Notes on

Continuous Casting
of Steel:

Introduction:
In continuous casting, molten steel ows from a container called a tundish into a
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water-cooled mold, where it starts to solidify into a shape like a slab or billet. As it
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moves down, it's cooled further by water sprays, forming a continuous solid
product. This method offers several advantages over traditional ingot casting:
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1. Better Quality: Continuous casting produces higher-quality products.

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2. No Need for Additional Mills: Unlike ingot casting, continuous casting doesn't
require extra machinery like slabbing or blooming mills.
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3. Automation: It allows for more automation, making the process more ef cient.
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4. Adjustable Width: The width of the slab can be easily adjusted downstream.

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 5. Less Segregation: Products from continuous casting show less variation in
composition.

6. Energy Savings: It allows for direct hot charging, which saves energy during
rolling.

Continuous casting machines consist of a tundish, water-cooled mold, water sprays,

and torch cutters. Molten steel ows from the tundish into the mold, where it
solidi es into a continuous strand. Water sprays help cool it further, and torch
cutters trim it to the desired length.

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Figure: Arrangement of tundish, mold and water spray in a curved mold

machine
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Important terminologies:
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Ladle: This is a container, often bowl-shaped, that holds the molten steel. It's
positioned at the top of the setup.

Molten Steel: This is the liquid form of steel that is to be cast into a speci c shape.
It's shown being poured from the ladle into the tundish.

Tundish: This is a broad, open container that receives molten steel from the ladle
and directs it into the mold. It acts as a buffer and regulates the ow of molten steel.

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 Mold: This is a cavity or form where liquid metal is poured and solidi ed into a
speci c shape. In above image, it’s depicted as receiving molten steel from the
tundish.

Mold is like the heart of continuous casting. It's where the molten steel from the

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tundish enters, along with ux through a submerged nozzle. Solidi cation begins

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here, and to minimize friction, casting powder is added on top of the molten steel. It
melts and lls the gap between the mold surface and the solidifying steel.

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Mold level sensors are crucial for controlling the height of the molten steel in the
mold, as solidi cation starts from the steel's surface. Molds, usually made of copper
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alloys, are tapered slightly to reduce air gap formation, typically by about 1% of the
mold's length. The cross-section of the mold matches the product being cast,
gradually decreasing in size from top to bottom. The mold also helps extract around
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10% of the total heat.
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To withdraw the partially solidi ed strand, the mold oscillates up and down. This
oscillation frequency and stroke length can be adjusted for ef cient casting. Steel
level control ensures smooth operation, with sensors regulating the meniscus level.

The functions of mold ux include absorbing inclusions, preventing oxidation,

minimizing heat loss, and providing lubrication by melting into the gap between the
mold and the solidifying steel.

For these functions, the mold ux needs speci c properties:

- Low viscosity

- Low liquidus temperature

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- Melting rate matching the casting speed

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Cooling Water: This is the water used for cooling down and solidifying molten
metal within the mold. The image shows blue lines indicating water owing around
the mold.
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Spray/Secondary Cooling: This is an additional cooling mechanism using sprays

to further cool down and solidify metal after it exits from the mold. Black arrows
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indicate this process below where red lines (molten metal) turn to dark grey
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(solidi ed metal).

In the secondary cooling stage of continuous casting, the partially solidi ed strand
below the mold is subjected to water spray to facilitate complete solidi cation.
Several primary parameters in uence the rate of heat extraction during this process:

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 1. Water Drop Flux: This refers to the rate at which water droplets are sprayed
onto the strand surface. Controlling the amount of water applied per unit area is
crucial for achieving the desired cooling rate.

2. Mean Drop Size: The average size of water droplets in the spray affects their

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heat transfer ef ciency. Smaller droplets generally provide better surface

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coverage and heat extraction.

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3. Droplet Velocity Hitting the Strand Surface: The speed at which water
droplets hit the strand surface determines their ability to penetrate the vapor
blanket that forms due to boiling heat transfer. Higher velocities are necessary
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to break through this vapor layer and ensure direct contact between the water
droplets and the strand surface for effective cooling.
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4. Wetting Effects: Wetting refers to the ability of water droplets to spread and
adhere to the surface of the solidifying strand. Effective wetting ensures that the
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water droplets make direct contact with the surface, maximizing heat transfer
and promoting ef cient solidi cation.

In secondary cooling, a series of nozzles are strategically distributed along the

surface of the moving strand. The positioning and spacing of these nozzles are
critical to ensure uniform cooling and prevent overheating or undercooling of
speci c areas. Overlapping of spray from adjacent nozzles may occur, which can be
advantageous for ensuring complete coverage of the strand surface.
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The distance between the nozzles is carefully calibrated to achieve optimal cooling
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ef ciency while avoiding excessive water usage or interference between

neighboring sprays. By adjusting the parameters such as water ow rate, droplet
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size, velocity, and distribution, secondary cooling systems can effectively regulate
the solidi cation process and produce high-quality continuous cast products.
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Inclusion removal
In continuous casting, the tundish plays a crucial role in removing inclusions from
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the molten steel. Various modi cations are made to the ow of liquid steel within
the tundish, such as inserting dams, weirs, or slotted dams. These alterations aim to
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optimize the residence time of the molten steel in the tundish before it exits.

For instance, if the tundish has a capacity of 40 tons and the casting speed is 5 tons
per minute, the average residence time of the molten steel in the tundish would be 8
minutes. During this period, strategies for inclusion removal can be implemented
effectively.

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 Figure: Tundish with ow control device, namely weir and slotted dam

Inclusion removal typically involves a two-step unit operation:

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1. Flotation: In this step, the inclusions present in the molten steel are encouraged
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to rise to the surface of the tundish. This process utilizes the buoyancy of the
inclusions to separate them from the steel.
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2. Absorption by Flux: Following otation, a ux is added to the surface of the
tundish. This ux, which can be derived from materials such as rice husk, y
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ash, or synthetic powders, aids in absorbing the remaining inclusions. By

interacting with the ux, the inclusions are captured and effectively removed
from the molten steel.
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These procedures enhance the cleanliness and quality of the steel by minimizing the
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presence of undesirable inclusions. For further information, interested readers can

refer to the provided references for more in-depth exploration of inclusion removal
techniques in continuous casting processes.

Continuous casting of killed steels produces slabs for at products and blooms and
billets for structural products. Defects in the casting process can arise from various
sources, including mold oscillation, mold ux, segregation coef cients of solute
elements, and phase transformations. Let's categorize and summarize the types of
defects and their origins:

Defect Formation in Continuous Casting

Internal:
- Midway Cracks: Occur within the body of the cast product.
- Triple Point Cracks: Develop at the junction of three solidifying fronts.

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- Center Line Cracks: Form along the centerline of the product.
- Diagonal Cracks: Diagonal fractures within the cast.
- Porosity: Presence of voids or pores within the structure.

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- Blow Segregation: Uneven distribution of components, leading to localized

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voids.

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Surface:
- Longitudinal Mid-face and Corner Cracks: Extend along the length of the
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surface.

- Transverse Mid-face and Corner Cracks: Occur across the width of the
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surface.
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- Deep Oscillation Marks: Indentations or marks from oscillation during casting.

Shape:
- Rhomboidity: Deviation from a square or rectangular shape.
- Longitudinal Depression Ovality: Elongation or distortion along the length
with depression.
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Factors Contributing to Defects:
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- Mechanical Stresses: Result from friction, ferrostatic pressure, bending,

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straightening, and roll pressure.

- Improving Mold Practices: Controls powder feed rate, minimizes resonance,

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enhances strand guidance, and optimizes casting powder usage.

- Thermal Stresses: Arise from non-uniform cooling in the secondary zone.

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Control of water ux and minimizing strand reheating can mitigate thermal

stresses. Air-water mist spray can provide more uniform cooling.
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- Material Factors: Related to phase transformations, especially the delta-gamma

transformation. High sulfur and low Mn/S ratio contribute to mid-face
longitudinal cracks. Control of inclusions is crucial for defect prevention.

By addressing these factors and implementing appropriate measures, the occurrence

of defects in continuous casting can be minimized, ensuring higher product quality
and consistency.

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