CAPACITORS

1. Introduction

Capacitance C

Since for a charged conductor, charge Q

increases its potential V, then Q α V.
The constant of proportionality is called
capacitance C, that is
Q = CV,
where the capacitance C of a conductor is
constant.
Capacitance C is measured in Farads (F).
Remember that 1 F = 1 CV-1.
Capacitance C is thus the ratio of the charge to the voltage across a conductor.

Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor

 Consider a charged conductor Q having an electric potential V

at its surface.
Its electric potential at its surface V is given by
r


 
V= where r is the radius of the conductor.



 The capacitance C of the conductor is thus C =

 C = 4εor

Connecting two charged spherical conductors

 Consider a charged conductor having electrical properties Q1, C1 and V1 is to be

connected with another charged conductor having electrical properties Q2, C2 and V2.

Before joining After joining

 The final voltage V is the same for both conductors since they would become an
equipotential surface.
Also the total charge of the conductors before connection (Q1 + Q2) is conserved.
The capacitance of both conductors remains constant.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 1/36

  Final charge on first conductor  Q1’ = C1V = 4εor1
Final charge on second conductor  Q2’ = C2V = 4εor2
On dividing Q1’ by Q2’

 = ………………………………………..……….…… (1)

 Since: Initial charge = final charge, then Q1 + Q2 = Q1’ + Q2’ ………………….. (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we obtain

Q1’ = (Q1+Q2)
  and Q2’ = (Q1+Q2) 
 

 ℎ
 Their common potential V after connecting is V =  ,
 
! " !
"
 V=

2. Parallel Plate Capacitors

A capacitor is an electrical component used

to store charge Q.
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel
conducting plates separated by an insulator called
a dielectric of relative permittivity εr.
The dielectric’s material can be air, paper, plastic,
electrolyte etc…

The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a d.c.

supply. One plate becomes positively charged
while the other negatively charged.
Once the capacitor becomes fully charged, the flow
of charge carriers stops in the circuit and thus the
p.d. across the capacitor will be equal to the p.d.
across the battery. In this condition, no current
flows through the circuit.

If the p.d. across the capacitor plates exceeds its

working voltage, then the dielectric breaks down and the capacitor will simply become a
conductor and thus no charge will be stored across it.

In general a bigger capacitor can store more charge than a smaller one.
If a capacitor is stated as having a charge Q it means that the conductor at the higher
potential has a charge +Q and that at the lower potential a charge –Q such that the net
charge on the capacitor is 0 C. This charge can then be released later.
Capacitors are used in a variety of situations:
a) in a camera flash lamp - to store charge,
b) in timing devices - to release the charge at a certain rate,

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 2/36

 c) as tuners - variable capacitors in a radio,
d) in a rectified output from a power supply.

Flow of Charge

 Consider the circuit shown.

When the switch is closed, electrons flow
from the one plate to the positive pole of
the cell and electrons from the cell flow to
the other plate of the capacitor.
Eventually a charge of magnitude Q is
stored on each plate and the capacitor is
said to be fully charged.
Note that both plates have the same size
of charge although they are of opposite sign.
The addition of a resistor R in the circuit does
not affect the final p.d. across the capacitor.
However, the capacitor will take longer to become fully
charged since the charging current will be smaller.
Remember that capacitance is measured in farads (F).

 Capacitance C is defined as the amount

of charge Q a capacitor can store per
unit volts V.
If a capacitor stores a total charge of 10 C,
then there will be +10 C on the positive
plate and 10 C on the negative plate.

 For a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance

!
is defined as  C= ,  Q = CV

1 Farad is equivalent to 1 CV-1.

A capacitor has a capacitance of one
farad if the potential across it rises by one volt when a charge of one coulomb
is stored across its plates.
Most of the capacitors have capacitances of microfarads (μF, 10-6F), nanofarads (nF,
10-9F) or picofarads (pF, 10-12F).
Note that the capacitance of the Earth is approximately 4 F.

Factors affecting Capacitance C

Capacitance C depends on the

 overlapping area A of the conducting plates,
 separation d of the plates, and the
 relative permittivity εr of the dielectric used between the plates.

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 Capacitance C  εr, CA C
#
More precisely:  and
$ $ %
#
 Capacitance C =

where: ε0 is the permittivity of free space/vacuum, ε0 = 8.8510-12 Fm-1

εr is the relative permittivity of the material between the conducting plates.
εr is a ratio and so it has no units. For example εr for air is 1, for mica is 4 etc…

 The product ε0εr is the permittivity of the material between the two conducting plates.
 εmaterial = ε0εr

Examples

1. Calculate the separation of the plates of an air filled capacitor of capacitance 25 nF if

the plates have an area of 40 cm2. (Permittivity of free space o = 8.8510-12 Fm-1)

Capacitance C = oA/d = 2510-9 = (8.8510-124010-4)/d

 d = 0.0014 mm

2. Calculate the capacitance of a pair of parallel plates of area 25 cm2 if they are separated
by a piece of Perspex 0.1 mm thick. Take the relative permittivity of Perspex to be 3.5.

(Permittivity of free space o = 8.8510-12 Fm-1)

Capacitance = (8.8510-123.52510-4)/10-4 = 7.4310-10 = 0.74 nF.

3. A capacitor of capacitance 2000 μF has a voltage of 12 V across its plates.

What is the charge stored on each of the plates?

Q = CV = 200010-612 = 2.410-2 C

4. A capacitance of 2000 μF is charged using a steady current of 0.1 mA for 60 s.

What voltage does it gain?

Charge = current  time = 0.110-360 = 610-3 C

Voltage = Charge/Capacitance = 610-3/200010-6 = 3 V

Electric Field of a capacitor

 The electric field E of a capacitor is from the positive

plate to the negative plate.
Note the effect of the sharp edges on the field
between the plates of the capacitor.
This effect can be reduced by using a 'guard ring'.
(second diagram)
Even without a guard ring the field within a parallel
plate capacitor is uniform except very close to the
edges.

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  Let the overlapping area of the plates be A and their separation d;
let one plate have a charge +Q and the other -Q, and let the capacitance be C.
Assume the field between the plates to be uniform and that the charge density is also
uniform.
The surface charge density on the plates


%
Since for parallel plates; p.d. electric field
!
# #
strength E= =

substituting the capacitance for a parallel

$ $ %
#
plate capacitor C =

the electric field intensity E between the

plates is given by:

$ $ %
Electric field intensity E =

Attractive Force between Parallel plates

$ $ %
The electric field due to the charge on one plate is half this value, i.e. Eplate =
The electric force between the two parallel plates is F = QE,

$ $ %
 Attractive force F =

 When a dielectric material is placed between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor the
capacitance increases. The reason for this is shown in the figures.

The charges on the

plates of the capacitor
induce opposite
charges on the two
surfaces of the
dielectric.
This has the effect
of reducing the
potential difference
across the capacitor.
This can be
explained as follows.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 5/36

 Under the action of the electric field within the dielectric, the molecules become
polarised (dipoles) and are aligned as shown.
$ $ %
#
Since the capacitance of a capacitor is given by the formula C = ,

and εr is greater than that for air/vacuum, the capacitance C increases.

Using the equation: Q = CV, the charge C is constant in this case, thus p.d.
across the capacitor decreases.

Examples:

1. A light bulb, a capacitor and a cell are connected

together in a circuit as shown in the diagram.
Switch S is initially open and the capacitor is
uncharged. Discuss the brightness of the bulb
just after the switch is closed.
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2. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is 10 F when the distance between its

plates is 8 cm. If the distance between the plates is reduced to 4 cm, calculate the
new capacitance of the capacitor.
(Ans: 20 F)
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3. A capacitor, filled with a dielectric constant 3, has charge Qo, voltage Vo and electric
field Eo. After being disconnected from the battery, the dielectric is replaced with
one having a dielectric constant 9. What are the new values for its charge, voltage
and electric field in terms of Qo, Vo and Eo?
(Ans: Qo, Vo/3, Eo/3)

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3. Types of Capacitors

Air-filled Capacitors

The air capacitor has the advantage of

having a precisely known capacitance
with almost perfect properties at all
frequencies.
The tuner in a radio is a variable air
capacitor, consisting of two sets or
plates in air overlapping each other.
The overlapping area of the plates and hence its capacitance may be varied by moving one
set of plates into the other as shown.

Paper Capacitors

The two plates are thin metal sheets, with the paper
dielectric of relative permittivity about 5 between
them. They are then rolled into a cylinder.
The whole arrangement is packed in a cylinder of
metal or plastic.
The breakdown potential of the capacitor can be
increased by waxing the paper.
These capacitors are not very stable but they are
very cheap to produce. They have capacitances between 10-3 μF and 10 μF.

Electrolytic Capacitors

When an electric current is passed through a solution

of aluminium borate using aluminium electrodes, a
very thin layer of oxide forms on the anode.

The thickness of this layer depends on the applied

potential difference and on the time for which the
current is passed.
This oxide film is used as the dielectric in
electrolytic capacitors.
This dielectric may be very thin, less than
10-7m but it has a very high insulation strength of
some 109 Vm- 1.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 7/36

 Electrolytic capacitors have capacitances greater
than 1 F, are polarised and must always be
connected the right way round in the circuit
otherwise they will explode!
Smaller value capacitors can be unpolarised and Electrolytic capacitor
may be connected either way round.
The symbols for the two types of capacitor are shown.

4. Finding Capacitance experimentally: Reed-switch method

 This method is based on a rapid charge and discharge process to give a very nearly
constant current from the capacitor. The circuit used is shown.

Reed
switch

 When an a.c. signal is applied to the coil, the reed switch vibrates backwards and
forwards between the contacts 1 and 2.

 When the strip is in position 1, the capacitor is being charged, and when the strip is in
position 2 the capacitor is discharging through the resistor R and the microammeter.
The frequency of the supply is high, usually some 400 Hz, and the use of the rectifier
means that the number of discharges per second is equal to the frequency f of the a.c.
signal.
Vary the frequency of the reed switch until a steady deflection is shown on the
microammeter. This means that the amount charged on the capacitor during
charging is being lost when the switch is on position 2.

&
'
Therefore I = = Qf where Q is the charge given to the capacitor each time the switch
is in position 1.
(
)!
Hence Q = I/f, and since Q = CV, the capacitance of the capacitor is C = and thus

can be found.

Substituting C in the equation of the capacitor, the permittivity of free space ε0 can be
calculated.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 8/36

5. Charging a Capacitor

V
Consider the circuit shown. It has a two-way
switch to charge a capacitor (on position A)
and to discharge the same capacitor
(on position B). Charging circuit

Set the two-way switch on position A.

capacitor
The capacitor begins to charge up slowly resistor A
Qc Two-way
with time. A
switch
ammeter VR B
At time t = 0 s, current I = max, and
the voltmeter reads 0 V showing that Vc
the voltage across the capacitor is 0 V voltmeter
at time t = 0 s.
Discharging circuit
 t = 0 s, I = max, Vc = 0 V,
Qc = 0 C, VR = Vcell.

As time passes, the current I decreases and the voltage across the capacitor Vc
increases.  time t , I , Vc , Qc  , VR 

Eventually, when the voltage across the capacitor becomes equal to the voltage across
the cell, charging of the capacitor stops and no current flows through the circuit.
The capacitor is said to be fully charged. Thus,

As t  ,  current I = 0 A, Vc = Vcell, VR = 0 V.

Remember that as soon as the switch is closed in position A, the battery is connected
across the capacitor, current flows and the potential difference across the capacitor begins
to rise. However, as more and more charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current
flow and the rate of increase of p.d. both decrease.
Eventually, no further current will flow when the p.d. across the capacitor equals that of
the supply voltage Vo. The capacitor is then fully charged.

Equations for Charging

When a capacitor C is being charged through

a resistance R to a final maximum voltage Vo
(max p.d.), final charge Qo (max charge),
current Io (initial current), the equations for
a charging capacitor at any time are:

 V = Vo[1-e-(t/RC)],
Q = CVo[1-e-(t/RC)],
I = Ioe-(t/RC)

Also, Qo = CVo and Vo = IoR

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 9/36

 Note the variations of potential difference and current with time.

The charging current is given by the gradient of the curve of Q-t graph at any
time.
The area below the current-time curve in both charging and discharging
represents the total charge stored by the capacitor.

The Time Constant τ

The time constant τ is the time taken for the capacitor’s charge/voltage to
increase to 63% (1 – 1/e) of its maximum value.

Using: Q = CVo[1-e-(t/RC)]
 Q = Qo[1-e-(t/RC)]
 (1  1/e)Qo = Qo [1-e-(t/RC)]

Simplifying:  Time constant τ = RC

Charging Graphs

The corresponding graphs for a charging capacitor are shown.

Charge-time graph (capacitor) Current-time graph

Qmax Imax
0.63Qmax
0.37Imax

Voltage Vc-time graph (capacitor) Voltage VR-time graph (resistor)

Vmax Vmax
0.63Vmax
0.37Vmax

After 5τ, the capacitor is regarded as fully charged.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 10/36

 Worked Example

A capacitor is to be charged to a maximum potential difference of 12 V between its plates.

Calculate how long it takes to reach a potential difference 10 V given that it has a time
constant of 0.5 s.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 11/36

 Examples

1. A 4000 μF capacitor is charged through a 2.5 kΩ resistor using a 15 V supply.

Calculate:
a) the potential difference across the plates after 5 s,
b) the time taken for the potential difference across the plates to reach 10 V.

a) V = Vo[1 – e-t/RC] = 15[1 – e-5/(2500x0.004)] = 5.9 V

b) 10/15 = 1 – e-t/RC and so e-t/RC = 0.33 therefore t/RC = 1.099
 t = 1.098625000.004 = 11 s

2. A 2000 μF capacitor is charged through a 1 kΩ resistor using a 6 V supply.

Calculate:
a) the charging current after 2.5 s,
b) the charge on the plates after 2.5 s.

a) Initial charging current Io = V/R = 6/1000 = 6 mA

Current after 2.5 s = Ioe-t/RC = 610-3e-(2.5/1000x0.002) = 610-30.287 = 1.7 mA
b) Q = Qo [1 - e-t/RC]
Final charge (Qo) = CV = 0.0026 = 0.012 C
Charge after 2.5 s = 0.012[1  0.287] = 0.0120.713 = 0.0086 C

6. Discharging a Capacitor V

Consider the circuit shown.

Charging circuit
Set the two-way switch on position B.
The capacitor begins to discharge capacitor
resistor A
slowly through the fixed resistor with Qc
A Two-way
time. switch
ammeter VR B
At time t = 0 s, current I = max,
Vc
and the voltmeter reads maximum
voltmeter
voltage showing that the capacitor
is fully charged at time t = 0 s. Discharging circuit

 t = 0 s, I = max,
Vc = VR = Vcell = max, Qc = max.

As time passes, the current I decreases and the voltage across the capacitor Vc
decreases.
 time t , I , Vc , Qc 

Eventually, when the voltage across the capacitor becomes 0 V, discharging of the
capacitor stops and no more current passes through the circuit. The capacitor is said to
be fully discharged. Hence,

As t  ,  current I = 0 A, Vc = 0 V, QC = 0 C.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 12/36

 Equations for Discharging

Initially at t=0s, the current I in the discharge at that instant is: I =  dq/dt

But V = IR and Q = CV, thus dQ/dt = d(CV)/dt = CdV/dt (C is constant).

 I =  CdV/dt
Since: I = V/R,  V = CR dV/dt

On rearranging and integrating:

 VC = Voe-(t/RC),
QC = Qoe-(t/RC),
I = Ioe-(t/RC)

Also, Qo = CVo and Vo = IoR

where: a capacitor C is being discharged

through a resistance R from an initial
p.d. Vo (max p.d.), initial charge Qo
(max charge), current Io (initial current)
at any time t.

Note that the term RC governs the rate at which the charge on the capacitor decays.
When t = RC, V = Vo/e = 0.37Vo and the product RC is known as the time constant for
the capacitor circuit.
The bigger the value of RC the slower the rate at which the capacitor discharges.

The Time Constant τ

The time constant τ is the time taken

for the capacitor’s to discharge to
37% (1/e) of its maximum value.

Using:  Q = Qoe-(t/RC)
 (1/e)Qo = Qoe-(t/RC)

Simplifying:

 Time constant τ = RC

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 13/36

 Discharging Graphs

The corresponding graphs for a discharging capacitor are shown below.

Charge-time graph (capacitor) Current-time graph

Qmax
0.37Imax

0.37Qmax
 Imax

Voltage VC - time graph (capacitor) Voltage VR - time graph

(resistor)
Vmax Vmax

0.37Vmax 0.37Vmax

 In practice, a capacitor is considered to be fully charged or fully discharged

after 5 time constants has elapsed, that is after 5.

Q/C Q/C
Qma Qma
0.63 Qmax

Charging capacitor Discharging capacitor

0.37
Qmax

 = RC time/s  = RC time/s

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 14/36

 Examples

1. A capacitor of 1000 μF is with a potential difference of 12 V across it is discharged

through a 500 Ω resistor. Calculate the voltage across the capacitor after 1.5 s.

V = Voe-(t/RC) so V = 12e-1.5/(5000.001) = 0.6 V

2. A capacitor is discharged through a 10 MΩ resistor and it is found that the time

constant is 200 s. Calculate the value of the capacitor.

The time constant RC = 200 s,  C = 200/10106 = 20 μF.

3. Calculate the time for the potential across a 100 F capacitor to fall to 80% of its
original value if it is discharged through a 20 kΩ resistor.

Since V = 0.8 Vo,  0.8 = e–t/(200000.0001)

 ln(1/0.8) = 20 0000.0001
 t= 2ln(1/0.8) = 0.45 s.

Examples:

1. An uncharged capacitor, C, is connected

in a circuit as shown.
The 12 V battery has negligible internal
resistance. The interface measures the
voltage VC across C and the current IR
through the resistor R. These
measurements are then displayed as
graphs on the computer.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 15/36

 a) What is the voltage across the resistor when:
i) t = 0.00 s;
ii) t = 0.40 s?
b) What is the resistance of resistor, R?
c) When the capacitor is fully charged it stores 10.0 mJ of energy.
What is its capacitance?
d) What is the time constant of the circuit?
e) Sketch a graph to show how the charge on the capacitor changes with time after
switch S is closed.
f) An open switch S1 is now connected across R and C. After switch S is opened,
switch S1 is closed.
i) On the same axes, sketch graphs to show how the p.d. across the capacitor and
the p.d. across the resistor changes with time.
ii) What would happen if, inadvertently, switch S1 is closed while switch S is still
closed?
g) The capacitor takes only a few seconds to charge fully. Calculate a value of the
resistance you would connect instead of R to increase the time taken by the
charging process to about 1 minute.
(Matsec May 2014 P2. Ans: a) (i) 12 V, (ii) 3.4 V, b) 2125 , c) 1.39×10-4 F, d) 0.30 s, g) 86331 )
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 2. a) A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conducting metal plates positioned parallel
to each other and separated by a dielectric.
i) Define the capacitance of a capacitor.
ii) Sketch TWO graphs to show how the capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor
varies with the area and separation.
iii) State TWO important characteristics of a dielectric.
b) A condenser microphone consists of a parallel plate air capacitor, a resistor and a
power source as shown in Figure 4. Changes in voltage across the resistor are then
fed to an audio amplifier. One of the round plates is fixed while the other moves to
and fro with the incoming sound waves. The plates have a radius of 3 mm and
when no sound waves are incoming the plates are separated by 1 mm of air.

i) Explain why the only dielectric suitable for the capacitor in this microphone is air.
ii) Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor when no sound is being captured by
the microphone.
iii) The switch S is turned on. Calculate the time it takes the capacitor to charge up
to 90%.
iv) Calculate the total charge that can be stored on the capacitor.
The capacitor is now fully charged. A sound pressure wave reaches the microphone
and in the first instant pushes the moveable capacitor plate inwards, increasing the
capacitance of the capacitor by 50%.
v) Calculate the temporary voltage on the capacitor at the instant when this
increase in capacitance first occurs.
vi) In which direction, clockwise or counter-clockwise, will current flow through the
circuit?
vii) Sketch a graph that shows how the voltage on the capacitor changes with time
before and after the sound pressure wave hits the microphone.
viii) In a second instant the sound pressure wave pulls the moveable plate away from
the fixed plate. Explain the changes, if any, in the direction of the current
through the circuit.
(Matsec May 2019 P2. Ans: b) (ii) 2.50×10-13 F, (iii) 5.76×10-7 s, (iv) 3×10-12 C, (v) 8 V, (vi) anticlockwise)
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7. Rate of Charging and Discharging of a capacitor

cell
 The rate of charging or discharging of a capacitor
depends on the value of the resistor the capacitor
is in series with.
The greater the resistance of the resistor, the
longer the capacitor takes to charge or discharge A
through it.
rheostat B
 In the circuit shown, if we increase the value of the capacitor
resistance of the rheostat, the charging and discharging
time of the capacitor increases in both cases.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 18/36

 Relative charge on capacitor Relative charge on capacitor
Final charge (t  ) Initial charge (t = 0 s)

Discharging Process

Increasing R Increasing R

Charging Process

Time/s Time/s

Examples:

1. The circuit shown is used to charge and then discharge 9V

a capacitor.
a) Calculate the reading on the ammeter, a long time S
after switch S is closed. 100 F
b) Switch S is now opened.
i) What happens to the charge on the capacitor 17 k
plates?
ii) Find the time constant of the circuit.
30 k
iii) Calculate the voltage across the capacitor plates
9.4 s later.
iv) Find the current flowing through the resistors 9.4 s later.
v) Find the total time taken for the capacitor to discharge completely.
(Ans: a) 1.91×10-4 A, b) (i) Discharge through resistors, (ii) 4.7 s, (iii) 1.23 V, (iv) 2.62×10-5 A, (v) 23.5 s)
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 2. A capacitor with a capacitance of 1010-6 F is connected in series with a 12 V battery,
a 470  resistor and a switch. The switch is closed and the capacitor starts charging.
a) Calculate the time constant of the circuit.
b) Calculate the voltage across i) the capacitor,
ii) resistor after 1 time constant.
c) Find the maximum charge stored on the capacitor.
d) Find the time taken for the capacitor to reach this maximum charge stored.
e) Find the charge stored on the capacitor plates, 9.4 ms after the switch is closed.
(Ans: a) 4.7×10-3 s, b) (i) 7.56 V, (ii) 4.44 V, c) 1.2×10-4 C, d) 0.0235 s, e) 1.04×10-4 C)
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8. Required Practical: Charging & Discharging Capacitor

Aim: To calculate the capacitance of a capacitor.

This is just one example of how this required practical might be carried out

Variables:
- Independent variable: time, t
- Dependent variable: potential difference, V
- Control variables: Resistance of the resistor,
current in the circuit
Method:
i. Set up the apparatus like the circuit above, making
sure the switch is not connected to X or Y (no
current should be flowing through).
ii. Set the battery pack to a potential difference of
10 V and use a 10 kΩ resistor. The capacitor
should initially be fully discharged.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 20/36

 iii. Charge the capacitor fully by placing the switch at point X. The voltmeter reading
should read the same voltage as the battery (10 V).
iv. Move the switch to point Y.
v. Record the voltage reading every 10 s down to a value of 0 V. A total of 8 to 10
readings should be taken.

Analysing the Results:

 The p.d. across the capacitance is defined by the equation:

where:

o V = p.d across the capacitor (V)

o V0 = initial p.d across the capacitor (V)
o t = time (s)
o e = exponential function
o R = resistance of the resistor (Ω)
o C = capacitance of the capacitor (F)

 Rearranging this equation for ln(V) by taking the natural log (ln) of both sides:

 Comparing this equation to: y = mx + c

 y = ln(V)
 x=t
 gradient = -1/RC
 c = ln(V0)

a) Plot a graph of ln(V) against t and draw a line of best fit.

b) Calculate the gradient (this should be negative).
c) The capacitance of the capacitor is equal to:

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 21/36

 Evaluation:

Systematic Errors:

 If a digital voltmeter is used, wait until the reading is settled on a value if it is

switching between two.
 If an analogue voltmeter is used, reduce parallax error by reading the p.d at eye
level to the meter.
 Make sure the voltmeter starts at zero to avoid a zero error.

Random Errors:

 Use a resistor with a large resistance so the capacitor discharges slowly enough for
the time to be taken accurately at p.d intervals.
 Using a datalogger will provide more accurate results for the p.d at a certain time.
This will reduce the error in the speed of the reflex needed to stop the stopwatch at
a certain p.d.
 The experiment could be repeated by measuring the time for the capacitor to charge
instead.

9. Energy of a stored capacitor

Since capacitors have the ability to store charge they are

also a source of electrical energy. This energy may be
released slowly in some electrical circuits.
! !
Energy stored in capacitor = * #! = * ! #!

 Energy stored = CV2

Using Q = CV yields the following alternative equations:

 Energy stored = QV =

The energy stored across the plates of a

capacitor can be found by summing the area
under a Q-V graph of the capacitor.

If the overlapping area of the capacitor is increased, keeping their separation constant,
the new energy stored is ½Q2/C.
Since the charge Q remains constant but capacitance C increases (C=εA/d), thus the
energy stored across the capacitor plates decreases.
The charge density (Q/A) decreases as well.

Note that when charging a capacitor, the cell supplies an energy of E=QV in the circuit
but the capacitor only stores ½QV across its plates. This occurs because the other half
of the energy supplied is dissipated in heat in the resistance of the charging pathway.
By the conservation of energy:

 QVcell = ½QVcapacitor + ½QVresistance

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 22/36

 The energy stored in a capacitor used for camera flash unit is about 1 J.
This is released in around 1 ms giving an output power of 1 kW.

Increasing Plate Separation d Increasing Plate Separation d

Battery is removed Battery remains connected

Charge Q constant Voltage V constant

Capacitance C decreases (C α 1/d) Capacitance C decreases (C α 1/d)

Voltage V increases (V=Q/C) Charge Q decreases (Q=CV)

Energy stored increases (U=½QV) Energy stored decreases (U=½QV)

Electric field E constant (E=Q/(εoA) Electric field E decreases (E=Q/(εoA)

Force between plates F constant Force between plates F decreases

(F=Q2/(2εoA) (F=Q2/(2εoA)

Note that the change in energy of the capacitor is explained by the movement of charges
in the wires as the capacitor partly discharges to maintain the same potential.
The electric field intensity E remains constant if the charge Q remains constant.
This can be explained by the fact that work has to be done on the plates to separate them.
An increase in the energy stored across the capacitor can explained by the addition of
energy to moving the plates apart against their mutual attraction.

Example

A parallel-plate air capacitor of area 25 cm2 and with plates 1 mm apart is charged to a
potential of 100 V.
a) Calculate the energy stored in it.
b) The plates of the capacitor are now moved a further 1 mm apart with the power supply
connected. Calculate the energy change.
c) If the power supply had been disconnected before the plates had been moved apart,
what would have been the energy change in this case?

a) Energy = ½CV2 = ½εoAV2/d = (8.8510-122510-4104)/(20.001) = 1.110-7 J

b) New plate separation = 0.002 m; potential across plates is still 100 V.
New energy = ½original energy = 0.5510-7 J
The difference in energy is explained by the movement of charge in the wires as the
capacitor partly discharges to maintain the potential.
c) New plate separation = 0.002 m; the charge on plates is unchanged but the potential
increases. New energy = ½Q2/C = ½Q2d/εoA and since d is doubled the energy will be
doubled to 2.210-7 J.
This increase in energy is derived from the work done in moving the plates apart
against their mutual attraction.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 23/36

10. Capacitors in series and in parallel

Capacitors in series

 In this circuit, the capacitors are connected in series.

 The charge Q stored by each capacitor is the same.
 If V1 and V2 are the potentials across C1 and C2 respectively
then
 
+, +-
 V1 = and V2 =

. . .
 Total voltage V = V1 + V2 = Q[ + ] = Q
+, +- +/0/12

 Hence, on comparing: Capacitors in series  = +

34567
where CTotal is the capacitance of the combination.
(The "reverse" of the formulae for two resistors in series and parallel).

Capacitors in Parallel

 Consider two capacitors connected in parallel as shown.

 The potential difference V across both capacitors is the same.
 Let the charges on the capacitors be Q1 and Q2 respectively.
 Since Q = CV, so Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V.
 The total charge stored Q = Q1 + Q2, therefore
Q = Q1 + Q2 = V(C1 + C2) = VCtotal
 The capacitance of the combination C is:

Capacitors in parallel: CTotal = C1 + C2

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 24/36

 Note the actual distribution of charge
for a series and parallel circuit in each
of the following circuit diagrams.

Examples:

1. Three capacitors of 2 F, 3 F and 6 F are connected in series with a 24 V battery.

Calculate the total capacitance and the p.d. between the plates of the 6 F capacitor.
(Ans: 1 F, 4 V)
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K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 25/36

 2. The circuit shows a series and parallel arrangement
4.5 F
of capacitors. Calculate the:
a) total capacitance,
b) charge supplied by the battery,
c) p.d. across the 4.5 F capacitor.
(Ans: a) 3 F, b) 36 C, c) 8 V)
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3. The circuit shows two capacitors

connected to two cells.
Calculate the:
a) total capacitance,
b) charge supplied by the cells,
c) p.d. across each capacitor.
(Ans: a) 8/3 F, b) 16 C, c) 4 V, 2 V)
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4. a) i) Define the capacitance of a capacitor.

ii) What does the term time constant refer to?
b) i) Discuss the physical reasons for the capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor
being proportional to the plate area A and inversely proportional to the plate
separation d.
ii) The linear dependence of capacitance on area is a major engineering problem in
small factor capacitor design. Mention one way of solving this issue and describe
the capacitor that does this.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 26/36

 c) Two capacitors with capacitances C1 and C2 are set up in series and connected as
shown in Figure 6. A resistor R is used to charge and discharge the two capacitors.
i) Derive a relation for the effective
capacitance of the two capacitors
in series.
ii) What is the circuit time constant?
iii) Draw graphs of potential difference
against time for the charging and
discharging of a capacitor.
iv) Comment on the addition of values
from these two graphs at any point
in time?
d) Show that the energy stored on a
capacitor is given by ½QV.
Express this in terms of charge and
capacitance.
e) A circuit is composed of capacitors as shown
in Figure 7 with capacitor values C1 of 1.1 F,
C2 of 0.1 F and C3 of 0.5 F. The battery
provides a potential difference of 9 V.
i) Calculate the charge and potential difference
across each component.
ii) If a 1 M resistor is connected in series with
the capacitors what will the time constant be?
(Matsec May 2013 P2. Ans: c) (ii)  = RC1C2/(C1+C2), e) (i) Q1=3.49 C, Q2=0.58 C, Q3=2.92 C, V1=3.17 V,
V2=5.83 V, V3=5.83 V, (ii) 0.39 s)
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Joining two charged Capacitors

When two charged capacitors are joined together,

a) there is no change in the total charge stored by the

system; i.e. the total charge is conserved,
Total charge before joining
= Total charge after joining,
b) the p.d. across the two capacitors is the same since they
are connected in parallel,
c) the combined capacitance of the two capacitors in
parallel becomes C = C1 + C2,
d) there is usually a loss in energy in the form of heat when the two capacitors are joined;
this is because unless the potential differences across them are equal, charge will flow
to equalise this difference.
The flow of charge results in heating in the connecting wires and a consequent
loss of energy.

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 28/36

 Examples

1. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor formed by joining:

a) two 100 μF capacitors in series,
b) two 100 μF capacitors in parallel.
a) 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 = 2/10010-6 = 20,000,  C = 50 μF
b) C = C1 + C2 = 10010-6 + 10010-6 = 200 μF

2. 250 μF capacitors are joined in series to a 12 V supply.

Calculate:
a) the potential difference across each capacitor,
b) the charge on each plate of each capacitor.

a) Since the capacitors are equal the potential across each will be the same and
equal to 6V.
b) For each capacitor C = Q/V therefore Q = CV = 25010-66 = 1.510-3 C = 1.5 mC

Examples:

1. A capacitor of 20 F is charged up to 500 V while another 10 F capacitor is charged

up to 200 V. They are connected in parallel to each other.
Find their common potential difference across each capacitor.
(Ans: 400 V)
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2. Two capacitors of capacitance C and 2C are connected in parallel and are charged to
a p.d. of V volts. The battery is removed and a dielectric medium of constant εr is
inserted between the plates of the first capacitor. Find an expression for the potential
difference across each capacitor.
(Ans: 3V/(εr+2))
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K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 29/36

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11. Partially filled Capacitors

a) Consider a parallel plate capacitor having

A/3
its space between the plates of area A,
partially filled with a dielectric with
r
permittivity εr as shown.
Only 1/3 of the area of the plates is filled
A
in this case.

This capacitor is equivalent to two capacitors

of different areas in parallel with each other. A/3 2A/3
One will be filled with dielectric εr having an r o
area of A/3 while the other one will be filled
with air having an area of 2A/3.
The total capacitance in this case is:

% %
$ $ 89: $ 8 9 : $ %
= (r + 2)
# # 9#
Total capacitance C = C1 + C2 = +

b) Consider now a parallel plate capacitor having its

space between the plates of distance t, partially
filled with a dielectric with permittivity εr as shown.
When a dielectric material is placed between the
plates of a parallel-plate (or other) capacitor the
capacitance increases.

Note that our capacitor is equivalent to having

3 capacitors C1, C2 and C3 in series as shown below.

C1 (d-t)/2

d t C2 r

C3 (d-t)/2

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 30/36

 The total capacitance C is found from: 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 (series capacitors)

. <=> > <=>

 ;
+ ?@A B @A @C B ?@A B
+ +

$ $ %
 ;
$ 8#=5:"5
Simplifying this equation: C

Example

A parallel-plate capacitor has an area of 100 cm2, a plate

separation of 1.0 cm and is charged initially to a potential
of 100 V (Vo).
The supply is disconnected and a slab of dielectric, 0.5 cm
thick and of relative permittivity 7, is then placed between
the plates as shown. Calculate:
a) the capacitance Co before the slab is inserted,
b) the charge on the plates Q,
c) the electric field strength in the gap between the plates and the dielectric,
d) the electric field strength within the dielectric
e) the potential difference between the plates after the dielectric is inserted
f) the capacitance when the dielectric has been inserted.

a) C = εoA/d = (8.910-1210-2)/10-2= 8.910-12 F.

b) Q = CoVo = (8.910-12100) = 8.910-10 C.
c) Since: E = F/Q, and F = Q1Q2/εA,
 Eo = Q/εoA = 8.910-10/(8.910-1210-2) = 104 Vm-1
d) E1 = Q/εA = Eo/εr = 104/7 = 0.14104 Vm-1
e) The charge Q across the capacitor is constant.
Since we have two capacitors of distance between the plates of 0.0050 m,
 Potential difference p.d. = (0.005104 + 0.0050.14104) = 57 V
f) C = εoεrA/[εr(d–t)+t] = 15.610-12 F.

Examples:

1. A parallel plate capacitor of area A, plate

separation d and capacitance C is filled with
three different dielectric materials having d/2
dielectric constants K1, K2 and K3 as shown
in the figure. If a single dielectric material
is to be used to have the same capacitance C
in this capacitor, find the equivalent dielectric
constant K in terms of K1, K2 and K3.
(Ans: 1/K = 1/(K1+K2) + 1/2K3)
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2. a) i) Derive an expression for the combined capacitance of two capacitors with

capacitances C1 and C2 when connected in series.
ii) Two capacitors of 25 F and 100 F respectively are joined in series with a d.c.
supply of 6 V. Calculate the charge on each capacitor and the p.d. across the
25 F capacitor.
b) A capacitor has a capacitance of 47 F.
i) Briefly describe the features in capacitor construction that can give even higher
capacitance values despite retaining a relatively small physical size.
ii) The capacitor is charged through a resistor R of 220 k from a 9 V d.c. supply.
Draw a diagram of a suitable circuit that may be used for charging.
iii) What is the time constant of the circuit?
iv) Sketch a graph to show how the current through the resistor varies with time.
Indicate clearly the value of the initial current through the resistor.
v) What is the voltage across the resistor when t=0.40 s have elapsed?
vi) Calculate the energy stored by the capacitor when it is fully charged.
vii) The capacitor takes only a few seconds to charge fully. What value of the
resistance would you connect instead of R to increase the time taken by the
charging process to about 1 minute?
(Matsec Sept 2019 P2. Ans: a) (ii) 120 C, 4.8 V, b) (iii) 10.34 s, (iv) 4.10×10-5 A, (v) 0.34 V, (vi) 1.90×10-3 J, (vii) 255319 )
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Problems

1. Two spheres A and B of radius 4 cm and 6 cm are given charges of 80 C and 40 C

respectively. They are connected by a fine wire with each other.
What is the amount of charge flowing from one sphere to the other?
(Ans: 32 C from A to B)

2. Two insulated metallic spheres of 3 C and 5 C capacitances are charged to 300 V

and 500 V respectively. Find the energy loss on connecting both spheres to each other.
(Ans: 0.375 J)

3. Calculate the area of the plates of a 3 F parallel plate capacitor if the separation between
the plates is 5 mm.
(Ans: 1.694×109 m2)

4. The amount of work done in increasing the voltage across the plates of a capacitor from
5 V to 10 V is W. What is the work done in increasing the voltage of the capacitor from
10 V to 15 V? Give your answer in terms of W.
(Ans: 1.67W)

5. Two capacitors each of 1 F capacitance are connected in parallel and are then charged
by 200 V d.c. supply. Find the total energy stored in the two capacitors.
(Ans: 0.04 J)

6. Two capacitors C1 = 2 F and C2 = 6 F in series are

connected to a third capacitor C3 = 4 F.
This arrangement is then connected to a battery of
emf 2 V as shown. Find the energy lost by the battery
in charging the capacitors.
(Ans: 11 J)

7. Two capacitors of 2 F and 3 F are connected in series. The outer plate of the first
capacitor is connected to a potential of 1000 V and the outer plate of the second capacitor
is earthed. Find the potential at a point between the two capacitors.
(Ans: 400 V)

8. Four capacitors are arranged as shown in the

figure. The area of each plate is A and the
distance between two neighbouring parallel
plates is d. Points A and B are connected to
a p.d. of V volts.
Write down an expression for the total
capacitance of this combination.
(Ans: 2εoA/d)

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 34/36

9. A student devised a capacitor
circuit to monitor the speed
of moving blocks of wood on
a conveyor belt. In the space
between the moving blocks
the position of the switch S
allows charging of the
capacitor C to voltage Vo
supplied by the battery.
As a wooden block moves
over the switch, the charging
stops and the capacitor starts
discharging through the resistance box, R.
The time, t, during discharge is equal to the time taken by the wooden block to pass over
the switch. During discharge, the voltage on the voltmeter falls to V. For a given length
of wooden blocks, the speed of the blocks on the conveyor belt can be determined.
a) i) Write down an equation relating, the quantities V, Vo, t, R, and C.
ii) Hence write down an equation for ln V in terms of the other quantities.
b) i) Describe briefly how, by changing the value of the resistance box, R, the student
would repeat the experiment so that the time, t, can be obtained from a graph.
ii) How is the value of time t obtained from the graph?
c) The student knows that the velocity of the wooden blocks is about 10 ms-1 and that
the blocks are about 0.5 m long.
i) Calculate the discharging time, t.
ii) Determine the capacitance C of the capacitor for a mean value R of 500  if the
student plans to have the discharging time about two times the time constant RC.
iii) What do you expect to happen if the capacitance of the capacitor and the resistance
of the resistance box are much higher than the values in part (ii)?
iv) Explain why the voltmeter must have a very high resistance for this experiment
to succeed.
(Matsec May 2016 P2. Ans: c) (i) 0.05 s, (ii) 5 F)

10. a) Capacitors are essential components in many electronic devices.

i) Define the capacitance of a capacitor.
ii) Describe three factors on which the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends
and state how each affects its value.
iii) State two important characteristics of a dielectric.
b) Explain how electrolytic capacitors have high capacitance values.
c) Three identical capacitors, each of capacitance C, are connected in parallel and a 12.0 V
potential difference is applied across their plates. Each capacitor carries a charge of
10.0 C.
i) Obtain an expression for the combined capacitance of the three capacitors connected
in parallel.
ii) Find the value of the capacitance C.
iii) Calculate the value of the combined capacitance.
iv) If the voltage source is removed without discharging the capacitors, and another
identical capacitor is connected in parallel, what is the charge on this capacitor?

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 35/36

 d) A resistor of value 15 k is connected across a charged capacitor of 150 F.
i) What is the value of the time constant of the circuit?
ii) What fractional value of the original voltage remains across the plates of the
capacitor during discharge, after a time equal to its time constant has passed?
(Matsec Sept 2014 P2. Ans: c) (i) 3C, (ii) 8.33×10-7 F, (iii) 2.5 F, (iv) 7.5 F, d) (i) 2.25 s, (ii) 37Vo/100, (iii) 3.21 C)

K. BUHAGIAR ADV. CAPACITORS 36/36