BRAKING SYSTEM

FIG. 1

FUNCTION

1. To slow down the vehicle

2. To stop the vehicle
3. To hold the vehicle stationary
METHODS OF OPERATION

1. Mechanical
2. Hydraulic
3. Pneumatic
4. Electrical

MECHANICALLY OPERATED BRAKES

Uses:

1. Cable or rod to operate the brakes.

2. Cam and wedge

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It has many demerits;

1. Difficult compensation.
2. Brake force is unaltered.
3. Has loss in motion due to links – wear and lever angularity.
4. Difficult to arrange in independent suspension.

FIG. 2

HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED BRAKES

MERITS

1. Compensation is automatic – Pascal’s law.

2. Fluid pressure can be determined by piston and bore area.
3. No loss in motion due to wear and angularity in leverage.
4. No reduction in force due to wear and angularity in leverage.
5. The use of independent suspension does not unduly complicate the design and
operation of the brakes.
6. Where larger forces are required vacuum or compressed-air servo unit may be
fitted.
7. Fluid is incompressible.
8. Fluid lubricates components.
9. Fluid reduces corrosion.
10. Fluid withstands high temperatures.

BRAKE FLUID

- The brake fluid used in most hydraulic brakes is a mixture of vegetable oil, alcohol
and additives i.e. Glycol – glycerin-alcohol.

- It is Hydroscopic i.e. it absorbs water from atmosphere.

- The wet boiling point of brake fluid is the temperature at which a fluid containing 3
to 3.5 percent of water boils and produces steam bubbles.

- The dry boiling point of brake fluid is the temperature at which a fluid boils.

The main requirement of a brake fluid is that it must;

1. Be compatible with other fluids- the fluid must mix with other fluids in its class.
2. Have a low freezing point.
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 3. Have a high boiling point.
4. Have low viscosity under a wide range of operating temperature. It
5. Not attach the rubbers and metal parts of the system. It should resist corrosion of
metal parts; the fluid must not chemically react with rubber seals etc (i.e. it must be
non-damaging to the system).
6. Resistance to chemical ageing - the fluid should have a long life when stored and
must be stable when in use. So must not deteriorate except over a long period of
service.

WORKING PRECAUTIONS

1. All equipment used for brake system work must be clean and free from traces of
mineral oil.
2. Fluid system parts must be cleaned only with the correct cleaning fluid or Industrial
methylated spirits.
3. Use only the correct make and grade of fluid.
4. Never re-use fluid from a system. It may be contaminated or dirty. Brake fluids
absorb water and old fluid will contain some.
5. Fill dust seals with rubber grease during service work and always replace bleed
nipple caps.
6. Inspect the fluid level in the reservoir at regular intervals and top ut as required
with correct fluid.
7. Replace shoes/pads when their linings are worn down to the rivets or when bonded
linings are worn to within 1.5mm of the shoe/pad.

TYPES OF HYDRAULICALY OPERATED BRAKES

There are two types;

1. Drum brakes
2. Disc brakes

DRUM BRAKES

CONSTRUCTION:

It consists of: -

1. Brake Pedal – used by the driver to apply a braking force through fluid.
2. Reservoir – brake fluid tank or storage.
3. Master cylinder – to provide hydraulic pressure.
4. Brake booster – to enable the driver apply brakes with minimal effort.
5. Brake lines (pipes) – links the fluid between master cylinder and the wheel slave
cylinder.
6. Wheel cylinder – convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy to push the
brake shoes against the drum. It is mounted on the back plate.

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 7. Proportioning valve – reduces braking effort to the rear wheels so as to prevent
them from skidding in an emergency. It is a restrictor of some sort.
8. Brake drum – which houses the brake shoes and slave cylinder. It receives brake
shoes force and stops the wheel from rotating. It is made of cast iron – located on
the wheel hub.
9. Brake shoes – receive a force from slave cylinder piston and transmit it to the drum
to stop rotating. It is made from steel. It has friction materials which are either
bonded or riveted.

PROPERTIES OF BRAKE SHOE LINING MATERIALS

Must have the following properties:

1. A high coefficient of friction when used with iron or steel.

2. A coefficient of friction which does not reduce as the temperature is increased.
3. The ability to resist wear.
4. The ability to be moulded into shape.
5. Compressive and tensile strengths high enough to resist the highest stresses
imposed during severe braking.

DEMERITS OF RIVETING THE LININGS TO THE BRAKE SHOE

1. Replacing of the linings takes a considerable time.

2. Dirt and loose materials collect in the countersinking holes and results in the
scoring of the drum.
3. The linings may be distorted by the unequal pressures exerted by the rivets.
4. About two-third of the lining cannot be used due to rivet heads.
5. The countersink holes reduce the lining area.

MASTER CYLINDERS

There are four types of braking system master cylinders;

1. Lockheed master cylinder.
2. Tandem master cylinder.
3. Girling master cylinder.
4. Continuous –flow hydraulic master cylinder.

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LOCKHEED MASTER CYLINDER

FIG. 3
- It is most of the time integral with the reservoir which is vented to the atmosphere.
- It has;
a) Rubber boot to prevent dirt entering the cylinder.
b) Circlip to prevent the piston coming out of the cylinder.
c) Piston for pressuring the fluid.
d) Two seals main and secondary.
e) Return Piston spring.
f) Check valve assembly.

OPERATION

When brake pedal is depressed;

- Piston rod moves the piston to the left (forward).
- Compensating hole is closed.
- Return spring gets compressed.
- Check valve is forced to its seat.
- Check valve seal gets pushed open – inwards and allow the fluid to pass from the
master cylinder to brake lines.
- Fluid pressure acts on the slave cylinder piston(s) to push the shoe(s) outwards to
contact the drum and stop it from rotating.

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 FIG. 4

When brake pedal is released or foot is off the brake pedal;

- Brake shoe return spring retracts towards each other.
- The slave cylinder piston(s) are pushed inwards.
- Brake fluid is pushed back into the master cylinder.
- The check valve seal gets closed and the whole unit is pushed off its seat.
- The piston is moved by its return spring back to its rest position.
- Both compensation and fluid port to rear of piston get opened.
- Fluid return to the reservoir.
- The check valve closes with a sharp movement to maintain a residual or standing
pressure in the line between master cylinder and wheel cylinder.

Purpose of residual pressure in brake lines

a) To enable the shoes to move out to contact the drum the moment the pedal is
depressed.
b) To ensure that any leakage of fluid is noticed easily.

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TANDEM MASTER CYLINDER

CONSTRUCTION

FIG. 5

- It is a two compartment reservoir, one for rear brakes while the other for front
brakes.
- It has primary piston for front brakes.
- Secondary piston for rear brakes.
- Both pistons have stoppers.
- Both pistons have return springs.
- Both pistons work with a check valve.

OPERATION

When the brake pedal is depressed;

- Push rod pushes the primary piston forward and closes the reservoir bypass port.
- Fluid is enclosed and pressure builds up.
- The primary return spring pushes the secondary piston until it closes the bypass
port.
- Continued pedal movement results in pressure building up equally in both
chambers, and when this exceeds the static (residual or standing) line pressure,
both check valves close.

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 - The higher pressure is at once transmitted to the wheel (slave) cylinders and the
brake shoes are applied (pushed to their drums)

When the brake pedal is released;

- The slave (wheel) cylinder pistons are returned by their springs and the normal
recuperation action of the two chambers occurs simultaneously.

NOTE – any failure in any system the brakes will; still be applied.

GIRLING MASTER CYLINDER

There are two main types though operate on the same principle.
1. The Centre Valve (CV) type
2. The Compression Barrel (CB) type

CENTRE VALVE TYPE

CONSTRUCTION

FIG. 6
It consists of;
- A cylinder of aluminium-alloy casting, with an accurately machined bore.
- The bore has a drilled hole or port which connects the end of the bore with the fluid
reservoir and another drilled hole, in the upper part of the cylinder, allowing fluid to
pass between the reservoir and the system.
- The cylinder contains;
a) Valve stem and centre valve assembly.
b) A return spring and a spring thimble.
c) A plunger with main and end seals of rubber
d) Push rod retainer.

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 e) Circlip.

OPERATION

When the brake pedal is depressed;

- The push rod takes up its clearance and contacts the outer end of the plunger.
- The first 0.8mm of plunger movement forces the centre valve to close the end port
to the reservoir- so enclosing the fluid in the cylinder and in the system.
- Continued plunger movement reduces the effective volume of the cylinder and so
increases the pressure.
- The increased pressure acts equally throughout the system and the wheel cylinder
pistons are forced outward to apply the shoes to the drum.
When the brake pedal is released;
- The plunger return spring, assisted by fluid pressure due to the action of shoe pull-
off springs, forces the plunger back down the cylinder. As it reaches the end of its
stroke, the centre valve is drawn away from the end port, and the fluid passes from
the system back into the reservoir. This recuperation, or recharge action
automatically compensates for fluid expansion and small fluid losses, and ensures
that the cylinder is ready for use again.

COMPRESSION BARREL (CB) MASTER CYLINDER

CONSTRUCTION

FIG. 7
- It has a separate reservoir.
- The plunger is in the form of a hollow cylinder which encloses its return spring.
- One end of the plunger is solid and is shaped to fit the end of the push rod.
- The solid end of the plunger passes through a metal shim and a rubber recuperating
and sealing ring.

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 - The ring is located in a recess in the end of the cylinder and is enclosed by a metal
support.
- When the brakes are off, four small holes, drilled in the side of the plunger just
behind the sealing ring, permit the free flow of fluid between the system and the
reservoir.

OPERATION
When the brake pedal is depressed;
- The plunger is forced inwards against the action of its return spring.
- The first 1.5mm of plunger movement causes the four drilled holes to pass through
the seals, so sealing off the reservoir and enclosing the fluid in the master cylinder
and system.
- Continued pedal movement builds up the pressure which then operates the wheel
(slave) cylinder pistons.
- Brakes shoes are moved outward to contact the drum and slow or slow the vehicle.
When the brake pedal is released;
- The plunger is forced outwards by its return spring.
- The last 1.5mm of plunger movement allows the four holes to move back clear of the
seal and, in effect to reconnect the reservoir to the system.
- The pressure at once collapses and the fluid is returned to the reservoir by the
action of the shoe pull-off springs on the wheel cylinder pistons.

CONTINUOUS-FLOW HYDRAULIC MASTER CYLINDER

CONSTRUCTION

FIG. 8

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It consists of;
1. A two-compartment reservoir.
2. A multi-plunger radial pump.
3. A combined cut-out and charging valve.
4. A pressure accumulator.
5. A combined master cylinder and control valve.

The master cylinder consists of;

- One secondary piston which is operated by the push rod.
- A relief valve communicating secondary piston chamber and the inlet from pump
through cut out valve.
- Secondary piston spring return.
- One main piston for pressurizing the fluid to brake slave cylinder.
- Main piston spring return.
- Check valve

RESERVOIR

PUMP

CUT OUT VALVE

CHARGE VALVE MASTER CYLINDER CONTROL VALVE

ACCUMULATOR

TO WHEEL BRAKES

FIG. 9
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OPERATION

Brakes off

Fluid circulates through the units and returns to the outer compartment of the reservoir
(no pressure created).the accumulator gets fully charged with fluid under normal
working pressure.

BRAKES APPLIED

When the pedal is depressed;

- Push rod forces the piston of the control valve to move inward.

- The piston movement reduces the size of the gap maintained between the control
piston and the main piston and so obstructs the flow of fluid through the circuit.

- The pump forces the fluid to flow and a built up of pressure is created.

- The pressure created acts in the annular space between the two pistons and forces the
main piston to increase the pressure in the master cylinder and the wheel cylinder- so
applying the brakes.

- The very pressure created, also acts on the face of the control-valve piston, resisting the
movement of the pedal and allows the driver to feel his braking.

BRAKES RELEASED

- When the brake pedal is released, the control and main pistons are returned to their
stops by their springs.

- The maximum gap between the two pistons gets restored and as this occurs the
pressure in the fluid circuit collapses and normal circulation is resumed.

- In the brake system the fluid returns to the master cylinder, the cylinder is recuperated
in the normal way, and the excess fluid is returned to the inner compartment of the
reservoir.

WHEEL CYLINDER (SLAVE CYLINDER)

There are two principle types of wheel cylinders

1. Single acting
2. Double acting

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THE SINGLE ACTING WHEEL CYLINDER

FIG. 10
- It has a rubber seal, piston, and the housing itself.
- The space behind the seal is filled with brake fluid.
- Pressure from the master cylinder is applied to the wheel cylinder through pipes.
- Increased fluid pressure pushes the piston out and this force is applied to the brake
shoe or pad.

THE DOUBLE ACTING WHEEL CYLINDER

FIG. 11
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 It consists of
1. Dust cover or rubber boots
2. Pistons – two
3. Piston seal – two
4. Pistons separator spring

OPERATION
Hydraulic pressure applied between the pistons pushes them apart.
The pistons then act on the brake shoes and move the linings into contact with the inside of the
brake drum.

DRUM BRAKES

FIG.12

MERITS
1. Self energizing, no booster required.
2. Has a means for self adjusting.

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 3. Easy to install parking brake

DEMERITS
1. Poor heat dissipation.
2. Suffers from brake fade easily.
3. Difficult to remove water once trapped in the drum.
TYPES OF BRAKE DRUM LAYOUT OR DESIGN
There are three types of drum brake layout or design;
1. Single leading shoe design.
2. Twin leading shoe design.
3. Dual servo design.

SINGLE LEADING SHOE

- Has one wheel cylinder with two pistons inside.
- One shoe upon brake application is moved in the direction of drum rotation and it
applies a wedging action (Leading Shoe).
- The leading shoe applies about 75 % of braking force.
- The other shoe is pushed away by the rotation of the drum (Trailing Shoe).
- The trailing shoe applies about 25 % of the braking force.
- This arrangement has braking power of 30 %
- The leading shoe linings is at times made longer than that of the trailing shoe to provide
a greater area of lining in order to even up the rate of wear of the two linings.

FIG. 13

TWO LEADING SHOE DESIGN OR ARRANGEMENT

1. It has two wheel cylinders each having one piston.

2. The pistons are arranged in such a way that they push the shoes in the direction of
rotation.

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 3. That is both shoes are forced outwards and a self energizing effect is imparted to each
shoe due to drum rotation.

FIG. 14

MERITS

1. Greater braking torque is achieved.

2. Has no unbalanced loads imposed on wheel bearings.
3. Provides brake shoe even wear.

DEMERITS

1. Braking in the in reverse, the two leading shoes become trailing shoes hence less braking
torque or too much braking torque to be put in.
2. The two leading (2Ls) shoes brake is very sensitive to changes in friction level between
the linings and the drum, so that as the brake heats up there is a greater falling off (fade)
in brake torque for a given operating force.
3. The purely hydraulic version does not lead itself to additional operation by the hand
brake system, but this can readily be arranged in the mechanical operating force for
leading-Trailing shoes with failing friction.

DUO-SERVO BRAKE DESIGN

1. To obtain a self-energizing or servo-effect on both shoes, shoes may be linked together

at their heels. The heels are not firmly attached to the backing plate, but are allowed to
float within limits.
2. The shoes are retained against backing plate by spring-loaded guides.
3. For self energizing assemblies, forward shoe is called the primary shoe while the rear is
the secondary shoe.
4. The secondary shoe provides more braking force than the primary shoe.

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 5. The lining of the secondary shoe is often made of a harder material with slight lower
coefficient of friction than the primary lining.
6. A primary lining is sometimes made shorter in length than secondary to compensate for
difference in force of application.
7. In some cases, retracting springs for shoes are different in lengths and painted in
different colours. The painting of retracting spring is for identification.
8. The secondary shoe has a stronger retracting spring than a primary shoe to ensure that
primary shoe contacts drum in advance of the secondary shoe.

FIG. 15

OPERATION

When brake pedal is depressed;

- Primary shoe contacts the drum.

- Primary shoe then gets slightly dragged or rotated by the drum and transfers movement
through linkages to secondary shoe.
- Once the secondary shoe receives the force, it gets dragged by the drum, and a wedging
action occurs.

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DISC BRAKES
MERITS OF DISC BRAKES OVER DRUM BRAKES

1. Easier to service – Pads can be changed much quicker than shoes.

2. Greater heat dissipation – This is because only a small part of the disc is heated
by contact with pads, the greater part always being in contact with the stream of
cooling air.
3. Reduced brake fades due to point number 2 above.
4. Pedal travel remains almost constant due to less heat on working parts.
5. Lighter in weight – the disc brake assembly is about 20 % less in weight than the
equivalent drum type.
6. Cleaner braking surfaces – centrifugal force throws water, dirt and oil off the
discs, which therefore retain their efficiency and are worn less.
7. Discs are more substantial and so less liable to distortion than drums.
8. Simpler in construction – Pads are visible and wear is easy to see.
9. Disc brake when used with a hydraulic servo unit provides a braking effort which
is directly proportional to the applied pedal force.

DEMERIT OF DISC BRAKES

1. Requires higher operating forces which complicate the design of the hand-brake
mechanism.
2. The disc brake has no self servo action, so higher operating forces and pressures
are required.

BRAKE FADE

- It is the loss of retardation or stopping power due to heat.

- It is caused by the overheating of brake assemblies.
- Heat reduces the coefficient of friction between the linings and the drums. The
drums tend to expand.

TYPES OF DISC BRAKES

1. Fixed caliper disc brake

2. Floating caliper disc brake
3. Sliding caliper disc brake

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FIXED CALIPER DISC BRAKE

FIG. 16

- It has pistons on both sides of the disc.

- Some use two pistons, one on each side.
- Others use four pistons with two on each side.
- The caliper is rigidly attached to a steering knuckle or other stationary vehicle
part.
- Only the pistons and the pads move when the brakes are applied while the
caliper is fixed.

FLOATING CALIPER DISC BRAKE

FIG. 17

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 - It has only one piston, located on the inboard side of the disc.
- The caliper moves or ‘floats’ on rubber bushings on one or two steel guide pins.
- The bushings allow the caliper to move slightly when the brakes are applied.
- Some floating calipers have two pistons on the inboard side of the disc.
- Applying the brakes causes brake fluid to flow into the caliper. This pushes the
piston outward so the inboard shoe is forced against the disc. At the same time,
the pressure pushes against the caliper with an equal and opposite force. This
reaction causes the caliper to move slightly on the bushings, bringing the
outboard shoe into contact with the disc. The two pads clamp the disc to
produce the braking action.

SLIDING CALIPER DISC BRAKE

FIG. 18

- It is similar to the floating caliper brake.

- Both calipers move slightly when the brakes are applied. However, the sliding
caliper slides on machined surfaces on the steering-knuckle adapters or anchor
plate. No guide pins used.

NOTE
CONSTRUCTION

The disc brakes consist of the following parts;

1. Caliper
2. Frictional pads bonded to steel plates
3. Disc made from steel
4. Sealing ring
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 5. Piston
6. Split pins
7. Centralizing rods or pins.
8. Dust boot or seal

OPERATION

Operation in general is that, when the brakes are applied and little or no wear
has taken place, the slight piston movement necessary is obtained without
relative movement between the piston and its seal, te seal gets distorted.

When the brakes are released, the seal regains its shape and retracts the piston
– maintaining a little rubbing contact between the pads and the disc. This
contact is due to the combination of the friction between the seal and the piston,
and the static head of the brake fluid, i.e. this is a ‘Hydro-static’ brake.

When wear has occurred, the piston moves slightly through its seal to take up a
new position in the cylinder, i.e. it automatically compensates for wear, and the
hydrostatic effect automatically ensures the correct light rubbing contact when
the brakes are released.

FUNCTIONS OF EACH COMPONENT PART

1. Bleed screw – used to remove air from the system.

2. Cap – it is to prevent dirt or dust entering the system and to prevent brake fluid
going out.
3. Clip –it is to hold the pads in place with the help of carrier through bolts.
4. Seal – Not only does it prevent fluid from going out but also acts as a return
spring for the piston and as an adjuster of piston to pads clearance.

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 5. Piston – receives hydraulic energy and gives a mechanical force to the pads.
6. Dust cover – prevent dust and other type of dirt from entering the fluid.
7. Shim – acts as washer or spacer.
8. Sensor – it is to sense the braking force.

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ANTI-LOCK BRAKE SYSTEM
FUNCTION

The function of anti-lock brakes is to prevent wheels locking during braking.

FACTORS WHICH INCREASE WHEEL LOCK –UP

1. Braking force.

2. Vehicle load.

3. Road to tyre conditions

Despite the special features included in most vehicle braking systems, such as; four wheel disc
brake units, dual hydraulic circuits and proportioning valves, they still share one basic common
fault; that of wheel lock-up or skidding.

NAMES ASSOCIATED WITH ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The names that have been used for anti-lock brake system are: -

1. Anti-lock brake system – ABS.

2. Anti-lock brake - ALB.

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 3. Automatic wheel-slip brake control system – AWB

MERITS OF ANTI-LOCK BRAKE SYSTEM

1. The driver can steer the vehicle while braking severely.

2. Stability can be maintained.

3. The braking distance is reduced.

4. The ability to avoid an accident in increased.

The ABS is a four-wheel system that prevents wheel lock-up by automatically modulating the
brake pressure during an emergency stop. By preventing the wheels from locking, it enables the
driver to maintain steering control and to stop in the shortest possible distance under most
conditions. During normal braking, the ABS and non-ABS brake pedal feel will be the same.
During ABS operation, a pulsation can be felt in the brake pedal, accompanied by a fall and then
rise in brake pedal height and a clicking sound.

Vehicles with ABS are equipped with a pedal-actuated, dual-brake system. The basic hydraulic
braking system consists of the following:

 ABS hydraulic control valves and electronic control unit

 Brake master cylinder
 Necessary brake tubes and hoses

The anti-lock brake system consists of the following components:

 Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU).

 Anti-lock brake control module.
 Front anti-lock brake sensors / rear anti-lock brake sensors.

HYDRAULIC DEVICES

Each hydraulic device consists of

Diagram page 99. fug. 8-2

1. A cylinder that has a spring-loaded metal diaphragm attached to the plunger ( iron core)
of a solenoid and a spring-loaded valve stem.
2. An upper valve which is spring-loaded through the valve stem.
3. A spring-loaded lower valve located in an inlet port union.
4. An inlet port which is connected via a line to the master cylinder.
5. An outlet port which is connected via a line to the caliper pipe.

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 6. An insulated electrical terminal which has its pins connected to the solenoid. The
solenoid of each hydraulic device is connected by wires to the electronic control unit
(ECU).

WHEEL SPEED SENSORS

Diagram page. Page 100 figure 8-3

- The wheel speed sensors are induction type pulse generators.

- Each pulse generator consists of a toothed rotor which is attached to the wheel hub and of
an induction pick-up attached to the axle support.
- The pick-up coil of each pulse generator is connected by wires to the electronic control
unit.
- The signals produced by the wheel speed sensors are AC waves which changes in
frequency with variations in the wheel speeds.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT

It consists of;

1. Two input stages.

2. A central processing unit (CPU) – connected to the vehicle battery.
3. A memory
4. An input stage

- One input stage shapes, divides and converts the wheel sensor pulse generator signals
into digital signals that can be stored in memory and processed by the CPU.
- The other input stage changes the signal from the stop-light switch to a digital signal and
sends it to the CPU where it is processed.
- The CPU processes the digital input signals, decides whether the wheels are changing
speed too rapidly, calculates the number of hydraulic fluid pressure pulses that are needed
at each caliper and sends the information to the output stage.

5. The output stage

– It selects and switches the solenoids, in the hydraulic devices, on and off at the
correct time and rate.
– Output signals are also supplied to a warning light and a diagnostic link.

OPERATION

MEDIUM BRAKING – NO LOCK-UP

- The brake fluid pressure from the master cylinder is transferred to the wheel calipers
through the open valves and the chamber of each hydraulic device.
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 - The electronic control unit receives a signal from the stop-light switch that the brakes
have been applied and starts to monitor the speed of each wheel.
- Each speed input valve is stored in memory (RAM) and is constantly replaced with new
values, after the old and new values have been compared.
- The CPU decides that the wheel speeds are not changing too rapidly and does not
activates the hydraulic devices.
- The upper and lower valves in the hydraulic devices are held open by the valve stems
because the diaphragms have not moved against spring pressure.

Diagram page. Page 101 FIGURE 8-5

MEDIUM BRAKING – ONE WHEEL LOCK-UP

Let us assume that, under medium braking, one wheel contacts a patch on the road that
causes a sudden reduction in the tyre to road friction, i.e. the wheel starts to lock-up.

Rapid reduction in pulse (frequency);

- The action produces a rapid reduction in the pulse frequency, output from the wheel
sensor.
- The input stage of the ECU receives the signal and converts it for use by the CPU.
- When the CPU compares the new and the old speed input signals, it decides that there is a
large difference in the two values and sends a signal to the output stage.
- The output stage connects the solenoid of the elected hydraulic device to the battery.
- Current flow through the solenoid produces a strong magnet.
- The magnetic attraction causes the plunger to move against the spring pressure.
- As the plunger moves inside the solenoid, the diaphragm and the valve stem move away
from the inlet port.
- The slightest upward movement of the valve stem allows the spring to close the lower
valve.
- The instant the valve seats, the chamber are isolated from the master cylinder.
- Further upward movement of the diaphragm increases the volume of the chamber and
causes a sudden pressure drop in the wheel cylinder. The brakes get released and the
wheel regains speed.

Sudden increase in pulse (frequency);

- The sudden rise in the wheel speed causes an increase in the pulse (frequency) output
from the wheel sensor.
- The input stage of the ECU receives the signal and converts it to use by the CPU.
- When the CPU compares the new and the old speed input signals, it decides that there is a
large difference in the two values and sends a signal to the output stage.
- The output stage connects the solenoid of the selected hydraulic device to the battery, in
the reverse direction.

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 - Current flow through the solenoid produces a strong magnetic force in a downward
direction. This causes the plunger to move with spring pressure.
- As the plunger is moved inside the solenoid, the diaphragm is forced towards the inlet
port to decrease the volume of the chamber.
- The slightest downward movement of the stem pushes the upper and lower valves against
the lower spring pressure to seat the upper valve.
- The chamber is isolated from the master cylinder and the seated upper valve prevents the
fluid from returning to the master cylinder.
- The valve stem spring starts to compress to provide an extra force on the upper valve.
- Further downward movement of the diaphragm decreases the volume of the chamber and
causes a sudden rise in pressure in the wheel cylinder. The brake is applied and the wheel
speed is reduced.
- These two modes continue until the driver releases the brake pedal – the input signal
from the stop-light is switched off – or the vehicle stops.

Anti-lock Brake Systems (ABS) operates as follows:

1. When the brakes are applied, fluid is forced from the brake master cylinder outlet ports to
the HCU inlet ports. This pressure is transmitted through four normally open solenoid
valves contained inside the HCU, then through the outlet ports of the HCU to each wheel.
2. The primary (rear) circuit of the brake master cylinder feeds the front brakes.
3. The secondary (front) circuit of the brake master cylinder feeds the rear brakes.
4. If the anti-lock brake control module senses a wheel is about to lock, based on anti-lock
brake sensor data, it closes the normally open solenoid valve for that circuit. This
prevents any more fluid from entering that circuit.
5. The anti-lock brake control module then looks at the anti-lock brake sensor signal from
the affected wheel again.
6. If that wheel is still decelerating, it opens the solenoid valve for that circuit.
7. Once the affected wheel comes back up to speed, the anti-lock brake control module
returns the solenoid valves to their normal condition allowing fluid flow to the affected
brake.
8. The anti-lock brake control module monitors the electromechanical components of the
system.
9. Malfunction of the anti-lock brake system will cause the anti-lock brake control module
to shut off or inhibit the system. However, normal power-assisted braking remains.
10. Loss of hydraulic fluid in the brake master cylinder will disable the anti-lock system.
11. The 4-wheel anti-lock brake system is self-monitoring. When the ignition switch is
turned to the RUN position, the anti-lock brake control module will perform a
preliminary self-check on the anti-lock electrical system indicated by a three second
illumination of the yellow ABS warning indicator.
12. During vehicle operation, including normal and anti-lock braking, the anti-lock brake
control module monitors all electrical anti-lock functions and some hydraulic operations.
13. Each time the vehicle is driven, as soon as vehicle speed reaches approximately 20 km/h
(12 mph), the anti-lock brake control module turns on the pump motor for approximately

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 one-half second. At this time, a mechanical noise may be heard. This is a normal function
of the self-check by the anti-lock brake control module.
14. When the vehicle speed goes below 20 km/h (12 mph), the ABS turns off.
15. Most malfunctions of the anti-lock brake system and traction control system, if equipped,
will cause the yellow ABS warning indicator to be illuminated.

Most light trucks and SUVs use a form of ABS known as Rear Wheel ABS. The Rear Wheel
Anti Lock (RWAL) system reduces the occurrence of rear wheel lockup during severe braking
by regulating rear hydraulic line pressure. The system monitors the speed of the rear wheels
during braking. The Electronic Brake Control Module (EBCM) processes these values to
produce command controls to prevent the rear wheels from locking.

This system uses three basic components to control hydraulic pressure to the rear brakes. These
components are:

 Electronic Brake Control Module

 Anti-Lock Pressure Valve
 Vehicle Speed Sensor

ELECTRONIC BRAKE CONTROL MODULE:

The EBCM mounted on a bracket next to the master cylinder, contains a microprocessor and
software for system operation.

ANTI-LOCK PRESSURE VALVE:

The Anti-Lock Pressure Valve (APV) is mounted to the combination valve under the master
cylinder, has an isolation valve to maintain or increase hydraulic pressure and a dump valve to
reduce hydraulic pressure.

VEHICLE SPEED SENSOR:

The Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS) located on the left rear of the transmission on two-wheel drive
trucks and on the transfer case of four-wheel drive vehicles, produces an AC voltage signal that
varies in frequency according to the output shaft speed. On some vehicles the VSS is located in
the rear differential.

BASE BRAKING MODE:

During normal braking, the EBCM receives a signal from the stop lamp switch and begins to
monitor the vehicle speed line. The isolation valve is open and the dump valve is seated. This
allows fluid under pressure to pass through the APV and travel to the rear brake channel. The
reset switch does not move because hydraulic pressure is equal on both sides.

ANTILOCK BRAKING MODE:

During a brake application the EBCM compares vehicle speed to the program built into it. When
it senses a rear wheel lock-up condition, it operates the anti lock pressure valve to keep the rear
wheels from locking up. To do this the EBCM uses a three-step cycle:

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  Pressure Maintain
 Pressure Decrease
 Pressure Increase

PRESSURE MAINTAIN:
During pressure maintain the EBCM energizes the isolation solenoid to stop the flow of fluid
from the master cylinder to the rear brakes. The reset switch moves when the difference between
the master cylinder line pressure and the rear brake channel pressure becomes great enough. If
this happens, it grounds the EBCM logic circuit.

PRESSURE DECREASE:
During pressure decrease the EBCM keeps the isolation solenoid energized and energizes the
dump solenoid. The dump valve moves off its seat and fluid under pressure moves into the
accumulator. This action reduces rear pipe pressure preventing rear lock-up. The reset switch
grounds to tell the EBCM that pressure decrease has taken place.

PRESSURE INCREASE:
During pressure increase the EBCM de-energizes the dump and isolation solenoids. The dump
valve reseats and holds the stored fluid in the accumulator. The isolation valve 9pens and allows
the fluid from the master cylinder to flow past it and increase pressure to the rear brakes. The
reset switch moves back to its original position by spring force. This action signals the EBCM
that pressure decrease has ended and driver applied pressure resumes.

SYSTEM SELF-TEST:
When the ignition switch is turned "ON," the EBCM performs a system self-test. It checks its
internal and external circuit and performs a function test by cycling the isolation and dump
valves. The EBCM then begins its normal operation if no malfunctions are detected.

Brake pedal pulsation and occasional rear tire "chirping" are normal during RWAL operation.
The road surface and severity of the braking maneuver determine how much these will occur.
Since these systems only control the rear wheels, it is still possible to lock the front wheels
during certain severe braking conditions.

SPARE TIRE:
Using the spare tire supplied with the vehicle will not affect the performance of the RWAL or
system.

REPLACEMENT TIRES:
Tire size can affect the performance of the RWAL system. Replacement tires must be the same
size, load range, and construction on all four wheels.

Contrary to popular belief ABS brakes will not stop your car faster. The idea behind ABS brakes
is that you maintain control of your vehicle by avoiding wheel lock up. When your wheels lock
up you have no steering control and turning the steering wheel to avoid a collision will do you no
good. When the wheels stop turning, it's done and over.

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When driving on slippery roads you need to allow for increased braking distance since the
wheels will lock up much easier and the ABS will cycle much faster. Speed is a factor also, if
you're going too fast even the control ABS gives you will not be enough to overcome plain
inertia. You may turn the wheel to the left or right, but inertia will keep you going forward.
If there is an ABS failure, the system will revert to normal brake operation so you will not be
without brakes. Normally the ABS warning light will turn on and let you know there is a fault.
When that light is on it is safe to assume the ABS has switched to normal brake operation and
you should drive accordingly.

I hope that this has helped you understand how ABS systems work. It is a technology that has
been in use for many years before it was adapted for automotive use. Aircraft have been using
some form of ABS since WW II and it is a tried and true system that can be a great help in
avoiding accidents if it is used as it was meant to be used.

Your pickup truck's anti-lock brake system (ABS) is one of the most important automotive safety
advancements since the seat belt. Most drivers know that having anti-lock brakes is a good thing,
but they often don't understand how the system works.

Conventional Brakes vs. ABS

Conventional Brakes
When a vehicle is equipped with conventional brakes, and you push the brake pedal hard when
stopping on loose or slick surfaces, one or more of the wheels may lock up (stop turning). Lock
ups can cause the truck to swerve or skid, leaving you with little or no control of the vehicle.

Anti-lock Brakes
When an anti-lock brake system is present, a sensor in an about-to-be locked up wheel sends a
message to a computer. The computer immediately starts releasing and applying that brake,
preventing a lock up and allowing you to maintain control -- or drive around an obstacle instead
of sliding straight towards it.

When the anti-lock system kicks in, it makes a noise and the brake pedal pulsates. If that
happens, don't panic -- keep your foot on the brake pedal and let the anti-lock system go to work.
Letting up on the pedal may turn off the ABS.

Anti-Lock Brakes Help Other Safety Developments

Engineers found they could use an anti-lock brake system to detect and control wheel spin on
acceleration, resulting in the traction control systems that are available on many newer vehicles

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PARKING BRAKES OR EMERGENCY BRAKES

FUNCTION

1. It is required to hold the vehicle in any chosen position when stationary.

2. It acts as an emergency brake in the event of failure of the main braking system.

3. It used when making hill starts and similar maneuvers.

TYPES OF HAND BRAKE CABLE LINKAGES LAYOUT

1. Sliding equalizer hand brake cable layout.

2. Swinging compensator hand brake cable layout.

3. Roller and relay lever compensator hand brake cable layout.

Construction

Diagram

OPERATION

- When the hand brake lever is applied the cable pulls the hand lever inwards, causing it
to react against the strut.

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 - As it tilts, it forces the trailing shoe outwards to the drum, at the same time the strut are
forced in the opposite direction against the sector lever.

- This also pushes the leading shoe via the upper pivot and the lower toothed pawl
towards the drum.

- The hand brake shoe expander linkage between the two shoes therefore floats and
equalises the load applied by each shoe to the drum.

DUAL-BRAKING SYSTEM

- This is a braking system with two independent hydraulic circuits.

- This dual braking system is also referred to as ‘fail safe’ braking system.

- Splitting the hydraulic system into two sections improves vehicle safety.

- One section will continue to work and stop the vehicle if the other section leaks and
fails.

- Both sections seldom fail at the same time.

TYPES OF DUAL - BRAKING SYSTEM

There are three types of dual braking system;

1. Two wheel system.

2. Diagonal-split system.

3. Three wheel system.

- Most vehicles with rear-wheel drive use the front-rear split.

- Many front wheel-drive vehicles use the diagonal split.

TWO-WHEEL SYSTEM – FRONT REAR SPLIT

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 - Fluid from one master cylinder outlet operates all four brakes or wheels.

- Fluid from the first outlet operates the front brakes only.

- Fluid from the second outlet operates front brakes only.

- If one of the hydraulic lines fails, the vehicle will still have at least two effective front
wheels equivalent to two-third braking power.

- Used by the rear wheel drive vehicles

DIAGONAL – SPLIT SYSTEM

- One part of the Tandem master cylinder is connected to the offside front and the near
brakes and the other part of the master cylinder is connected to the nearside front and
offside rear.

- If one of the two brake circuit suddenly fails or if front tyre blows out, applying the
brakes does then not produce loss of steering control.

- The same is true when one wheel is in contact with a much more slippery road surface
than the other.

THREE WHEEL SYSTEM – FRONT AXLE AND REAR WHEEL SPLIT OR TRIANGULAR

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 - This is also called the L-split.

- Each of the two pistons in the master cylinder works both front brakes and one rear
brake, through separate hydraulic lines and slave cylinders.

- If either circuit fails, the vehicle still has two effective front brakes and one good rear
brake giving 80% braking.

- One part of the master cylinder is connected to the front brakes and the offside near
wheel brake and the other part of the master cylinder is also connected to the front
brakes and the nearside rear wheel brake.

- This arrangement requires four piston calipers for the front disc brakes or two pistons if
they are floating calipers.

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AUXILIARY BRAKES
There are four commonly used auxiliary brakes at the moment

1. Exhaust brakes
2. Eddy-current brakes
3. Jacobs Engine brakes
4. Dynatard Engine brakes

MERITS CLAIMED BY USE OF AUXILIARY BRAKES

1. They are powerful; they can retard the vehicle at anytime.

2. They are smooth in operation.
3. They allow the main brakes to run cool and efficiently. No brake fades due to brakes
overheating.
4. They provide 30 % of brake-lining wear as they are less used.
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 5. They help to reduce tyre wear which is mainly caused by friction between tyre and road.
6. They provide les driver fatigue.
7. Road wheels cannot be locked by wheel brakes hence improved handling of the vehicle
on wet and very slippery surfaces.

EXHAUST BRAKE

It consists of;

1. Malleable iron valve larger in diameter than the exhaust pipe internal diameter.
2. Valve stop
3. Linkages
4. Control lever
5. Exhaust pipe
6. Vacuum servo, compressed-air or electrical-solenoid for activation.

OPERATION

The valve is moved by a vacuum servo, compressed-air or electrical-solenoid.

- The control lever is pulled to the right.

- The upper link top part moves to the right.
- The bottom link moves to the left.
- The valve is pulled from the bottom to close
- At the same time fuel is cut-off from delivery as the control device is interconnected
with the fuel cut-off device of the C.I. injection pump.

MERIT

Fuel economy is improved due to control device.

DEMERITS

1. It cannot be used on an engine using an oil-bath type of filter, or else oil will be blown
out.
2. It cannot be used on a vehicle fitted with a two-stroke C.I. engine.

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EDDY-CURRENT BRAKES

It consists of;

1. Twin-air cooled disc rotors

- Connected into the transmission between the gearbox and the final drive.
- Supported and located by taper roller bearings fitted inside a stator unit arranged
between the two rotors.
2. Stator
- Supported in the chassis by flexible mountings.
- Have a number of electromagnets with pole pieces arranged around its circumference.
3. Electromagnets or Poles
- Connected in groups, each having its own circuit.
4. Two flanges
- One from the gearbox
- Another to final drive

OPERATION

- When battery voltage energizes the magnets, their magnetic fields are connected by the
pole pieces and pass through the moving rotors.
- The resulting eddy-currents exert strong retarding forces on the rotors and therefore
upon the transmission.
- The circuits are brought into action as the control lever is moved – so providing a steady
increasing retardation. If one circuit fails, the others still operate/
- The normal stop lamp and a lamp in the cab, light up when these brakes are applied.

JACOBS ENGINE BRAKES

It is consisting of;

1. A 12v or 24v battery

2. Fuse
3. Dash Board switch
4. Clutch switch
5. Throttle switch
6. Three position switch
7. Ball check valve

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 8. Solenoid valve
9. Control valve
10. Rest adjusting screw with slave piston
11. Master piston
12. Exhaust rocker lower and crosshead
13. Exhaust valve

OPERATION

Once the solenoid valve is activated;

- Lubrication oil is allowed to enter the brake housing mounted on top of the valve rocker
gears.
- The oil then flows to the control valve where it simultaneously moves the control valve
up, against the force of a spring, and the ball valve off its seat, allowing oil to charge the
salve and master piston housings.
- The oil pressure creates sufficient force to move the piston down to contact the injector
rocker adjusting screw.
- Once the oil gallery between the pistons has filled with low-pressure oil, the spring
closes the check ball valve, trapping the oil.
- As the engine piston continues to move toward TDC on the compression stroke, the
injector pushrod rises and begins to lift the master piston. This movement displaces oil
from the master piston housing onto the slave piston housing through the oil gallery,
forcing the slave piston down onto the exhaust crosshead, opening the exhaust valve
and allowing the compressed air to escape into the exhaust system.
- Continued engine braking, the solenoid valve remains activated with the control valve
maintaining a charge of oil between the slave and master pistons.

Once the operator opens one of the four control switches, the solenoid valve will be
deactivated, closing off the engine oil flow to control valve.

- The control valve under spring force moves down and allows the trapped oil in the slave
and master pistons to bleed off into the rocker gear housing. At this point, the engine
brake ceases to operate.

DYNATARD ENGINE BRAKE

Despite having the same principle as Jacobs Engine Brakes, the mode of operation and
construction are very different.

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It is activated by three controls;

1. The cab switch

2. The injection pump switch
3. The solenoid

OPERATION

With the dash switch on and the injection pump switch activated by the accelerator pedal being
fully released the exhaust brake start to operate.

- Solenoid operation allows oil to flow into hydraulic lash adjuster, reducing the exhaust
valve lash (clearance) activated.
- With the exhaust valve lash reduced to zero, the valve mechanism follows a special
contour on the cam lobe, causing the cam follower to ride up on the lobe contour,
pushing the exhaust valve open as the piston approaches TDC.
- The compressed air charge escapes into the exhaust manifold.
- The engine goes through a power absorbing cycle without a corresponding power to
drive the pistons, resulting in a braking effect by the engine.

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