AP Psychology Vocabulary by Topic

1. History and Approaches

1. B.F. Skinner expanded ideas of behaviorism to include the concept of reinforcement; became the father of
operant conditioning (1904-1990)
2. behavioral perspective explains human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning; examines only
observable behaviors and actions
3. behaviorism idea that psychology should focus only on observable behavior through stimuli and responses
4. biopsychology perspective the belief that human cognition and reactions are caused by our genes, hormones,
and neurotransmitters; also known as the neuroscience perspective
5. cognitive perspective concerned with understanding mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking,
and problem solving and how they may be related to behavior
6. evolutionary perspective examines human thoughts and actions through natural selection; argues the best
thoughts and traits continue for survival advantage; also known as Darwinian perspective
7. functionalism a psychology based on the assumption that all mental processes are useful to an organism in
adapting to the environment; developed by William James
8. humanist perspective stresses choice and free will of people; followers believe we choose our actions and make
our own destinies and that choices are based on psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs
9. introspection the subject is asked to record exactly their thought reactions to a simple stimuli
10. Ivan Pavlov Russian researcher in the early 1900s who led the first research on learned behavior; discovered
classical conditioning in his experiments with dogs (1849-1936)
11. John Watson behaviorist who said that psychology must focus on observable concepts; famous for his Little
Albert study (1878-1958)
12. Max Wertheimer founder of Gestalt psychology (1880-1943)
13. psychoanalytic perspective the belief that the unconscious mind controls much of our thought and action;
dream analysis, word association, and other techniques are used to look for repressed memories and better
understand the unconscious; controversial in modern times
14. psychoanalytic theory psychological theory concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and
defenses influence behavior
15. Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic approach; believed the unconscious mind showed who a person
was, caused by repression of thoughts (1856-1939)
16. social-cultural perspective concerned with how thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures and how
culture’s rules affect social interaction; also known as sociocultural perspective
17. structuralism the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and object sensations
18. Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory; used introspection and structuralism (1832-1920)
19. William James he published “Principles of Psychology” and furthered structuralism towards functionalism
(1842-1910)

2. Methods
1. anonymity condition of being anonymous; should be included as an ethical guideline in most experiments
2. applied research that has a clear, practical application that can be used to solve a problem
3. basic research that does not intend to impact immediate, real-world problems
4. case study research method used to get a full, detailed picture of one or a small group of participants; results are
not generalized
5. coercion the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats; unethical to use in order
to get someone to participate in an experiment
6. confidentiality the state of keeping information secret or private; should be used in experiments in order to meet
ethical guidelines
7. confounding variable an extraneous variable whose presence affects the variables being studied so that the
results you get do not reflect the actual relationship between the variables under investigation
8. controls designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the independent variable; the use of these
increase the reliability of the results of the experiment
9. correlation coefficient a number between -1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two
variables or sets of data
10. debriefing procedure conducted with human subjects after an experiment or study has been concluded in order
to discuss the elements of a study in detail
11. dependent variable what you measure in an experiment and what is affected during the experiment; it depends
on the independent variable
12. descriptive statistics used to describe the basic features of data in a study; provide simple summaries about the
sample and the measures
13. double-blind procedure neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular
treatment; helps prevent bias in research results
14. experimenter bias a process where the experimenter performing the research influences the results in some way
15. outlier a distribution point (such as a number or score) that is much further away from any other distribution
points; also known as an extreme score; can skew measurements so that the results are not representative of the
actual numbers
16. field experiment study conducted in the real life, everyday environment of the participants
17. frequency distribution a summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores
18. group matching used in experimental research in order for different experimental conditions to be observed
while being able to control for individual difference by matching similar subjects or groups with each other
19. Hawthorne effect a term referring to the tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they
are participants in an experiment; behavior is changed due to the attention subjects receive from the researchers
rather than because of any manipulation in dependent variables
20. hindsight bias term used to explain the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an
outcome that could not possibly have been predicted
21. hypothesis a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a specific, testable
prediction about what you expect to happen in a study
22. independent variable the characteristic of an experiment that is manipulated or changed
23. inferential statistics help determine whether or not findings can be applied to a larger population than the
sample that was selected; asks whether the information can be generalized
24. informed consent an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose
whether they wish to participate
25. Institutional Review Board (IRB) an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of
human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the
institution with which it is affiliated
26. laboratory experiment study conducted in a laboratory
27. line of best fit also known as a regression line, it’s a line through a scatter plot of data points that best expresses
the relationship between those points
28. mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of
scores
29. measures of central tendency collective name for the values that describe the way in which a group of data
cluster around a central value (mean, median, mode)
30. measures of variability collective name for how spread apart the scores of the distribution are or how much the
scores vary from each other (range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation)
31. median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
32. mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
33. naturalistic observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation
34. negative correlation this exists when two variables have an inverse relationship
35. normal curve a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores
fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
36. operational definition a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures or operations used in a research
study
 37. p value hypothesis test that is used to determine the significance of the results from a study; the probability that
the results from an experiment are due to chance and not the experimental conditions; the smaller this number is
(<0.05), the more significant the findings
38. placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the
administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
39. population all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
40. positive correlation the direct relationship between two variables where when one value increases, the other
increases too
41. random assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing
preexisting differences between the different groups
42. random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of
inclusion
43. range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
44. reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two
halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
45. representative sample drawn from a population of interest, has demographics and characteristics that match
those of the population in as many ways as possible
46. response bias tendency of a person to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly
47. response rate the number of people who completed a survey divided by the number of people who make up the
total sample group
48. sample the group of people who take part in a study
49. sampling the process of selecting subjects from a population
50. sampling error the extent to which a sample differs from the actual population
51. scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the
points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables and the amount of scatter suggests
the strength of the correlation
52. single-blind an experiment in which the experimenters, but not the subjects, know the makeup of the test and
control groups during the course of the experiment
53. skewed distribution a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
54. social desirability a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a
manner that will be viewed favorably by others
55. standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
56. statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
57. survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually be
questioning a representative, random sample of a group
58. theory an attempt to explain a phenomena in a way that generates a testable hypothesis for support
59. validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
60. variance a measure of how much values in a data set differ from the mean
61. z score measures the distance of a result to the standard mean (score-mean/standard deviation)

3. Biological Bases of Behavior

1. acetylcholine one of the most abundant neurotransmitters in the human body, often abbreviated ACh
2. action potential part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron where part of the neural membrane
opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out
3. adrenal glands a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse
the body in times of stress
4. sensory neurons these carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
5. all-or-none response a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
6. amygdala two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
7. association areas locations in the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions;
rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
8. autonomic nervous system the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of
the internal organs; its sympathetic division arouses and its parasympathetic division calms
9. axon the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
10. Broca’s area controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs
the muscle movements involved in speech
11. central nervous system the brain and spinal cord (CNS)
12. cerebellum the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input,
coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
13. cerebral cortex the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s
ultimate control and information-processing center
14. corpus callosum the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages
between them
15. CT scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite
representation of a slice of the brain’s structure; computed tomography
16. dendrites a neuron’s busy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell
body
17. dopamine a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain’s reward and pleasure centers
18. electroencephalogram an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s
surface; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp; EEG
19. endocrine system the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into
the bloodstream
20. endorphins “morphine within”—natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
21. excitatory type of neurotransmitter whose function it is to “excite” or activate a post-synaptic neuron that is
conveying an electrochemical signal to the body
22. forebrain the most forward part of the physical brain
23. frontal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle
movements and in making plans and judgments
24. functional MRI a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI
scans; show brain function as well as its structure
25. hindbrain the portion of the brain that contains the pons, cerebellum and medulla, and is responsible for
regulating basic human functions
26. hippocampus part of the limbic system; highly involved with our memories
27. hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating,
drinking, body temperature); helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
and reward
28. inhibitory neurotransmitters these send signals to calm the brain down and create balance
29. lesion tissue destruction
30. limbic system neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
31. magnetic resonance imaging a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-
generated images of soft tissue; MRI
32. medulla the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing
33. midbrain the middle of the three primary divisions of the developing vertebrate brain or the corresponding part
of the adult brain between the forebrain and hindbrain
34. motor neurons these carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands, also
known as efferent neurons
35. motor cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
36. myelin sheath a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater
transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
37. neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
38. neuroplasticity the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life
 39. neurotransmitters chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the
sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby
influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
40. occipital lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive
information from the visual fields
41. parasympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving
its energy
42. parietal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory
input for touch and body position
43. peripheral nervous system the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the
rest of the body; PNS
44. pons in the brain, the horse shoe-shaped structure in the brain stem that is crucial to life
45. positron emission tomography scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of
glucose goes while the brain performs a given task; PET scan
46. receptor the part of the nerve that receives and reads chemical signals (neurotransmitter) from other nerves to
transmit the electrical signals that transfer information through the brain and nervous system
47. reticular formation a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important
role in controlling arousal
48. sensory cortex an umbrella term that encompasses all the senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell
49. serotonin a neurotransmitter believed to help regulate mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep,
memory, and sexual desire and function
50. somatic nervous system the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
51. spinal cord the cord of nervous tissue that extends from the brain lengthwise along the back in the spinal canal
52. sympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its
energy in stressful situations
53. synapse the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron
54. temporal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each
receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
55. terminal buttons located at the end of the neuron, responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons; also
known as end buttons, axon terminal, terminal branches of axon, and synaptic knobs
56. thalamus the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages in the sensory
receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
57. threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
58. Wernicke’s area controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;
usually in the left temporal lobe

4. Sensation and Perception

1. absolute threshold the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
2. afterimages visual illusions in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus, believed to be
caused by the continued activation of the visual system
3. amplitude magnitude or strength of a reaction or of a stimulus
4. blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are
located there
5. bottom-up processing analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of
sensory information
6. brightness constancy the tendency for a visual object to be perceived as having the same brightness under
widely different conditions of illumination
7. closure the illusion of seeing an incomplete stimulus as though it were whole; for example, seeing a closed
triangle when it has a gap in one of its sides
8. cochlea a coiled, body, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger
nerve impulses
9. cocktail-party phenomenon the brain’s ability to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while
filtering out a range of other stimuli
10. color blindness a vision defect wherein the eye perceives some colors differently than others; can be inherited,
partial, or complete
11. conduction deafness hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the
cochlea
12. cones retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in
well-lit conditions; they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
13. constancy the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, or
location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
14. continuity refers to visual tendency to create continuous patterns and perceive connected objects as
uninterrupted
15. cornea transparent outer layer of the eye responsible for protection and vision
16. depth perception the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are
two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
17. difference threshold the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
18. feature detectors nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle,
or movement
19. fovea the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
20. frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
21. frequency theory in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches
the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
22. gate-control theory the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or
allows them to pass on the brain; the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve
fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
23. gestalt an organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes
24. gustation the physical act or the sense of tasting
25. kinesthesia the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
26. law of proximity objects that are nearby each other tend to be grouped together
27. lens the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
28. nerve deafness a type of hearing loss resulting from damage to the inner ear
29. occipital lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive
information from the visual fields
30. olfaction sense of smell
31. opponent-process theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color
vision
32. optic nerve the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
33. perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful
objects and events
34. perceptual adaptation in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
35. perceptual set a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
36. place theory a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component
frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
37. pupil the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
38. retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons
that begin the processing of visual information
39. rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones
don’t respond
40. sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus
energies from our environment
 41. sensory adaptation diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
42. shape constancy the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the
angle from which we view it
43. signal detection theory a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid
background stimulation; assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a
person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
44. similarity refers to the tendency of humans to group together objects or stimuli that seem similar to each other
45. size constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size regardless of whether it is close or far
away
46. subliminal below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
47. top-down processing information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct
perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
48. transduction conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies,
such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
49. trichromatic theory says there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color
(green, blue, red)
50. vestibular sense the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
51. visible spectrum the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye
52. Weber’s law the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum
percentage (rather than a constant amount)

5. States of Consciousness
1. activation-synthesis this dream theory suggests that dreams are created by changes in neuron activity that
activates the brainstem during REM sleep
2. agonist a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
3. antagonist a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
4. conscious level information about ourselves and our environment that we are currently aware of
5. consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environment
6. déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before;” cues from the current situation may unconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
7. depressants drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body
functions
8. dissociation theory the _____ _____ of hypnosis is the belief that hypnosis causes a person to actively or
voluntarily split their consciousness
9. dream a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind; they are notable
for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the delusional acceptance of the
content and later difficulties remembering it
10. hallucinogens psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory
images in the absence of sensory input
11. hypnosis an interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person’s (the hypnotist’s)
suggestion that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
12. information-processing this dream theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they
receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli
13. insomnia recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
14. levels of consciousness the collective name for conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious,
unconscious
15. narcolepsy a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into
REM sleep, often at inopportune times
 16. night terrors a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike
nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom
remembered
17. nonconscious level body processes controlled by our minds that we are not usually (or ever) aware of
18. opiates opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily
lessening pain and anxiety
19. posthypnotic amnesia a person’s inability to recall events or information obtained while in a hypnotic state
20. posthypnotic suggestion made during a hypnosis session, it’s to be carried out after the subject is no longer
hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
21. preconscious level information about ourselves or our environment that we are not currently thinking about,
but could be
22. psychoactive drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
23. REM sleep a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep
because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
24. sleep periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general
anesthesia, or hibernation
25. sleep apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated
momentary awakenings
26. sleep cycle an approximately 90-110-minute period of time during which people move through five stages of sleep
27. sleep disorders involve problems with the quality, timing, and amount of sleeps, which causes problems with
functioning and distress during the daytime
28. sleep stages the five stages sleepers pass through; four non-REM and one REM
29. stimulants drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and
methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
30. subconscious level information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior
31. tolerance the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and
larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
32. unconscious level feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into this level
33. withdrawal the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

6. Learning
1. acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response
2. Albert Bandura an influential social cognitive psychologist best known for his social learning theory, the concept
of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments
3. aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with
an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
4. B.F. Skinner he expanded Thorndike’s ideas of behaviorism and operant conditioning to include the concept of
reinforcement; became the father of operant conditioning
5. chaining instructional procedure that involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a
complex behavior
6. classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
7. conditioned response in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus
8. conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an
unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
9. continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
10. discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and
stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
11. Edward Thorndike he is famous for his law of effect and work on learning theory that led to the development of
operant conditioning within behaviorism
12. extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned
stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer
reinforced
13. generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned
stimulus to elicit similar responses
14. generalized reinforcer a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many
other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide variety of motivating operations; money is an
example because it is paired with many other reinforcers
15. higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus; for example, an
animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin
responding to the light alone; also called second-order conditioning
16. insight learning immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error
testing; occurs in humans when people recognize relationships that can help them solve new problems
17. instinctive drift the tendency to revert to unconscious and automatic behavior that interferes with operant
conditioning and the responses that come with it
18. Ivan Pavlov Russian researcher in the early 1900s who led the first research on learned behavior; discovered
classical conditioning in his experiments with dogs
19. latent learning the learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
20. law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and
that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
21. learned taste aversion also known as the Garcia effect, occurs when an animal or human associates the taste of a
certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance
22. learning the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
23. observational learning also called social learning, it is learning by observing others
24. omission training a method in behaviorism used to stop undesirable behaviors by omitting a reward or
something pleasurable when an undesirable behavior occurs
25. operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher
26. partial reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but
much greater resistance to extinction than with continuous reinforcement
27. positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior; for
example, scolding a dog when she chews on your shoes
28. positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers; any stimulus that, when
presented after a response, strengthens the response
29. primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (food, drink, etc.)
30. punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
31. reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
32. reinforcement schedules a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced; these include
fixed-ratio (FR), fixed interval (FI), variable-ratio (VR) or variable-interval (VI)
33. secondary reinforcer a reinforcing stimulus that is conditioned and not innate (money, good grades, praise, etc.
34. shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior
35. Skinner box also known as an operant conditioning chamber, it’s a lab apparatus used to study animal behavior;
often an animal presses or manipulates a bar or a key in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement
36. spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
37. token economy an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a
desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
 38. unconditioned response in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as
salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)
39. unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and
automatically—triggers a response

7. Cognition
1. algorithm a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with
the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics
2. anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories
3. availability heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come
readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
4. belief perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
5. chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
6. confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort
contradictory evidence
7. constructed memory an apparent memory of an event that did not actually happen, unconsciously constructed
to fill a gap
8. convergent thinking narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
9. divergent thinking expands the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in
different directions
10. echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words
can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
11. eidetic memory also known as photographic memory, it’s an ability to vividly recall images from memory after
only a few instances of exposure, with high precision for a brief time after exposure, without using a mnemonic
device
12. episodic memory the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other
contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured
13. explicit memory the memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare;” also called
declarative memory
14. flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
15. functional fixedness a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used
16. George Sperling an American cognitive psychologist who documented the existence of iconic memory
17. heuristic a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently;
usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
18. iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting
no more than a few tenths of a second
19. image also known as a mental picture, it’s the representation in a person’s mind of the physical world outside the
person
20. implicit memory retention independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memory
21. language acquisition the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language,
as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate
22. language acquisition device a hypothetical module of the human mind thought to account for children’s innate
predisposition for language acquisition
23. levels of processing model describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing;
deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer-lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow levels
of analysis
24. linguistic relativity hypothesis the theory that the structure of human language effects the way in which an
individual conceptualizes their world
25. long-term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes
knowledge, skills, and experiences
 26. long-term potentiation an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a
neural basis for learning and memory
27. memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
28. mnemonics memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
29. mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood
30. morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a
prefix)
31. phoneme in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
32. primacy effect the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for
them to be more influential than those presented later in the series
33. proactive interference the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
34. procedural memory a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things
35. prototype a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to one of these provides a quick and
easy method for sorting items into categories
36. recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier; as on a fill-in-the-
blank test
37. recency effect an order of presentation effect that occurs when more recent information is better remembered
and receives greater weight in forming a judgment than does earlier-presented information
38. recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a
multiple-choice test
39. rehearsal cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and
remembering it; viewed as an ineffective way of getting information to the long-term memory
40. relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
41. representativeness heuristic judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
42. retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage
43. retroactive interference the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
44. retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
45. selective attention the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
46. semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn
from personal experience
47. sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
48. serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a
list
49. short-term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number
while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
50. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the
feeling that retrieval is imminent

8. Motivation and Emotion

1. achievement motivation a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and
for attaining a high standard
2. anorexia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly
underweight
3. approach-approach conflict describes the situation where a person is trying to make a choice between two
desirable options
4. approach-avoidance conflict occurs when there is one goal or event that has both positive and negative
characteristics that make the goal appealing and unappealing simultaneously
5. arousal theory suggests that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of
physiological arousal
 6. avoidance-avoidance conflict describes the situation where one must choose between two more or less equally
undesirable or unattractive goals
7. bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with
purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting
8. Cannon-Bard theory the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological
responses and the subjective experience of emotion
9. drive reduction theory the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that
motivates an organism to satisfy the need
10. extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
11. general adaptation syndrome Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm,
resistance, exhaustion
12. homeostasis a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body
chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
13. incentives stimuli in the environment, both positive and negative, that motivate our behavior
14. instinct a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
15. intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
16. James-Lange theory the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to
emotion-arousing stimuli
17. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs,
often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid
18. motivation a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
19. need a psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a goal, giving purpose and direction to
behavior
20. obesity a condition of having excess body weight
21. opponent-process theory the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black)
enable color vision
22. primary drives innate drives such as thirst, hunger, and sex
23. secondary drives any drives learned by conditioning, such as money, that are not driven by innate characteristics
24. self-actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical
and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
25. set-point the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set; when the body falls below
this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
26. terror management theory a social psychology concept that humans have distress and anxiety related to the
awareness of mortality and the inevitability of death; anxiety can be subdued by investment in cultural beliefs
and world views
27. two-factor theory the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must be (1) physically aroused
and (2) cognitively label the arousal
28. Yerkes-Dodson law the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which
performance decreases

9. Developmental Psychology
1. A Strange Situation procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970s to observe attachment relationships
between a caregiver and a child
2. accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
3. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
4. attachment an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the
caregiver and showing distress on separation
5. cognitive development theory Piaget’s stage theory which has several stages of development, and in each one,
children are faced with challenging situations which they must deal with and overcome through increased
mental abilities
 6. concrete operational in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age)
during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
7. conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties
such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
8. cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
9. developmental psychology a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change
throughout the life span
10. egocentrism in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
11. Erik Erikson developmental psychologist known for his 8-stage theory on psychological development of human
beings
12. fetal alcohol syndrome physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy
drinking; in severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
13. formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the state of cognitive development (normally beginning about age
12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
14. Harry Harlow psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation
experiments on rhesus monkeys which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and
cognitive development
15. identity our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and
integrating various roles
16. intimacy in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late
adolescence and early adulthood
17. Jean Piaget Swiss psychologist most famous for his theories on cognitive development in children
18. Lawrence Kohlberg psychologist who is most recognized for the stages of moral development which identify the
development of moral reasoning and ethical behavior in humans
19. longitudinal study research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
20. Mary Ainsworth a developmental psychologist known for her work concerning early emotional attachment of
babies to their primary caregivers; devised an experimental procedure called “A Strange Situation”
21. metacognition the act of thinking about thinking
22. nature-nurture the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to
the development of psychological traits and behaviors
23. object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
24. preoperational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child
learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
25. psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which,
according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
26. schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
27. secure attachment demonstrated by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to
compose themselves knowing that their caregiver will return
28. sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know
the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
29. Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic approach; believed the unconscious mind showed who a person
was, caused by repression of thoughts
30. teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal
development and cause harm

10. Personality
1. archetypes in Jungian psychology, the highly developed elements of the collective unconscious
2. Barnum effect a common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to
descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to them, that are in fact vague and
general enough to apply to a wide range of people
3. big five traits the collective name for openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism
4. collective unconscious a term coined by Jung that refers to structures of the unconscious mind which are shared
among beings of the same species
5. complex a core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious organized
around a common theme, such as power or status
6. defense mechanisms in psychanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously
distorting reality
7. ego the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands
of the id, superego, and reality; it operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will
realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
8. factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to
identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
9. heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; it may vary, depending
on the range of populations and environments studied
10. id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and
aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
11. locus of control the degree to which people believe that they have control over the outcome of events in their
lives, as opposed to external forces beyond their control
12. Oedipus complex according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and
hatred for the rival father
13. personal unconscious refers to all information that is present within an individual’s mind, but not readily
available to conscious recall such as memories that have been forgotten or repressed
14. personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
15. projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger
projection of one’s inner dynamics
16. psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which,
according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
17. reciprocal determinism the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
18. reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two
halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
19. Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann
Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
20. self-actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical
and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
21. self-concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
22. self-efficacy one’s sense of competence and effectiveness
23. self-esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth
24. self-report inventory a type of psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or
without the help of an investigator; often ask direct questions about personal interests, values, symptoms,
behaviors, and traits or personality types
25. somatosensory cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and
movement sensation
26. superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards
for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
27. temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
28. thematic apperception test a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through
the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
29. trait a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and
peer reports
 30. Type A Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-
prone people
31. Type B Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people
32. unconditional positive regard a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would
help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
33. unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories;
according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware
34. validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

11. Testing and Individual Differences

1. achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned
2. aptitude test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
3. Charles Spearman he proposed the g factor theory, which holds that an underlying factor of general intelligence
exists that forms the foundation out of which all intellectual abilities rise
4. concurrent validity the extent to which the results of a particular test, or measurement, correspond to those of a
previously established measurement for the same construct
5. construct an explanatory variable which is not directly observable; intelligence and motivation are examples
6. crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
7. emotional intelligence the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
8. equivalent form reliability a term used in psychometrics to determine whether or not two or more forms of tests
that are designed to measure some aspect of mentality are truly equivalent to one another
9. face validity refers to the degree to which an assessment or test subjectively appears to measure the variable or
construct that it is supposed to measure
10. fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
11. Flynn effect the phenomenon in which there is a marked increase in intelligence test score averages over time
12. heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; may vary depending on
the range of populations and environments studied
13. Howard Gardner American developmental psychologist who developed the theory of multiple intelligences
14. intelligence mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge
to adapt to new solutions
15. normal distribution a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most
scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
16. norms the accepted standards of behavior for any given group
17. predictive validity the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure
18. psychometrician someone who studies the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
19. reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two
halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
20. Robert Sternberg psychologist who developed the triarchic theory on intelligence, which features practical,
creative, and analytical intelligence
21. split-half reliability the internal consistency of a test; measures the extent to which all parts of the test
contribute equally to what is being measured; tested by comparing the results of one half of a test with the
results from the other half
22. standardization defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the
performance of a pretested group
23. standardization sample a large sample of test takers who represent the population for which the test is
intended; also known as the norm group
24. standardized test any form of a test that requires all test takers to answer the same questions in the same way
and that is scored in a standard or consistent manner which makes it possible to compare the relative
performance of individual students or groups of students
25. Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test
 26. test-retest reliability a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time
to a group of individuals
27. theory of multiple intelligences developed in 1983 by Howard Gardner, it suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligence is far too limited and should include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist intelligence
28. validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
29. Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance
subtests; WAIS

12. Abnormal Psychology

1. agoraphobia fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide-open places, where one has felt loss of
control and panic
2. anorexia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly
underweight
3. antisocial personality disorder a personality disorder in which a person exhibits a lack of conscience for
wrongdoing, even toward friends and friendly members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
4. anxiety disorders psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive
behaviors that reduce anxiety
5. attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or
more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
6. autism spectrum disorder a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in
communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
7. bipolar disorder a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of
depression, and the over-excited state of mania
8. bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually high-calorie foods) with
purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting
9. cognitive triad an irrational and pessimistic view of the three key elements of a person’s belief system present in
depression; includes negative views about the world, the future, and oneself
10. conversion disorder a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for
which no physiological basis can be found
11. delusion of grandeur a fixed, false belief that one possesses superior qualities such as genius, fame, omnipotence,
or wealth; most often a symptom of schizophrenia, but can also be a symptom found in psychotic or bipolar
disorders, as well as dementia
12. dependent personality disorder characterized by a pervasive fear that leads to “clinging behavior” and usually
manifests itself by early adulthood; includes symptoms such as having difficulty making everyday decisions
without an excessive amount of advice and reassurance from others
13. diathesis-stress model a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction
between a predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences
14. dissociative disorders group of disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous
memories, thoughts, and feelings
15. dissociative identity disorder a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and
alternating personalities; formerly called multiple personality disorder
16. double bind a psychological predicament in which a person receives from a single source conflicting messages
that allow no appropriate response to be made
17. DSM the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; a widely
used system for classifying psychological disorders
18. generalized anxiety disorder an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a
state of autonomic nervous system arousal
19. hallucinations false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
20. learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid
repeated aversive events
 21. major depressive disorder a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another
medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either
depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure
22. mood disorders psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes
23. narcissism excessive self-love and self-absorption
24. obsessive-compulsive disorder a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or
actions (compulsions)
25. panic disorder an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a
person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
26. paranoid personality disorder a mental disorder characterized by paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others
27. paraphilia a condition in which a person’s sexual arousal and gratification depend on fantasizing about and
engaging in sexual behavior that is atypical and extreme; can revolve around a particular object (children,
animals, underwear) or around a particular act (inflicting pain, exposing oneself)
28. persecutory delusions a set of delusional conditions in which the affected persons believe they are being
persecuted; the individual thinks that harm is occurring, or is going to occur
29. personality disorders psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that
impair social functioning
30. post-traumatic stress disorder a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal,
jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic
experience
31. psychological disorder a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition,
emotion regulation, or behavior
32. schizophrenia a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or
diminished or inappropriate emotional expression
33. seasonal affective disorder a form of depression in which people experience depressive episodes during specific
times of the year
34. somatic symptom disorder a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form
without apparent physical cause
35. specific phobia a lasting and unreasonable fear caused by the presence or thought of a specific object or situation
that usually poses little or no actual danger

13. Treatment of Psychological Disorders

1. Aaron Beck American psychiatrist who is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy and whose pioneering
theories are widely used in the treatment of clinical depression
2. active listening empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies; a feature of Rogers’ client-
centered therapy
3. antianxiety drugs drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
4. antidepressants drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
posttraumatic stress disorder
5. antipsychotic drugs group of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe though disorder
6. aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with
an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
7. behavioral therapy an umbrella term for types of therapy that treat mental health disorders by seeking to
identify and help change potentially self-destructive or unhealthy behaviors; functions on the idea that all
behaviors are learned and that unhealthy behaviors can be changed
8. client-centered therapy a counseling approach developed by Carl Rogers that requires the client to take an
active role in his or her treatment with the therapist being nondirective and supportive
9. clinical psychology a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
10. cognitive behavioral therapy a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-
defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
11. cognitive therapy type of therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the
assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
12. counseling psychology a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to
school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
13. counterconditioning behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to
stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
14. deinstitutionalization process of transferring patients with mental disorders or developmental disabilities from
long-term institutions, which isolate the patient, to more integrated community-based mental health services
15. dream analysis a therapeutic technique best known for its use in psychoanalysis; a way of tapping into
unconscious material we experience in dreams
16. Electroconvulsive therapy a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current
is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
17. free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says
whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
18. Gestalt therapy a humanistic method of psychotherapy that takes a holistic approach to human experience by
stressing individual responsibility and awareness of present psychological and physical needs
19. group therapy a type of therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits
from group interaction
20. humanistic psychology a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy
people
21. insight therapies a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s
awareness of underlying motives and defenses
22. latent content according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
23. lobotomy a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients; the
procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
24. manifest content according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or
hidden, content)
25. psychiatrist a trained medical doctor that can prescribe medications and spends much of their time with
patients on medication management as part of therapy
26. psychoanalysis Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and
conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious
tensions
27. psychologist a professional that focuses extensively on psychotherapy and treating emotional and mental
suffering in patients with behavioral intervention; not a medical doctor and does not prescribe medications
28. psychopharmacology the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
29. psychosurgery surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
30. psychotherapy treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained
therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
31. rational emotive behavior therapy a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that
vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
32. resistance in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
33. somatic therapy a form of body-centered therapy that looks at the connection of mind and body and uses both
psychotherapy and physical therapies for holistic healing
34. systematic desensitization a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually
increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; commonly used to treat phobias
35. transference in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships
(such as love or hatred for a parent)
36. unconditional positive regard a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would
help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
14. Social Psychology
1. attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects,
people, and events
2. attraction any force that draws people together
3. attribution theory the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the
person’s disposition
4. bystander effect the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
5. central route persuasion occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable
thoughts
6. cognitive dissoance the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our
thoughts are inconsistent
7. collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining
one’s identity accordingly
8. conformity adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
9. deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and
anonymity
10. diffusion of responsibility psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action when in the
presence of a large group of people
11. discrimination in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
12. door-in-the-face a technique used to get compliance from others in which a large request is made knowing it
will probably be refused so that the person will agree to a much smaller request
13. false-consensus effect the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our
behaviors
14. foot-in-the-door a compliance tactic that aims at getting a person to agree to a large request by having them
agree to a modest request first
15. frustration-aggression principle the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some
goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression
16. fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate
the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
17. group polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
18. groupthink the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides
a realistic appraisal of alternatives
19. individualism giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal
attributes rather than group identifications
20. ingroup bias the tendency to favor our own group
21. just-world phenomenon the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what
they deserve and deserve what they get
22. mere exposure effect the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
23. Milgram experiment a series of social psychology experiments that measured the willingness of study
participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal
conscience; experiment found that a very high proportion of men would fully obey the instructions to shock
another person
24. outgroup “them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
25. peripheral route persuasion occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s
attractiveness
26. prejudice an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members; generally involves
stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
27. self-fulfilling prophecy a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
28. self-serving bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
29. social facilitation improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
30. social loafing the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than
when they work alone
31. stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) beleifs about a group of people
32. superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
 AP Psychology Glossary
A Strange Situation procedure devised by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970s to observe attachment relationships
between a caregiver and a child
Aaron Beck American psychiatrist who is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy and whose pioneering theories
are widely used in the treatment of clinical depression
absolute threshold the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
acetylcholine one of the most abundant neurotransmitters in the human body, often abbreviated ACh
achievement motivation a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for
attaining a high standard
achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned
acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response
action potential part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron where part of the neural membrane
opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out
activation-synthesis this dream theory suggests that dreams are created by changes in neuron activity that activates
the brainstem during REM sleep
active listening empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies; a feature of Rogers’ client-
centered therapy
adrenal glands a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the
body in times of stress
afterimages visual illusions in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus, believed to be caused
by the continued activation of the visual system
agonist a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
Albert Bandura an influential social cognitive psychologist best known for his social learning theory, the concept of
self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments
algorithm a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the
usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics
all-or-none response a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
amplitude magnitude or strength of a reaction or of a stimulus
amygdala two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
anonymity condition of being anonymous; should be included as an ethical guideline in most experiments
anorexia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly
underweight
antagonist a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories
antianxiety drugs drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressants drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic
stress disorder
antipsychotic drugs group of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe though disorder
antisocial personality disorder a personality disorder in which a person exhibits a lack of conscience for
wrongdoing, even toward friends and friendly members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
anxiety disorders psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors
that reduce anxiety
applied research that has a clear, practical application that can be used to solve a problem
approach-approach conflict describes the situation where a person is trying to make a choice between two
desirable options
approach-avoidance conflict occurs when there is one goal or event that has both positive and negative
characteristics that make the goal appealing and unappealing simultaneously
aptitude test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
archetypes in Jungian psychology, the highly developed elements of the collective unconscious
arousal theory suggests that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of
physiological arousal
assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
association areas locations in the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather,
they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
attachment an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the
caregiver and showing distress on separation
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more
of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people,
and events
attraction any force that draws people together
attribution theory the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s
disposition
autism spectrum disorder a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in
communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
autonomic nervous system the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the
internal organs; its sympathetic division arouses and its parasympathetic division calms
availability heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come
readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
belief perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an
unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
avoidance-avoidance conflict describes the situation where one must choose between two more or less equally
undesirable or unattractive goals
axon the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
B.F. Skinner he expanded Thorndike’s ideas of behaviorism and operant conditioning to include the concept of
reinforcement; became the father of operant conditioning
Barnum effect a common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions
of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to them, that are in fact vague and general enough to
apply to a wide range of people
basic research that does not intend to impact immediate, real-world problems
behavioral perspective explains human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning; examines only observable
behaviors and actions
behavioral therapy an umbrella term for types of therapy that treat mental health disorders by seeking to identify
and help change potentially self-destructive or unhealthy behaviors; functions on the idea that all behaviors are
learned and that unhealthy behaviors can be changed
behaviorism idea that psychology should focus only on observable behavior through stimuli and responses
big five traits the collective name for openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism
biopsychology perspective the belief that human cognition and reactions are caused by our genes, hormones, and
neurotransmitters; also known as the neuroscience perspective
bipolar disorder a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression,
and the over-excited state of mania
blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are
located there
bottom-up processing analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of
sensory information
brightness constancy the tendency for a visual object to be perceived as having the same brightness under widely
different conditions of illumination
Broca’s area controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the
muscle movements involved in speech
bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with
purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting
bystander effect the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Cannon-Bard theory the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses
and the subjective experience of emotion
case study research method used to get a full, detailed picture of one or a small group of participants; results are not
generalized
central nervous system the brain and spinal cord (CNS)
central route persuasion occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable
thoughts
cerebellum the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating
movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
cerebral cortex the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s
ultimate control and information-processing center
chaining instructional procedure that involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a
complex behavior
Charles Spearman he proposed the g factor theory, which holds that an underlying factor of general intelligence
exists that forms the foundation out of which all intellectual abilities rise
chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
client-centered therapy a counseling approach developed by Carl Rogers that requires the client to take an active
role in his or her treatment with the therapist being nondirective and supportive
clinical psychology a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
closure the illusion of seeing an incomplete stimulus as though it were whole; for example, seeing a closed triangle
when it has a gap in one of its sides
cochlea a coiled, body, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger
nerve impulses
cocktail-party phenomenon the brain’s ability to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while
filtering out a range of other stimuli
coercion the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats; unethical to use in order to
get someone to participate in an experiment
cognitive behavioral therapy a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating
thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
cognitive development theory Piaget’s stage theory which has several stages of development, and in each one,
children are faced with challenging situations which they must deal with and overcome through increased mental
abilities
cognitive dissoance the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts
are inconsistent
cognitive perspective concerned with understanding mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and
problem solving and how they may be related to behavior
cognitive therapy type of therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption
that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
cognitive triad an irrational and pessimistic view of the three key elements of a person’s belief system present in
depression; includes negative views about the world, the future, and oneself
collective unconscious a term coined by Jung that refers to structures of the unconscious mind which are shared
among beings of the same species
collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining
one’s identity accordingly
color blindness a vision defect wherein the eye perceives some colors differently than others; can be inherited,
partial, or complete
complex a core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious organized
around a common theme, such as power or status
concrete operational in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age)
during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
concurrent validity the extent to which the results of a particular test, or measurement, correspond to those of a
previously established measurement for the same construct
conditioned response in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned)
stimulus
conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an
unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conduction deafness hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the
cochlea
cones retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-
lit conditions; they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
confidentiality the state of keeping information secret or private; should be used in experiments in order to meet
ethical guidelines
confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort
contradictory evidence
conformity adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
confounding variable an extraneous variable whose presence affects the variables being studied so that the results
you get do not reflect the actual relationship between the variables under investigation
conscious level information about ourselves and our environment that we are currently aware of
consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environment
conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties
such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
constancy the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, or
location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
construct an explanatory variable which is not directly observable; intelligence and motivation are examples
constructed memory an apparent memory of an event that did not actually happen, unconsciously constructed to fill
a gap
continuity refers to visual tendency to create continuous patterns and perceive connected objects as uninterrupted
continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
controls designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the independent variable; the use of these increase
the reliability of the results of the experiment
convergent thinking narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
conversion disorder a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no
physiological basis can be found
cornea transparent outer layer of the eye responsible for protection and vision
corpus callosum the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages
between them
correlation coefficient a number between -1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two
variables or sets of data
counseling psychology a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school,
work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
counterconditioning behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli
that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
CT scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite
representation of a slice of the brain’s structure; computed tomography
debriefing procedure conducted with human subjects after an experiment or study has been concluded in order to
discuss the elements of a study in detail
defense mechanisms in psychanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously
distorting reality
deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and
anonymity
deinstitutionalization process of transferring patients with mental disorders or developmental disabilities from
long-term institutions, which isolate the patient, to more integrated community-based mental health services
déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before;” cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger
retrieval of an earlier experience
delusion of grandeur a fixed, false belief that one possesses superior qualities such as genius, fame, omnipotence, or
wealth; most often a symptom of schizophrenia, but can also be a symptom found in psychotic or bipolar disorders,
as well as dementia
dendrites a neuron’s busy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dependent personality disorder characterized by a pervasive fear that leads to “clinging behavior” and usually
manifests itself by early adulthood; includes symptoms such as having difficulty making everyday decisions without
an excessive amount of advice and reassurance from others
dependent variable what you measure in an experiment and what is affected during the experiment; it depends on
the independent variable
depressants drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
depth perception the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-
dimensional; allows us to judge distance
descriptive statistics used to describe the basic features of data in a study; provide simple summaries about the
sample and the measures
developmental psychology a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout
the life span
diathesis-stress model a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction
between a predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences
difference threshold the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
diffusion of responsibility psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action when in the
presence of a large group of people
discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and
stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
discrimination in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
dissociation theory the _____ _____ of hypnosis is the belief that hypnosis causes a person to actively or voluntarily
split their consciousness
dissociative disorders group of disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories,
thoughts, and feelings
dissociative identity disorder a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and
alternating personalities; formerly called multiple personality disorder
divergent thinking expands the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different
directions
door-in-the-face a technique used to get compliance from others in which a large request is made knowing it will
probably be refused so that the person will agree to a much smaller request
dopamine a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain’s reward and pleasure centers
double bind a psychological predicament in which a person receives from a single source conflicting messages that
allow no appropriate response to be made
double-blind procedure neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular
treatment; helps prevent bias in research results
dream a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind; they are notable for
their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the delusional acceptance of the content and
later difficulties remembering it
dream analysis a therapeutic technique best known for its use in psychoanalysis; a way of tapping into unconscious
material we experience in dreams
drive reduction theory the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need
DSM the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; a widely used
system for classifying psychological disorders
echoic memory a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Edward Thorndike he is famous for his law of effect and work on learning theory that led to the development of
operant conditioning within behaviorism
ego the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of
the id, superego, and reality; it operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will
realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
egocentrism in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
eidetic memory also known as photographic memory, it’s an ability to vividly recall images from memory after only a
few instances of exposure, with high precision for a brief time after exposure, without using a mnemonic device
Electroconvulsive therapy a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is
sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
electroencephalogram an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface;
waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp; EEG
emotional intelligence the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
endocrine system the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream
endorphins “morphine within”—natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
episodic memory the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual
who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured
equivalent form reliability a term used in psychometrics to determine whether or not two or more forms of tests
that are designed to measure some aspect of mentality are truly equivalent to one another
Erik Erikson developmental psychologist known for his 8-stage theory on psychological development of human
beings
evolutionary perspective examines human thoughts and actions through natural selection; argues the best thoughts
and traits continue for survival advantage; also known as Darwinian perspective
excitatory type of neurotransmitter whose function it is to “excite” or activate a post-synaptic neuron that is
conveying an electrochemical signal to the body
experimenter bias a process where the experimenter performing the research influences the results in some way
explicit memory the memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare;” also called
declarative memory
extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned
stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer
reinforced
extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
face validity refers to the degree to which an assessment or test subjectively appears to measure the variable or
construct that it is supposed to measure
factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to
identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
false-consensus effect the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors
feature detectors nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or
movement
fetal alcohol syndrome physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy
drinking; in severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
field experiment study conducted in the real life, everyday environment of the participants
flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Flynn effect the phenomenon in which there is a marked increase in intelligence test score averages over time
foot-in-the-door a compliance tactic that aims at getting a person to agree to a large request by having them agree to
a modest request first
forebrain the most forward part of the physical brain
formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the state of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12)
during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
fovea the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says
whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
frequency distribution a summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores
frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
frequency theory in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the
frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
frontal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle
movements and in making plans and judgments
frustration-aggression principle the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—
creates anger, which can generate aggression
functional fixedness a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used
functional MRI a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI
scans; show brain function as well as its structure
functionalism a psychology based on the assumption that all mental processes are useful to an organism in adapting
to the environment; developed by William James
fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the
impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
gate-control theory the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows
them to pass on the brain; the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is
closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
general adaptation syndrome Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm,
resistance, exhaustion
generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to
elicit similar responses
generalized anxiety disorder an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state
of autonomic nervous system arousal
generalized reinforcer a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many
other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide variety of motivating operations; money is an example
because it is paired with many other reinforcers
George Sperling an American cognitive psychologist who documented the existence of iconic memory
gestalt an organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into
meaningful wholes
Gestalt therapy a humanistic method of psychotherapy that takes a holistic approach to human experience by
stressing individual responsibility and awareness of present psychological and physical needs
group matching used in experimental research in order for different experimental conditions to be observed while
being able to control for individual difference by matching similar subjects or groups with each other
group polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
group therapy a type of therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits
from group interaction
groupthink the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a
realistic appraisal of alternatives
gustation the physical act or the sense of tasting
hallucinations false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hallucinogens psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory
images in the absence of sensory input
Harry Harlow psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation
experiments on rhesus monkeys which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and
cognitive development
Hawthorne effect a term referring to the tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they are
participants in an experiment; behavior is changed due to the attention subjects receive from the researchers rather
than because of any manipulation in dependent variables
heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; may vary depending on the
range of populations and environments studied
heuristic a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually
speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired
with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus; for example, an animal that has
learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light
alone; also called second-order conditioning
hindbrain the portion of the brain that contains the pons, cerebellum and medulla, and is responsible for regulating
basic human functions
hindsight bias term used to explain the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an
outcome that could not possibly have been predicted
hippocampus part of the limbic system; highly involved with our memories
homeostasis a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body
chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
Howard Gardner American developmental psychologist who developed the theory of multiple intelligences
humanist perspective stresses choice and free will of people; followers believe we choose our actions and make our
own destinies and that choices are based on psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs
humanistic psychology a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
hypnosis an interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person’s (the hypnotist’s) suggestion
that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating,
drinking, body temperature); helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and
reward
hypothesis a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a specific, testable
prediction about what you expect to happen in a study
iconic memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
more than a few tenths of a second
id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive
drives; operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
identity our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and
integrating various roles
image also known as a mental picture, it’s the representation in a person’s mind of the physical world outside the
person
implicit memory retention independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memory
incentives stimuli in the environment, both positive and negative, that motivate our behavior
independent variable the characteristic of an experiment that is manipulated or changed
individualism giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal
attributes rather than group identifications
inferential statistics help determine whether or not findings can be applied to a larger population than the sample
that was selected; asks whether the information can be generalized
information-processing this dream theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive,
rather than merely responding to stimuli
informed consent an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether
they wish to participate
ingroup bias the tendency to favor our own group
inhibitory neurotransmitters these send signals to calm the brain down and create balance
insight learning immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error
testing; occurs in humans when people recognize relationships that can help them solve new problems
insight therapies a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s
awareness of underlying motives and defenses
insomnia recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
instinct a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
instinctive drift the tendency to revert to unconscious and automatic behavior that interferes with operant
conditioning and the responses that come with it
Institutional Review Board (IRB) an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human
research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with
which it is affiliated
intelligence mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to
adapt to new solutions
intimacy in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late
adolescence and early adulthood
intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
introspection the subject is asked to record exactly their thought reactions to a simple stimuli
Ivan Pavlov Russian researcher in the early 1900s who led the first research on learned behavior; discovered classical
conditioning in his experiments with dogs
James-Lange theory the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to
emotion-arousing stimuli
Jean Piaget Swiss psychologist most famous for his theories on cognitive development in children
John Watson behaviorist who said that psychology must focus on observable concepts; famous for his Little Albert
study (1878-1958)
just-world phenomenon the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they
deserve and deserve what they get
kinesthesia the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
laboratory experiment study conducted in a laboratory
language acquisition device a hypothetical module of the human mind thought to account for children’s innate
predisposition for language acquisition
language acquisition the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as
well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate
latent content according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
latent learning the learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that
behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
law of proximity objects that are nearby each other tend to be grouped together
Lawrence Kohlberg psychologist who is most recognized for the stages of moral development which identify the
development of moral reasoning and ethical behavior in humans
learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid
repeated aversive events
learned taste aversion also known as the Garcia effect, occurs when an animal or human associates the taste of a
certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance
learning the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
lens the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
lesion tissue destruction
levels of consciousness the collective name for conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious, unconscious
levels of processing model describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing; deeper
levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer-lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow levels of analysis
limbic system neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
line of best fit also known as a regression line, it’s a line through a scatter plot of data points that best expresses the
relationship between those points
linguistic relativity hypothesis the theory that the structure of human language effects the way in which an
individual conceptualizes their world
lobotomy a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients; the procedure
cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
locus of control the degree to which people believe that they have control over the outcome of events in their lives, as
opposed to external forces beyond their control
longitudinal study research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
long-term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge,
skills, and experiences
long-term potentiation an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural
basis for learning and memory
magnetic resonance imaging a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated
images of soft tissue; MRI
major depressive disorder a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another
medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either depressed
mood or loss of interest or pleasure
manifest content according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden,
content)
Mary Ainsworth a developmental psychologist known for her work concerning early emotional attachment of
babies to their primary caregivers; devised an experimental procedure called “A Strange Situation”
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs,
often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid
Max Wertheimer founder of Gestalt psychology (1880-1943)
mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of
scores
measures of central tendency collective name for the values that describe the way in which a group of data cluster
around a central value (mean, median, mode)
measures of variability collective name for how spread apart the scores of the distribution are or how much the
scores vary from each other (range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation)
median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
medulla the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing
memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
mere exposure effect the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
metacognition the act of thinking about thinking
midbrain the middle of the three primary divisions of the developing vertebrate brain or the corresponding part of
the adult brain between the forebrain and hindbrain
Milgram experiment a series of social psychology experiments that measured the willingness of study participants
to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience;
experiment found that a very high proportion of men would fully obey the instructions to shock another person
mnemonics memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mood disorders psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes
mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood
morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
motivation a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
motor cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
motor neurons these carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands, also
known as efferent neurons
myelin sheath a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater
transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
narcissism excessive self-love and self-absorption
narcolepsy a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into REM
sleep, often at inopportune times
naturalistic observation observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation
nature-nurture the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the
development of psychological traits and behaviors
need a psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a goal, giving purpose and direction to
behavior
negative correlation this exists when two variables have an inverse relationship
nerve deafness a type of hearing loss resulting from damage to the inner ear
neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neuroplasticity the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life
neurotransmitters chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending
neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing
whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
night terrors a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares,
night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
nonconscious level body processes controlled by our minds that we are not usually (or ever) aware of
normal curve a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall
near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
normal distribution a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most
scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
norms the accepted standards of behavior for any given group
obesity a condition of having excess body weight
object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
observational learning also called social learning, it is learning by observing others
obsessive-compulsive disorder a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or
actions (compulsions)
occipital lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information
from the visual fields
Oedipus complex according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred
for the rival father
olfaction sense of smell
omission training a method in behaviorism used to stop undesirable behaviors by omitting a reward or something
pleasurable when an undesirable behavior occurs
operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if
followed by a punisher
operational definition a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures or operations used in a research study
opiates opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety
opponent-process theory the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable
color vision
optic nerve the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
outgroup “them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
outlier a distribution point (such as a number or score) that is much further away from any other distribution points;
also known as an extreme score; can skew measurements so that the results are not representative of the actual
numbers
p value hypothesis test that is used to determine the significance of the results from a study; the probability that the
results from an experiment are due to chance and not the experimental conditions; the smaller this number is (<0.05),
the more significant the findings
panic disorder an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a
person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
paranoid personality disorder a mental disorder characterized by paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others
paraphilia a condition in which a person’s sexual arousal and gratification depend on fantasizing about and engaging
in sexual behavior that is atypical and extreme; can revolve around a particular object (children, animals, underwear)
or around a particular act (inflicting pain, exposing oneself)
parasympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its
energy
parietal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input
for touch and body position
partial reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but
much greater resistance to extinction than with continuous reinforcement
perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful
objects and events
perceptual adaptation in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
perceptual set a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
peripheral nervous system the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the
rest of the body; PNS
peripheral route persuasion occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness
persecutory delusions a set of delusional conditions in which the affected persons believe they are being persecuted;
the individual thinks that harm is occurring, or is going to occur
personal unconscious refers to all information that is present within an individual’s mind, but not readily available
to conscious recall such as memories that have been forgotten or repressed
personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
personality disorders psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that
impair social functioning
phoneme in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
place theory a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component
frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
placebo effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the
administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
pons in the brain, the horse shoe-shaped structure in the brain stem that is crucial to life
population all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
positive correlation the direct relationship between two variables where when one value increases, the other
increases too
positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior; for
example, scolding a dog when she chews on your shoes
positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers; any stimulus that, when presented
after a response, strengthens the response
positron emission tomography scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of
glucose goes while the brain performs a given task; PET scan
posthypnotic amnesia a person’s inability to recall events or information obtained while in a hypnotic state
posthypnotic suggestion made during a hypnosis session, it’s to be carried out after the subject is no longer
hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
post-traumatic stress disorder a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal,
jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
preconscious level information about ourselves or our environment that we are not currently thinking about, but
could be
predictive validity the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure
prejudice an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members; generally involves
stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
preoperational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child
learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
primacy effect the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for
them to be more influential than those presented later in the series
primary drives innate drives such as thirst, hunger, and sex
primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (food, drink, etc.)
proactive interference the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
procedural memory a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things
projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger
projection of one’s inner dynamics
prototype a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to one of these provides a quick and
easy method for sorting items into categories
psychiatrist a trained medical doctor that can prescribe medications and spends much of their time with patients on
medication management as part of therapy
psychoactive drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
psychoanalysis Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and
conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious
tensions
psychoanalytic perspective the belief that the unconscious mind controls much of our thought and action; dream
analysis, word association, and other techniques are used to look for repressed memories and better understand the
unconscious; controversial in modern times
psychoanalytic theory psychological theory concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and
defenses influence behavior
psychological disorder a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition,
emotion regulation, or behavior
psychologist a professional that focuses extensively on psychotherapy and treating emotional and mental suffering in
patients with behavioral intervention; not a medical doctor and does not prescribe medications
psychometrician someone who studies the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
psychopharmacology the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which,
according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
psychosurgery surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
psychotherapy treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist
and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
pupil the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
random assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing
preexisting differences between the different groups
random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
rational emotive behavior therapy a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously
challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier; as on a fill-in-the-blank
test
recency effect an order of presentation effect that occurs when more recent information is better remembered and
receives greater weight in forming a judgment than does earlier-presented information
receptor the part of the nerve that receives and reads chemical signals (neurotransmitter) from other nerves to
transmit the electrical signals that transfer information through the brain and nervous system
reciprocal determinism the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-
choice test
rehearsal cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and
remembering it; viewed as an ineffective way of getting information to the long-term memory
reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
reinforcement schedules a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced; these include fixed-
ratio (FR), fixed interval (FI), variable-ratio (VR) or variable-interval (VI)
relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves
of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
REM sleep a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep
because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
representative sample drawn from a population of interest, has demographics and characteristics that match those
of the population in as many ways as possible
representativeness heuristic judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match,
particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
resistance in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
response bias tendency of a person to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly
response rate the number of people who completed a survey divided by the number of people who make up the total
sample group
reticular formation a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in
controlling arousal
retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that
begin the processing of visual information
retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage
retroactive interference the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
retrograde amnesia an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Robert Sternberg psychologist who developed the triarchic theory on intelligence, which features practical, creative,
and analytical intelligence
rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones
don’t respond
Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach;
seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
sample the group of people who take part in a study
sampling error the extent to which a sample differs from the actual population
sampling the process of selecting subjects from a population
scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points
suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables and the amount of scatter suggests the strength
of the correlation
schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
schizophrenia a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or
diminished or inappropriate emotional expression
seasonal affective disorder a form of depression in which people experience depressive episodes during specific
times of the year
secondary drives any drives learned by conditioning, such as money, that are not driven by innate characteristics
secondary reinforcer a reinforcing stimulus that is conditioned and not innate (money, good grades, praise, etc.
secure attachment demonstrated by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to
compose themselves knowing that their caregiver will return
selective attention the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
self-actualization according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and
psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
self-concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
self-efficacy one’s sense of competence and effectiveness
self-esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth
self-fulfilling prophecy a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
self-report inventory a type of psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or
without the help of an investigator; often ask direct questions about personal interests, values, symptoms, behaviors,
and traits or personality types
self-serving bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn
from personal experience
sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies
from our environment
sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the
world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
sensory adaptation diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
sensory cortex an umbrella term that encompasses all the senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell
sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory neurons these carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
serotonin a neurotransmitter believed to help regulate mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep,
memory, and sexual desire and function
set-point the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set; when the body falls below this
weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
shape constancy the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the
angle from which we view it
shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior
short-term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number
while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic approach; believed the unconscious mind showed who a person was,
caused by repression of thoughts
signal detection theory a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid
background stimulation; assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a
person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
similarity refers to the tendency of humans to group together objects or stimuli that seem similar to each other
single-blind an experiment in which the experimenters, but not the subjects, know the makeup of the test and
control groups during the course of the experiment
size constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size regardless of whether it is close or far away
skewed distribution a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Skinner box also known as an operant conditioning chamber, it’s a lab apparatus used to study animal behavior;
often an animal presses or manipulates a bar or a key in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement
sleep apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated
momentary awakenings
sleep cycle an approximately 90-110-minute period of time during which people move through five stages of sleep
sleep disorders involve problems with the quality, timing, and amount of sleeps, which causes problems with
functioning and distress during the daytime
sleep periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general
anesthesia, or hibernation
sleep stages the five stages sleepers pass through; four non-REM and one REM
social desirability a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner
that will be viewed favorably by others
social facilitation improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social loafing the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than
when they work alone
social-cultural perspective concerned with how thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures and how culture’s
rules affect social interaction; also known as sociocultural perspective
somatic nervous system the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
somatic symptom disorder a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without
apparent physical cause
somatic therapy a form of body-centered therapy that looks at the connection of mind and body and uses both
psychotherapy and physical therapies for holistic healing
somatosensory cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement
sensation
specific phobia a lasting and unreasonable fear caused by the presence or thought of a specific object or situation
that usually poses little or no actual danger
spinal cord the cord of nervous tissue that extends from the brain lengthwise along the back in the spinal canal
split-half reliability the internal consistency of a test; measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute
equally to what is being measured; tested by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other
half
spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standardization defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of
a pretested group
standardization sample a large sample of test takers who represent the population for which the test is intended;
also known as the norm group
standardized test any form of a test that requires all test takers to answer the same questions in the same way and
that is scored in a standard or consistent manner which makes it possible to compare the relative performance of
individual students or groups of students
Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test
statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) beleifs about a group of people
stimulants drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and
methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
structuralism the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and object sensations
subconscious level information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior
subliminal below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for
judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually be
questioning a representative, random sample of a group
sympathetic nervous system the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its
energy in stressful situations
synapse the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron
systematic desensitization a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually
increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; commonly used to treat phobias
temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
temporal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving
information primarily from the opposite ear
teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development
and cause harm
terminal buttons located at the end of the neuron, responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons; also known
as end buttons, axon terminal, terminal branches of axon, and synaptic knobs
terror management theory a social psychology concept that humans have distress and anxiety related to the
awareness of mortality and the inevitability of death; anxiety can be subdued by investment in cultural beliefs and
world views
test-retest reliability a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a
group of individuals
thalamus the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages in the sensory
receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
thematic apperception test a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the
stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
theory an attempt to explain a phenomena in a way that generates a testable hypothesis for support
theory of multiple intelligences developed in 1983 by Howard Gardner, it suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligence is far too limited and should include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist intelligence
threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling
that retrieval is imminent
token economy an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired
behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
tolerance the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and
larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
top-down processing information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct
perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
trait a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and
peer reports
transduction conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such
as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
transference in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such
as love or hatred for a parent)
trichromatic theory says there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color
(green, blue, red)
two-factor theory the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must be (1) physically aroused and
(2) cognitively label the arousal
Type A Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-
prone people
Type B Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people
unconditional positive regard a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help
clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
unconditioned response in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to
an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)
unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—
triggers a response
unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories;
according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware
unconscious level feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into this level
validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
variance a measure of how much values in a data set differ from the mean
vestibular sense the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
visible spectrum the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye
Weber’s law the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum
percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Wernicke’s area controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;
usually in the left temporal lobe
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance
subtests; WAISagoraphobia fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide-open places, where one has felt
loss of control and panic
Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory; used introspection and structuralism (1832-1920)
William James he published “Principles of Psychology” and furthered structuralism towards functionalism (1842-
1910)
withdrawal the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
Yerkes-Dodson law the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which
performance decreases
z score measures the distance of a result to the standard mean (score-mean/standard deviation)