmers need to be sensitized on existing
technologies and innovations to appreciate and adopt them. Sensitization and awareness
creation on existing new technologies and innovations is key to promoting adoption and
strengthening adaptive capacity.

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F) Making farm equipment, inputs and materials affordable to farmers: Lack of or
inadequate financial resources has been identified as a limiting factor to the acquisition of
farm inputs and materials needed for successful practice of CSA. This barrier can be removed
by making farm inputs and materials affordable to farmers in various ways including;
-Facilitating access to finance
-Provision of subsidies that are eventually phased out gradually over time,
-Removal of or reduction in import duties on farm equipment, tools and other inputs,
-Reducing transport costs, particularly for farmers located in enclaved rural areas
-Educating farmers about the benefits of CSA and ways to improve its profitability,
-Linking farmers to community micro-credit finance institutions

G) Increasing volumes of biomass: In farm communities where there is stiff competition for
scarce biomass resources between livestock and agricultural crops, adopting CSA requires
importation of additional biomass and the collection, storage and application of manure. It
may also require making silage out of fresh feeds to improve digestibility and milk
production, in addition to reduced livestock density, improved dairy feeding, manure
management through composting and biogas, and agroforestry.

H) Improving physical and social infrastructure: Removal of physical barriers such as

poor roads, communication and energy infrastructure is often beyond the ability of
smallholder farmers. These require heavy investments that can come from the government or
community. While governments and communities can use multi-sectoral approaches to
provide these types of infrastructure, communities can come together to construct market and
storage facilities that smallholder farmers can use for a fee.

I) Strengthening institutions, policies and governance structures: Appropriate changes in

institutional and policy conditions are required to make agricultural systems more resilient to
changes in climate. However, the effectiveness of the appropriate conditions will depend on
clear policy frameworks and supporting legislation not only to facilitate management of
current climate related risks but also provide an institutional capacity for adoption of CSA.
The institutional capacity should be holistic, encompassing critical elements including
adequate frameworks for donor/government/community/farmer cooperation, climate change
awareness raising, CSA adoption capacity building, equitable participation regardless of age,
gender, ethnicity, educational attainment and health status, public, private, community and
individual investments and appropriate technology.

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3. 4. Role of agricultural extension to scaling up of CSA practices.

Promoting climate-smart agriculture involves strategies and agricultural practices

supporting climate smart agriculture. Extension serves as a link between farmers and new sources
of information and tools, and promoting the activity changes which will lead agricultural
communities to adopt climate-smart agricultural practices. Rural Advisory Service use
variety of approaches and tools to succeed in farmers with new knowledge, including:

 Demonstrations
 Training activities,
 Individual farm visits,
 The training of lead farmers or farmer trainers to train others,
 Training of input and service providers,
 Exposure visits to innovative farmers,
 Farmer Field Schools,
 Messages delivered through various media (mobile phone messaging, farm
radio, participatory video, television).
Some of innovative extension approaches used worldwide to deal with the adverse impacts of
climate change are given below.

Climate Awareness Mass Media Campaigns: The high reach of mass extension campaign
approaches are very attractive. It is obvious, the main constraints of national extension
systems are a shortage of field extension personnel and limited resources to succeed in large
numbers of farmers spread widely across geographical areas. To tackle these constraints, the
extension is often more efficiently performed using mass media.

Climate Training: Education/training of intermediaries/extension personnel is vital to

update their knowledge associated with global climate change, their impacts, and
consequences or on different adaptation and mitigation strategies. The extension
intermediaries trained at that level, for instance in Climate Field Schools, train the farmers in
Farmer Field Schools (Integrated Pest Management Farmer Field Schools as an existing but
deteriorated example), and establish climate services for agriculture with the farmers in their
fields.

Farmers Field Schools (FFS): The Farmer Field School (FFS) may be a participatory, non-
formal extension approach supported experiential learning that puts farmers and their

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demands at the center. It provides farmers with a low-risk setting to experiment with new
agricultural management practices, discuss and learn from their observations, which allows
them to develop new practical knowledge and skills.

Farmer-to-Farmer Extension (F2FE): F2FE is that the provision of coaching by farmers to

farmers, often through the creation of a structure of farmer-promoters and farmer-trainers.
F2FE offers great promise for effectively scaling up climate-smart agriculture (CSA). The
approach empowers farmers as change agents and helps to extend adoption because farmers
are more willing to find out from their colleagues than from extension staff. F2FE programs
contribute to all or any CSA, that is, they assist to improve productivity, build resilience and
reduce greenhouse emission emissions.

ICT Supported Network: The term Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
played a crucial role as a medium of data and communication in global climate change
awareness, adaptation and mitigation strategies. The use of mobile phones, videos, radios,
etc. was done to deal with the difficulty of global climate change by creating awareness
among the farmers about the supply of various adaptation and mitigation strategies.

UNIT FOUR

POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND INSTITUTIONS RELEVANT TO CSA

PRACTICE IN ETHIOPIA

The Ethiopian government has put in place a number of policies, strategies and institutions
that are designed to support climate change adaptation and mitigation and sustainable
development as a whole.
4.1 Policies and Strategies for CSA

Policies, laws and strategies relevant to climate change in Ethiopia include the Climate
Resilient Green Economy Strategy (2011), National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA),
Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change (EPACC) of 2011, Nationally
Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) of 2010, Rural Development Policy and Strategies
(2003), Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), CAADP Compact and the National
Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997).

1. Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy 2011.

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The Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy known as CRGE was developed in 2011 and
launched at the17th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change in Durban in 2011. The strategy takes an economy-wide approach to
greenhouse gas reduction. According to the strategy, Ethiopia aims to achieve carbon-neutral
middle-income status before 2025. The strategy is based on four pillars, of which the first two
pillars are mainly related to CSA.
1) Agriculture: Improving crop and livestock production practices for greater food security
and better income for farmers while reducing emissions.
2) Forests: Protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecological value,
including carbon stocks.
3) Power: Expanding electricity generation from renewable sources of energy) for domestic
and regional markets.
4) Transport, industry and buildings: Leapfrogging to modern and energy-efficient
technologies in transport, industrial sectors and buildings.

2. Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change (EPACC) 2011:

EPACC aims to build a climate-resilient economy through adaptation initiatives

implemented at sectoral, regional and local community levels. The EPACC replaced the
NAPA in 2011 and takes a more programmatic approach to adaptation planning. It outlines
29 components that include objectives around mainstreaming climate change within
government policies and plans. In response, the country has prepared sectoral and regional
programmes of adaptation to climate change.

3. Agriculture Sector Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change:

The Agriculture Sector Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change was formulated in 2011
with the following objectives:
 To realize the commitment of the country to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), that demands the integration of climate
change into sectoral policies and development efforts;
 To have a working climate change adaptation plan, that after implementation,
minimizes the vulnerability of the agriculture sector and the community to climate
change hazards, and increases the strength of the sector to tolerate predicted climate
change impacts;

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  To mainstream and incorporate climate change adaptation into the social system and
existing development efforts from bottom to top levels, making use of people’s
mobilization and coordination.

4. National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA):

As a Party to UNFCCC, Ethiopia prepared its NAPA in 2007. The NAPA represented the
first step in coordinating adaptation activities across government sectors. The NAPA
document for Ethiopia identified immediate and urgent adaptation activities that address
current and anticipated adverse effects of climate change including extreme climate events. It
provides a framework to guide the coordination and implementation of adaptation initiatives
in the country through a participatory approach; building synergies with other relevant
environmental and related programmes and projects.

5. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP):

In 2010 Ethiopia developed a Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) for the period
2010/11-2014/15. The GTP recognizes that the environment is a vital and important pillar of
sustainable development, and states that building a ‘Green Economy’ and ongoing
implementation of environmental laws are among the key strategic directions to be pursued
during the plan period. It outlines building a climate-resilient green economy as a strategic
priority for the country.

6. Ethiopia’s Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment Framework (PIF) 2010-2020:

The PIF provides a strategic framework for the prioritization and planning of investments
that will drive Ethiopia’s agricultural growth and development. It is designed to
operationalize the CAADP Compact signed by the Government and its development partners.
The PIF states that climate change is a crosscutting issue that will be addressed in all areas of
the PIF. The PIF states that a number of instruments need to be considered for adapting to
climate change. These include research on new crops and farming systems suited to hotter or
drier conditions, water harvesting, agroforestry, and improved short-term and long-term
weather forecasting and risk management measures to cope with increasing climatic
variability. Mitigation measures such as carbon sequestration through conservation
agriculture and reforestation should also be considered. In this way, climate change issues

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will be mainstreamed into the PIF by undertaking carbon accounting studies of all key
investments and identifying opportunities for adaptation and mitigation.

7. The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) Compact:

The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) has been endorsed
by the African Heads of State and Government as a framework for restoration of agriculture
growth, food security and rural development in Africa. One of the pillars of CAADP is
extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control systems,
and CSA falls under this pillar. Ethiopia developed a CAADP Compact in 2009 and this
provides the consensus around the goals and priorities that Ethiopia has set to accelerate
agriculture growth, improve food security and thereby livelihoods, and the partnerships and
assistance required to achieve these goals. In Ethiopia, government programmes and project
activities have been aligned with the CAADP pillars. Accordingly, the Sustainable Land
Management Programme, which has been financed by the World Bank and other donors, is
implementing pillar I of CAADP, which is improving natural resource management and
utilization.

8. Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation:

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used for the environmental assessment
of projects to ensure that the environmental implications are taken into account before
decisions are made. In Ethiopia, the EIA Proclamation of 2002 and the procedural guidelines
developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set the framework for EIA
processes. With regard to development projects, the proclamation stipulates that no person
shall commence implementation of a proposed project identified by directive as requiring
EIA without first passing through an EIA process and obtaining authorization from the
competent organization.

9. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia:

The Government of Ethiopia (GoE) issued an Environmental Policy in 1997. The aim was to
rectify the economic and social costs of environmental damage from widespread
mismanagement of environmental resources, and to provide overall guidance in the
conservation and sustainable utilization of the country’s environmental resources. The policy
considers the vulnerability of the country to climate variability and aims to promote a

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climate-monitoring Programme, take appropriate mitigation measures, develop the energy
sector, actively participate in protecting the ozone layer, and maximize the standing biomass
in the country through a combination of reforestation, agroforestry, rehabilitation of degraded
areas, re-vegetation, control of free-range grazing (in the highlands) and seeking financial
support for offsetting carbon dioxide emissions from such activities.

10. Ethiopia Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA):

Ethiopia has reaffirmed its commitment to the Copenhagen Accord and has submitted a
statement to the UNFCCC highlighting potential NAMAs in various areas including
agriculture and forestry. In forestry this includes enhanced reforestation actions and
sustainable forest management, reclamation of degraded lands, controlled grazing and area
closures, and creation of forest buffers to halt desertification. In agriculture this includes
composting and practicing of agroforestry.

Table: 1 Summary of key policies relevant to CSA in Ethiopia

4.2. Key institutions for CSA initiatives

CRGE Coordination Unit: The CRGE Coordination Unit is established within the MoA
Natural Resources Management Directorate. Technical teams include the livestock subsector
technical committee, soil and crop technical committee and sustainable land management

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technical committee. The major responsibility of the CRGE Coordination Unit is
mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies into the regular activities
of each sector. The CRGE Coordination Unit is implementing a pilot programme known as
Agriculture Sector Fast Track CRGE in 27 woredas of the four main regions.

Rural Economic Development and Food Security Sector Working Group (RED & FS):
The platform brings together government and development partners under three thematic
technical committees – Agricultural Growth, Sustainable Land Management and Disaster
Risk Management and Food Security (DRMFS). The mandate of the RED & FS sector
working group is sharing information on government policies, strategies and programmes;
review of sector-level implementation; coordinating and harmonizing efforts of various
development partners supporting the sector; and promoting dialogue with development
partners to provide overall support. It was officially established by government and
development partners in 2008 to support government development objectives effectively.

National Conservation Agriculture Taskforce (NCATF): In March 2014, the first

NCATF workshop was conducted. Terms of reference were developed and national taskforce
members from Government, FAO, NGOs and the private sector were identified. The role of
the NCATF includes supporting the coordination of conservation agriculture at national level,
leading promotion of conservation agriculture implementation, providing technical support to
federal and regional conservation agriculture implementing institutions, mobilizing resources
and identifying issues for policy decisions and interventions.

National Committee for Promotion of Climate-Smart Push-Pull Strategy: A national

technical committee was established within the Agricultural Extension Directorate of the
Ministry of Agriculture in February 2014.. The aim is to reduce striga and stalk borer
infestation of maize crops through intercropping with silver leaf desmodium and border
planting with Napier grass.

The National SLM Steering Committee is chaired by the State Minister for Natural
Resources in MoA and comprises high-level representation from the Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development, Ministry of Water Irrigation and Energy, Ministry of Environment
and Forests and development partners. The steering committee is responsible for providing
policy guidance, oversight and overall supervision for project implementation.

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The National SLM Technical Committee is also chaired by the State Minister for Natural
Resources in MoA. It is made up of senior technical staff from institutions such as the
Ministry of Agriculture; Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy; Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development; Ministry of Environmental Protection and Forestry; Ethiopian
Institute for Agricultural Research (EIAR); development partners supporting SLM projects or
initiatives; and civil society organizations (NGOs) actively engaged in SLM activities.
Generally, this body is responsible for providing technical advice to MoA on SLM.

4.3 Effectiveness of CSA Policies, Strategies and Institutions

In Ethiopia significant efforts are made to develop policies and strategies pertinent to climate
change. Such policies are also adequately integrated into subsequent government plans such
as the GTP. The GTP addresses climate change as a crosscutting issue under the strategic
priority of environment and climate change. It outlines building a climate-resilient green
economy as a strategic priority for the plan period of 2010 to 2015.

A number of developmental projects and programmes that are supported by policies have
been initiated and implemented. Most of the work focused on soil and water conservation,
soil/land management for improved agricultural productivity and reforestation practices.
Many projects conducted in the country were recognizable by their use of approaches for
climate resilience and adaptation. The MERET project and PSNP-PW are among the early
programmes and projects operating in Ethiopia. These two projects aimed at curbing
environmental degradation and focused mainly on reducing soil erosion through the
construction of physical structures such as terraces, check dams, cut-off drains and micro-
basins, afforestation and revegetation of degraded and fragile hillside areas. A large volume
of work has been done in such areas and some ecological and agricultural benefits have been
obtained.

The SLM Programme demonstrates how the green economy can be operationalized in
practice by protecting natural assets and increasing local development by improving
agricultural productivity in the country. In SLMP II, climate-smart agriculture is adequately
incorporated and refers to practices that seek to increase agricultural productivity,
strengthen farmers’ resilience to climate change, reduce GHG emissions and increase

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carbon sequestration. SLMP II is working on capacity building to provide skills training to
government and other stakeholders in order to promote climate-smart agriculture practices
and its implementation.

The most recent strategy related to climate change is the CRGE, which was developed in
2011. In this strategy Institutional arrangements for CRGE were developed for coordinating
and implementing public policy responses. The responsibility of coordinating CRGE
planning lies with the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The CRGE Inter-Ministerial
Committee, under the Council of Ministers, provides oversight of the CRGE process.. It is
responsible for providing overall direction to the CRGE process and for approving
financial decisions of the CRGE facility. The Committee comprises State Ministers and
senior officials from participating institutions. The Government of Ethiopia is designing
institutional arrangements that will enable demand-driven articulation and implementation of
CRGE investments.

In addition, policies such as the Environment Policy are being operationalized through the
development of District Environmental Management Plans, which have been prepared
and are being implemented in various districts. Forest, soil and water conservation area
enclosure activities have been exercised as main actions to achieve the desired goals. Despite
the fact that policies are being operationalized, more needs to be done to implement the
policies and ensure their effectiveness.

4.4. Key challenges for Implementing CSA in Ethiopia

1. Limited access to appropriate farm equipment and tools; CSA may not necessarily
require more equipment and tools than conventional agriculture, but some of the equipment
and tools are specific and may not always be available. Some conventional agriculture
equipment and tools can be used for CSA (e.g. certain weeding tools), while others can be
modified for CSA (e.g. hand hoes can be made narrower to dig CSA planting basins or rows).
For non-mechanized CSA involving simple hand tools the costs are relatively low.

2. Inadequate farm inputs and materials; one of the advantages of CSA is that it can
increase yields by fostering biological processes and management practices that enhance soil
fertility, pest and weed control where agrochemicals are not available or not affordable.

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However, limited access and ability to afford seeds, inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, and
herbicides represent a constraint to the practice of CSA in a maximally productive manner.

3. Limited credit and finance; CSA is generally more profitable in the long-term compared
to conventional farming, but achieving these long-term benefits requires initial investment,
which is often prohibitively expensive or risky for small farmers to undertake on their own.
But farmers constrained by inadequate cash to invest in the land, equipment, labor, seeds,
breeds and other farm inputs.

4. Poor physical and social infrastructure; Physical and social infrastructures are important
components in any society or development program. For smallholder farmers to easily adopt
CSA and adapt to climate change, there is need for physical infrastructure such as irrigation
water supply, water management structures, transport, markets, communication infrastructure
as well as storage and processing structures. They also need support from social infrastructure
such as farmers’ organizations and cooperative societies. Poor and inadequate infrastructure
limits adoption and options for adaptation, particularly for smallholder farmers, whose
investment decisions depend on good prices for their produce and expected economic returns.

5. Non-adaptable agro-ecosystems; Smallholder farmer decisions to adopt CSA can largely be

influenced by the agro-ecosystem of the area in which they want to apply CSA. The organisms and
environment of an agricultural area considered as an ecosystem can influence a farmer’s or
company’s decision to apply CSA. The ecosystem of an area including its people and their activities;
geography (climate, weather conditions, topography, and ecosystem); economic, socio-cultural and
political systems can limit or promote adoption of certain CSA practices.

6. Low volumes of biomass; Management of biomass, particularly crop residues and

mulches, is a critical component of CSA and a major barrier to its adoption. Limited water
availability and natural soil fertility also constrain productivity in native ecosystems, while
extraction of biomass as a result of crop harvests, firewood collection, fodder, materials for
fencing, roofing and handicrafts and other uses creates situations where annual biomass
removal exceeds replenishment.

7. Inadequate CSA-relevant information, knowledge and skills; lack of technology has

the potential to seriously impede a community’s ability to implement adaptation options by
limiting the range of possible responses and interventions. Successful adaptation requires
recognition of the necessity to adapt, knowledge about available options, the capacity to

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assess the options, and the ability to choose and implement the most suitable ones.
Information is a powerful tool for enhancing adaptation to climate change and variability.
However, smallholder farmers either do not have access to appropriate information or are
unable to fully utilize existing information. Inadequately trained and skilled personnel can
also limit a community’s or a nation’s ability to implement adaptation options.

8. Poor governance structure; Governance structure refers to the policy, legal and
institutional framework which governs socio-economic development in a country or society.
Poor governance is a major hindrance to socio-economic development and adaptation to
climate change. When the political leadership and management of a country’s or
community’s resources is encumbered by an inefficient bureaucracy, little attention is paid to
the urgent need of including climate change adaptation within the national development
agenda. The most notable component of a governance structure is the institution, the
effectiveness of which depends on a clear policy framework and supporting legislation.
Institutional constraints limit entitlements and access to resources for communities, thereby
increasing vulnerability. Weak institutional arrangements are not conducive to addressing
climate risks and easing the hardship of the people.

9. Inappropriate technologies and their dissemination; Adaptive strategy and capacity is

likely to vary, depending on availability and access to technology at various levels and in all
sectors. A community’s level of technology and its ability to adapt and modify technologies
are important determinants of capacity for change. But, technology adoptions are limited by
lack of farmer’s technical skill, inadequate financial resources and knowledge and other
important factors include technology cost; the cost, quality, reliability and flow rate of water
supply.

10. Culture limitations: local cultural institutions complicate the uptake of climate change
initiatives that have succeeded in other contexts. Understanding the local culture is useful
when formulating CSA adoption, up and out scaling strategies.

11. Gender inequalities; gender remains a significant barrier to the adoption of CSA by
women; stemming largely from customary gender roles. For instance, women often have less
access than men to resources such as land, inputs, credit, education, and extension services,
all of which may be important to support transitions to CSA.

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Weak capacity on climate change adaptation and mitigation at all levels including the public
sector, civil society organizations and the private sector also remains a key challenge. There
is a lack of skilled human resources at all levels.
 Organizations do not tend to work together in an integrated manner in CSA
implementation and promotion. This is in part because of weak coordination
mechanisms at federal and regional levels. In addition, there is a lack of mechanisms
to bring together and coordinate stakeholders involved in different forms of CSA
technology promotion.
 In Ethiopia conventional agricultural practices like frequent ploughing and removal
and burning of crop residues have contributed to the deterioration of the physical
quality of the soil and hence crop productivity decline is common.
 In many parts of Ethiopia livestock husbandry is characterized by open grazing, land
degradation and the loss of forests, which could lead to releasing large quantities of
greenhouse gases. It is also reported that livestock is the largest major source of
global methane emissions.

4.5. Untapped Opportunities for Implementing CSA

Untapped opportunities to support the up scaling of CSA and conservation agriculture in

Ethiopia include the following:
 There is willingness and commitment from the government to reduce poverty and
ensure food security while addressing climate change. The government has developed
policies and strategies that are pertinent to ensure food security as well as address
climate change. The government has moreover ratified international climate change-
related conventions.
 The country has developed a comprehensive green growth strategy that encompasses
agriculture in the form of the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy. In
the MoA, a CRGE coordination unit has been established for piloting climate-smart
agriculture as well as mainstreaming the CRGE into agriculture projects and
programmes.
 Regional states have embarked on the promotion of integrated watershed management
to improve agricultural productivity, with major emphasis on avoiding open and
uncontrolled grazing. This provides a good opportunity for large-scale

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 implementation and promotion of climate-smart practices such as agroforestry and
conservation agriculture.
 Resources are available in the form of projects and programmes like AGP, SLM,
PSNP and others. These projects are operating in many parts of the country under
various agro-ecological zones and farming systems.
 There are private sector organizations and numerous NGOs in the country. At
grassroots level there are also adequate numbers of extension and development agents
to create climate-related awareness, provide capacity-building training and promote
climate-smart agricultural activities.

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