3. Input and Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration.

Current Gain.
In the Common Emitter (CE) configuration, the Emitter terminal is common to both input and
output14. The input signal is applied between the base and emitter, and the output signal is
observed between the collector and emitter14.

Input Characteristics: These show the relationship between the input current (IB) and the input
voltage (VBE), while keeping the output voltage (VCE) constant15. The curve resembles the
characteristics of a pn junction diode, with negligible base current below a certain voltage15.

Output Characteristics: These show the relationship between the output current (IC) and the output
voltage (VCE), while keeping the input current (IB) constant16.

When the base current (IB) is very small (VBE less than threshold), almost no current flows, and the
transistor is in cut-off mode16.

As VCE increases from 0V, IC increases significantly and then becomes constant after a certain voltage
(called the knee voltage)16. The region up to the knee voltage is the saturation region, and after the
knee voltage, it is the active region16.

In the active region, the collector current remains constant with varying collector-emitter voltage for
a given base current16.

The Current Gain in the Common Emitter configuration is denoted by β (beta)14. It is defined as the
ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current at a constant collector-emitter
voltage14: β = ΔIC / ΔIB (at constant VCE)14. Practical values for β range between 20 and 50014.

4. Input and Output Characteristics of Common Base Configuration. Current Gain.

In the Common Base (CB) configuration, the Base terminal is common17. The input signal is applied
between the emitter and base, and the output signal is observed between the collector and base17.
In this configuration, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased18.

Input Characteristics: These show the relationship between the input current (IE) and the input
voltage (VBE), while keeping the output voltage (VCB) constant19. Like the CE configuration, the
curve resembles pn junction diode characteristics, with negligible base current below a certain
voltage19.

•
Output Characteristics: These show the relationship between the output current (IC) and the output
voltage (VCB), while keeping the input current (IE) constant20.

When the emitter current (IE) is very small (VBE less than threshold), almost no current flows, and
the transistor is in cut-off mode20.

As IE is increased, the collector current (IC) increases and then remains constant with varying
collector-base voltage (VCB)20. This region is the active region20.

When VCB is very low (close to 0V or negative), the collector current drops significantly, and the
transistor is in the saturation region20.

The Current Gain in the Common Base configuration is denoted by α (alpha)17. It is defined as the
ratio of the change in collector current to the change in emitter current at a constant collector-base
voltage17: α = ΔIC / ΔIE (at constant VCB)17. Practical values for α range between 0.9 and 0.9919.

5. Relationship between Alpha, Beta and Gamma

The source provides the following relationships between the current gains of the three
configurations21...:

Common Base Gain: α = IC / IE21

Common Emitter Gain: β = IC / IB21

Common Collector Gain: γ = IE / IB21

The derivations of the relationships between α, β, and γ are provided21...:

α = β / (1 + β)21

β = α / (1 - α)22

γ = 1 / (1 - α)22

γ = 1 + β22

6. Transistor as a Switch in CE Configuration

A transistor can act as a switch, toggling between ON and OFF states3.... The source describes this
application, which aligns with a CE configuration:

Case 1: Input voltage is low (Vin = 0V)23. The input and base are grounded23. The emitter-base
voltage (VBE) is less than 0.7V23. Both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are reverse
biased23. The transistor is "fully-OFF" and operates in the Cut-off region23. No collector current
flows (IC = 0)23. The output voltage (Vout, which is VCE) is equal to the supply voltage (VCC) and is
considered a "1" output24. The transistor operates as an "open switch"24.

Case 2: Input voltage is high (Vin = VCCV)24. The input and base are connected to VCC24. The
emitter-base voltage (VBE) is greater than 0.7V24. Both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions
are forward biased24. The transistor is "fully-ON" and operates in the Saturation region24.
Maximum collector current flows (IC = VCC/RL, where RL is the load resistance)24. The output
voltage (Vout, or VCE) is close to 0V and is considered a "0" output24. The transistor operates as a
"closed switch"24.

7. Transistor as an Amplifier in CE Configuration

A transistor can act as an amplifier, transforming a small input current into a big output current3....
For a transistor to work as an amplifier, it must be in the active region9.... This requires the emitter-
base junction to be forward biased and the collector-base junction to be reverse biased9.... The
source describes the amplifier application, which is illustrated with a CE configuration example2....

To ensure the transistor remains in the active region for amplification, a DC bias voltage (VBB) is
connected to the input circuit25. This bias voltage keeps the emitter-base junction forward biased,
regardless of the polarity of the AC input signal25. When no input signal is applied, the forward bias
from VBB causes a DC collector current (IC) to flow in the collector circuit, known as the zero-signal
collector current25.

When an AC input signal is applied:

During the positive half-cycle, the input signal adds to the bias voltage, increasing the forward bias
across the emitter-base junction28. This causes the total collector current to increase28.

During the negative half-cycle, the input signal subtracts from the bias voltage, decreasing the
forward bias across the emitter-base junction28. This causes the total collector current to
decrease28.

Providing the DC bias is crucial; without it, the negative half-cycle could reverse bias the emitter-base
junction, disrupting the transistor action28.

The total collector current (iC) consists of two components: the DC collector current (IC) due to the
bias battery and the AC collector current (ic) due to the input signal27. iC = ic + IC27. The AC output
signal (voltage or current) is an amplified version of the AC input signal. For example, a 10mV input
voltage with an amplification factor of 100 can result in a 2V output voltage in a CE configuration2.

8. Explain Transistor Biasing. With neat figure explain fixed bias.

Transistor biasing is the process of setting a transistor's DC operating voltage or current conditions
to the active region29. This is essential so that any AC input signal applied to the transistor can be
amplified faithfully, without distortion in the output signal26.... For proper operation, it is critical to
apply voltages of the correct polarity across the transistor's two junctions26. If not biased correctly,
the transistor will work inefficiently and can produce a distorted output signal26. Proper biasing also
helps the operating point to be less affected by temperature changes and device variations26. In
most applications, biasing sets the Emitter-base junction to be Forward biased and the Collector-base
junction to be Reverse biased26.

The source lists several types of biasing23:

Fixed bias (or Single base resistor bias or Base bias)23

Collector to base bias23

Voltage divider bias (or Self bias)23

Emitter bias (or Modified fixed bias)23

Here are the answers to the questions from the question bank, drawing on the provided sources:

1. Define a circuit and a network. How are they different? An electric network is defined as an
interconnection of electrical elements that may or may not have a closed path. An electric circuit is
an interconnection of electrical elements that must have at least one independent source and one
closed path. It is described as a closed loop of electrical components that allows electrons to flow
and provides a return path for current. The sources state that all electric circuits are electric
networks, but the converse need not be true. Therefore, the key difference lies in the requirement
for an electric circuit to have at least one independent source and a closed path, which is not a
requirement for an electric network.

2. Calculate the total current in a series R-L-C circuit where R=10Ω, L=0.2H, C=10μF and the supply
voltage is V=100V at a frequency of 50 Hz. The provided sources discuss series RLC circuits and
include examples of series RL and RC circuits. However, they do not explicitly provide the general
formulas for calculating the total impedance (Z), current (I), or power factor for a series RLC circuit
with the given parameters (resistance, inductance, capacitance, voltage, and frequency). Therefore, I
am unable to perform this calculation based solely on the provided excerpts.
3. State the Mass Action Law in semiconductors. The Law of Mass Action in semiconductors states
that under thermal equilibrium, the product of the concentration of free electrons (n) and the

carrier concentration (ni). The relationship is given by the equation: n ⋅ p = ni².

concentration of free holes (p) is equal to a constant which is equal to the square of the intrinsic

4. Outline the difference between ideal and practical diode behavior. A diode is defined as a two-
terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one direction. In a forward-biased
condition, an ideal diode behaves as a perfect conductor. In a reverse-biased condition, an ideal
diode behaves as an insulator, though it conducts after a voltage limit called breakdown voltage is
reached. A small current due to minority charge carriers, called leakage current, flows in the reverse-
biased ideal diode. There is also a breakdown region when the applied voltage exceeds the rated
voltage.

A practical diode, as depicted by the I-V characteristics and described by the Shockley Diode
Equation, shows differences from the ideal behaviour. In forward bias, a practical diode requires a
minimum voltage, known as the Knee Voltage (Vγ) or cut-in voltage, before it conducts significantly.
For silicon, Vγ is around 0.7V, and for germanium, it is around 0.3V. The forward current increases
exponentially beyond the knee voltage. A practical diode also has a non-zero forward resistance,
including static resistance (RS = VD/ID) and dynamic resistance (rD = ΔVD/ΔID). In reverse bias, a
small reverse saturation current (IS) flows, which is typically very low (e.g., 1μA). The practical diode
also exhibits breakdown (Zener or Avalanche) when the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown
voltage (VBR), causing a sudden increase in reverse current. Unlike the ideal case, this breakdown
occurs at a specific voltage limit.

In essence, the ideal diode is a perfect switch, while the practical diode has a voltage drop in forward
bias, a small leakage current in reverse bias, and a non-instantaneous transition at breakdown.

5. Label the EMF equation of a single-phase transformer. The sources provide the relationship
between the voltages and the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings of a single-
phase transformer. The EMF equation given is: E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 Where:

 E1 is the self-induced voltage on the primary side.

 E2 is the mutually induced voltage on the secondary side.

 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding.

 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding.

The sources also relate the supply voltage (V1) to E1 and the load voltage (V2) to E2.

(Note: The more complete EMF equation E = 4.44 f N Φm, relating induced voltage to frequency,
number of turns, and maximum flux, is not explicitly provided in the given excerpts.)

6. A 220 V DC motor draws 10 A current when running. If the back EMF is 180 V, calculate the
mechanical power developed by the motor. The sources provide the relationship between the
supply voltage (V), back EMF (Eb), armature current (Ia), and armature resistance (Ra) in a DC motor:
V = Eb + IaRa. They also state that a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. While
the sources provide equations for back EMF and torque, they do not explicitly provide a formula for
the mechanical power developed by the motor in terms of back EMF and armature current.
However, the mechanical power developed (Pm) in a DC motor is conventionally calculated as the
product of the back EMF and the armature current (Pm = Eb * Ia).
Using this standard formula and the given values:

 Back EMF (Eb) = 180 V

 Armature Current (Ia) = 10 A

 Mechanical power developed (Pm) = Eb * Ia = 180 V * 10 A = 1800 W.

(Note: This calculation uses a standard formula for mechanical power in a DC motor which is not
explicitly stated in the provided source excerpts, although the components Eb and Ia are defined and
related to other motor parameters within the sources.)

7. Identify the special electrical machines and its applications. The sources introduce special
electrical machines and list some examples:

 Permanent-Magnet DC Motor.

 Synchronous Motor.

 Servomotors. Servomotors are used for precise positioning; they monitor position using
feedback sensors and correct errors by adjusting motor speed and direction.

 BLDC Motor (Brushless DC Motor). BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation and
rely on other methods. BLDC and induction motors are mentioned as applications in Electric
Vehicles (EVs).

Applications of special electrical machines mentioned include:

 Precise positioning (Servomotors).

 Electric Vehicles (EVs) (BLDC motors).

8. Outline the current gain in the Common Base (CB) and Common Emitter (CE) configuration of a
BJT. A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device (Emitter, Base, Collector) with two
PN junctions. For any transistor configuration, the emitter-base junction is typically forward biased
and the collector-base junction is reverse biased in the active region.

 Common Base (CB) Configuration: The base terminal is common to both input and output.
The input signal is applied between the emitter and base, and the output signal is observed
between the collector and base. The Current Gain in the Common Base configuration is
denoted by alpha (α). It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current (ΔIC) to the
change in emitter current (ΔIE) at constant collector-base voltage (VCB). The formula is α =
(ΔIC / ΔIE) VCB. Practical values of alpha range between 0.9 and 0.99.

 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: The emitter terminal is common to both input and
output. The input signal is applied between the base and emitter, and the output signal is
observed between the collector and emitter. The Current Gain in the Common Emitter
configuration is denoted by beta (β). It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector
current (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage
(VCE). The formula is β = (ΔIC / ΔIB) VCE. Practical values of beta range between 20 and 500.

9. List the difference between BJT and FET. The sources provide a comparison between Bipolar
Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Field Effect Transistors (FETs):

Feature Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Field Effect Transistor (FET)

 Unipolar device (Only majority
Operation Bipolar device (Both majority and minority
carriers take part in current
Principle carriers take part in current conduction)
conduction)

Input Impedance Very less Very large

Control
Current controlled device Voltage controlled device
Mechanism

Noise Level More noisy Less noisy

Temperature
Temperature dependent device Better temperature stability
Stability

Cost Cheaper than FET Costly than BJT

Size Bigger in size than FET Smaller in size than BJT

Overall Gain More gain Less gain

Voltage Gain High voltage gain Low voltage gain

Current Gain Low current gain High current gain

Output
High output impedance Low output impedance
Impedance

Disadvantages Low input impedance, Considerable noise

-
(BJT) level

Reason for FET Introduced to overcome BJT disadvantages -

10. Outline the difference between enhancement and depletion modes of a MOSFET. The sources
discuss Depletion mode MOSFETs and mention Enhancement mode MOSFETs.

 Depletion Mode MOSFET (D-MOSFET): This is described as a normally ON device. It contains

a physical channel between the source and drain. When no voltage is applied to the gate
terminal (VGS = 0V), current flows from drain to source. Applying a negative VGS to an N-
channel D-MOSFET depletes the channel, increasing resistance and reducing drain current.

 Enhancement Mode MOSFET (E-MOSFET): The sources ask about the working of N-channel
Enhancement type MOSFETs but do not explicitly describe their construction or working
principle in detail. However, the contrast with depletion mode implies key differences.
Typically, Enhancement mode MOSFETs are normally OFF devices (no channel exists at VGS =
0V) and require a gate voltage to create a channel for current flow.

Based on the description of Depletion mode, a key difference is the presence of a physical channel in
D-MOSFETs which allows current flow at zero gate voltage, whereas Enhancement mode MOSFETs
lack a physical channel and require gate voltage to induce one.

11. Classify and explain the types of Network Elements. Electrical elements, the building blocks of
circuits, can be classified based on their ability to deliver power or their characteristic to obey
linearity.
  Based on Ability to deliver power:

o Active Element: These elements deliver power to other elements in a circuit. They
can also absorb power. Examples include Voltage sources and Current sources.

o Passive Elements: These elements cannot deliver power to other elements but can
absorb power. They either dissipate power as heat or store energy in magnetic or
electric fields. Examples include Resistors, Inductors, and Capacitors.

 Based on Characteristic to obey the property of Linearity:

o Linear Element: These elements show a linear relationship between voltage and
current.

o Non-linear Element: These devices do not show a linear relationship between

voltage and current. Examples include diodes and transistors. Ohm's Law is not
applicable to non-linear devices.

12. Convert the Delta network in a) Fig.(a) to an equivalent star network. The provided sources
mention Star-Delta Conversion as a topic. Source shows a calculation example involving a Delta to
Star conversion to find resistance between terminals, using formulas like R12 = R1 + R2 + (R1R2/R3).
However, the figure (Fig.(a)) referred to in the question is not included in the provided excerpts, and
the general formulas required to convert resistances from a Delta configuration to a Star
configuration are not explicitly stated. Therefore, I cannot perform this conversion based on the
provided sources.

13. Convert the star network in fig(b) to delta network. The provided sources mention Star-Delta
Conversion as a topic. However, the figure (fig(b)) referred to in the question is not included in the
provided excerpts, and the general formulas required to convert resistances from a Star configuration
to a Delta configuration are not explicitly stated. Therefore, I cannot perform this conversion based
on the provided sources.

14. A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor of
100uF are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the
circuits current, power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram. The provided sources mention
series RLC circuits and discuss concepts like impedance (Z), current, and power factor (p.f. = cos φ) in
the context of AC circuits, including series RL and RC circuits. They also discuss phase angle (φ) and
refer to vector (phasor) diagrams. However, the sources do not explicitly provide the general
formulas required to calculate the total impedance (Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²)), current (I = V/Z), or power
factor (p.f. = R/Z) for a series RLC circuit with the given parameters. Furthermore, while phasor
diagrams are mentioned, a specific example or general method for drawing the voltage phasor
diagram for a series RLC circuit is not detailed in the provided excerpts. Therefore, I cannot perform
these calculations or illustrate the phasor diagram based solely on the provided sources.

15. Zener diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in both directions but
specialize in current flowing in reverse. Explain with a neat circuit diagram how a Zener diode
works as a voltage regulator. Discuss its operation for variations in input voltage and load current.
A Zener diode is a special type of diode that is heavily doped compared to ordinary PN diodes,
designed to operate reliably in the reverse breakdown region. When the reverse voltage reaches the
breakdown voltage (VZ), the current increases abruptly while the voltage across the diode remains
nearly constant. This characteristic makes the Zener diode suitable for voltage regulation.
Operation as a Voltage Regulator (Circuit Diagram): A basic Zener diode voltage regulator circuit
consists of a series resistor (RS), a Zener diode, and a load resistor (RL) connected in parallel with the
Zener diode. The unregulated input voltage (Vin) is applied across the series combination of RS and
the parallel Zener-load combination.

(Note: A specific circuit diagram is shown in sources and would typically include an input voltage
source, a resistor RS in series, and the Zener diode in parallel with a load resistor RL, all connected in
series with RS.)

Operation for Variations in Input Voltage:

 Case 1: Input Voltage lesser than Zener Voltage (Vin < VZ): The Zener diode does not reach
its breakdown region and stops conducting. It behaves like an open circuit. The output
voltage (VL) across the load is directly dependent on the input supply and the voltage
division between RS and RL.

 Case 2: Input Voltage equal to Zener Voltage (Vin = VZ): The Zener diode conducts just
enough current to maintain the voltage across itself and the load at VZ. The output voltage
(VL) equals the Zener voltage (VZ).

 Case 3: Input Voltage greater than Zener Voltage (Vin > VZ): The Zener diode goes into
reverse breakdown and starts conducting. As the input voltage increases, more current flows
through the series resistor RS, but the voltage drop across the Zener diode remains constant
at VZ. The excess voltage (Vin - VZ) is dropped across RS, and the Zener diode effectively
"clamps" the output voltage across the load to the Zener voltage VZ.

Operation for Variations in Load Current: The sources state that the Zener diode maintains a
constant voltage (VZ) across the load once it is in breakdown. When the load current (IL) changes
(e.g., due to a change in RL), the Zener current (IZ) adjusts to keep the voltage constant. The total
current through RS (IS) is the sum of the Zener current (IZ) and the load current (IL) (IS = IZ + IL). Since
VL (= VZ) is constant and Vin is assumed constant in this context, the current through RS (IS = (Vin -
VZ) / RS) remains constant. Therefore, if IL increases, IZ must decrease by the same amount to keep
IS constant, provided IZ remains within the Zener's operating range (between minimum Zener
current IZMmin and maximum Zener current IZMmax). Conversely, if IL decreases, IZ increases. This
ability of the Zener current to vary while maintaining a constant voltage across its terminals allows
the circuit to regulate the load voltage against changes in load current, as long as the Zener remains
in the breakdown region. (Note: While the sources explain regulation against Vin variations clearly,
the mechanism of regulating against load current variations by the Zener current adjusting is implied
by the description of constant VZ in breakdown but not explicitly detailed with calculations related to
IZ and IL variations in the same way as Vin variations are described.)

16. Clamper is a device that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level without changing
the shape of the input AC signal. Explain the types of clampers with circuit and waveforms. The
provided sources define a clamper circuit as one that changes the DC level of a signal without
changing its shape. However, the sources do not contain information detailing the types of clampers,
their circuits, or associated waveforms.

17. Explain the concepts of (i) Series Positive Clipper (ii) Series Negative Clipper with example.
Clipper circuits, also known as limiters, are used to remove or "clip" a portion of an input signal
waveform above or below a certain voltage level. They consist of linear elements like resistors and
non-linear elements like diodes. To set the clipping level to a desired value, a DC battery is typically
included. Different clipping levels can be obtained by varying the battery voltage or interchanging the
diode and resistor positions. The sources discuss biased clippers, which are useful for removing small
portions of the input signal.

 Series Positive Clipper with Positive Bias: In a series clipper, the diode is in series with the
signal path, and the output is taken after the diode. In this configuration (with a positive bias
battery in series with the diode), during the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode
is forward biased until the supply voltage exceeds the battery potential. While forward
biased, the signal appears at the output (minus a small diode voltage drop). As the supply
voltage exceeds the battery potential (plus the diode's cut-in voltage), the diode becomes
reverse biased and acts as an open circuit, resulting in no output signal until the supply
voltage drops below this level again. During the negative cycle, the diode is forward biased
by both the negative supply voltage and the positive battery potential, allowing the input
signal to appear at the output (minus the diode drop). This circuit effectively clips the
positive peak of the input waveform above the level set by the battery voltage (plus diode
drop).

 Series Negative Clipper with Negative Bias: In a series clipper, the diode is in series with the
signal path. In this configuration (with a negative bias battery in series with the diode),
during the positive cycle, the diode is forward biased by both the positive supply voltage and
the negative battery potential (relative to ground), allowing the input signal to appear at the
output (minus diode drop). During the negative cycle, the diode is forward biased as long as
the magnitude of the battery potential is greater than the supply voltage. The signal appears
at the output during this time. As the supply voltage becomes more negative than the
battery potential (plus diode drop), the diode becomes reverse biased and acts as an open
circuit, resulting in no output signal. This circuit effectively clips the negative peak of the
input waveform below the level set by the negative battery voltage (plus diode drop).

(Note: Examples with specific circuits and waveforms are not provided in the sources, only
descriptions of the operation.)

18. Explain the process that a pn-junction diode undergoes if it is connected in forward bias and
reverse bias mentioning all key phenomenon that takes place. A PN junction diode is formed by
creating an interface or boundary between p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. The p-region
is doped with acceptor impurity atoms, and the n-region is doped with donor impurity atoms. The
interface is called the metallurgical junction.

 Unbiased Condition (Equilibrium): With no external voltage applied, electrons from the n-
side (higher concentration) diffuse across the junction to the p-side. These electrons
recombine with holes on the p-side, creating negative immobile ions near the junction on
the p-side. Similarly, holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and recombine with
electrons, creating positive immobile ions near the junction on the n-side. This region
containing immobile ions is called the depletion region. An electric field is created across the
depletion region, which opposes further diffusion of majority carriers and causes minority
carriers to drift across the junction. This creates a potential barrier.

 Forward Bias: In forward bias, the anode (p-side) is connected to the positive terminal of the
voltage source, and the cathode (n-side) is connected to the negative terminal. The applied
voltage opposes the built-in potential barrier.
 o Majority carriers (electrons in the n-type, holes in the p-type) are repelled by the
respective terminals towards the junction.

o As the forward voltage increases, the barrier potential is progressively reduced.

o Electrons entering the p-side convert negative ions into neutral atoms, and holes
entering the n-side convert positive ions into neutral atoms, resulting in a decrease
in the depletion width.

o Once the applied forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage (Vγ, around 0.7V for
silicon), the potential barrier is significantly reduced, allowing a large number of
majority charge carriers to flow across the junction.

o The forward current increases almost linearly with voltage beyond the knee point, or
more precisely, exponentially according to the Shockley equation (ID ≈ IS * e^(VD /
(ηVT))).

o If the forward voltage increases too much, an extremely large current can flow,
potentially destroying the PN junction due to overheating.

 Reverse Bias: In reverse bias, the anode (p-side) is connected to the negative terminal of the
voltage source, and the cathode (n-side) is connected to the positive terminal. The applied
voltage adds to the built-in potential barrier.

o Majority carriers are drawn away from the junction towards the respective
terminals.

o The depletion width increases.

o The barrier potential increases, resulting in very high junction resistance.

o There is no significant flow of majority carriers across the junction.

o However, minority carriers (electrons on the p-side, holes on the n-side) generated
on each side are swept across the junction by the electric field, creating a small
current called the reverse saturation current (IS). This current is typically very low
(e.g., 1μA) and remains nearly constant as the reverse voltage increases.

o If the reverse voltage is increased beyond a certain value, called the breakdown
voltage (VBR), the reverse current increases suddenly and rapidly. This can occur due
to Zener breakdown or Avalanche breakdown mechanisms. While the diode can
operate in the breakdown region if designed for it (like a Zener diode), exceeding the
breakdown voltage in an ordinary diode can lead to damage or destruction.

(Note: Schematics of the PN junction diode showing the regions are described in the sources but not
explicitly drawn.)

19. Explain the principle, operation of a DC motor, and back EMF and torque equation.

 What is a DC Motor: A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. DC motors are used in various applications like machine tools, printing
presses, conveyors, and pumps.

 Principle of Operation: The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that a current-
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force [Implied by torque
 equation discussion, similar to principle mentioned for induction motors where interaction
of magnetic fields produces torque]. In a DC motor, the armature conductors carry current
when supplied by a DC source and are situated within the magnetic field produced by the
field winding or permanent magnets. The interaction between the magnetic field of the
stator (field) and the magnetic field produced by the current in the rotor (armature)
conductors creates a torque that causes the rotor to rotate, thus producing mechanical
energy.

 Back EMF (Electromotive Force): As the armature of the DC motor rotates within the
magnetic field, the conductors cut the magnetic flux [Implicit, based on Faraday's law which
is the basis for generators and back EMF]. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction, an EMF is induced in the armature conductors [Implicit]. This induced EMF
opposes the applied voltage and is called back EMF (Eb). The formula for back EMF is Eb =
(Φ Z N / 60) * (P/A) Volts, where Φ is the flux per pole, Z is the total number of armature
conductors, N is the speed in RPM, P is the number of poles, and A is the number of parallel
paths. The relationship between the applied voltage (V), back EMF (Eb), armature current
(Ia), and armature resistance (Ra) is given by V = Eb + IaRa. The presence of back EMF is
significant as it makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine. It automatically adjusts the
armature current drawn from the supply to be just sufficient to produce the torque required
by the load.

 Torque Equation: The torque developed by the armature (Ta) is proportional to the flux per
pole (Φ) and the armature current (Ia) [Implied by formula]. The torque equation for a DC
motor is Ta = 0.159 * Φ Z Ia * (P/A) N-m, where Φ is the flux per pole, Z is the total number
of armature conductors, Ia is the armature current, P is the number of poles, and A is the
number of parallel paths.

20. Explain the principle of operation of an induction motor and discuss its applications.

 Principle of Operation: Induction motors work based on the principle of electromagnetic

induction [Implied, as they are "induction" motors]. When a three-phase AC supply is
connected to the stator winding, it produces a rotating magnetic field. This rotating
magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors, inducing an EMF in them. Since the rotor winding is
either short-circuited or closed through external resistance, the induced EMF causes a
current to flow in the rotor conductors. The rotor current produces its own magnetic field.
A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of the stator's rotating magnetic field and
the rotor's magnetic field. This torque causes the rotor to rotate in the same direction as the
stator flux. According to Lenz's law, the rotor tries to minimize the relative velocity between
itself and the rotating magnetic field. However, the rotor speed never reaches the
synchronous speed (the speed of the rotating magnetic field), which is why it is called an
induction motor, as the torque is produced by the induced current due to the relative speed.

 Applications: Three-phase induction motors are widely used, especially for high power and
industrial applications.

o 3-phase Squirrel Cage Induction Motors are economical, rugged, easy to construct,
require very little maintenance, have good efficiency, and high power factor.
Applications include industrial drivers like printing machines, cranes, and hoist work.
 o 3-phase Slip Ring Induction Motors offer high starting torque and high overload
capacity. Their efficiency and power factor are lower compared to squirrel cage
motors. Applications include lifts, pumps, and paper mills.

21. Transformer is an electrical device which increases or reduces the AC voltage. Explain
construction and working of a single-phase transformer with proper diagram. A transformer is a
static electrical device that transfers electrical power from one electrical circuit to another without
changing the frequency. It works on the basic principle of electromagnetic induction (Faraday's
Laws). Transformers can raise or lower the output voltage, with a proportional decrease or increase
in the current, respectively. They have no moving parts, are rugged, durable, and highly efficient (up
to 99%).

 Construction: The sources describe two main types of transformer construction based on the
core and windings: Core type and Shell type. In a Shell type transformer, the core encircles
most parts of the windings. It is comparatively complex and consists of a double magnetic
circuit. The core has three limbs, and multilayer disc type or sandwich coils are used.
Because the windings are surrounded by the core, natural cooling is limited. They cannot be
easily dismantled for repair work but have high mechanical strength. The width of the central
limb is twice the width of the outer limbs. (Note: While types based on construction are
mentioned, a general diagram showing primary winding, secondary winding, and core is not
explicitly provided in the excerpts, nor are details of Core type construction provided for
comparison.)

 Working Principle: When the primary winding of a transformer is connected to a source of

alternating voltage, an alternating magnetic flux is produced around this winding. This
changing magnetic field extends and becomes linked with the secondary winding. According
to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction (specifically, Mutual Induction), this alternating
flux induces an EMF in the secondary winding. This induced EMF is called 'mutually induced
emf', and its frequency is the same as that of the supplied alternating voltage. If the
secondary winding is part of a closed circuit (e.g., connected to a load), the induced EMF
causes induced current to flow through it. Thus, electrical energy is transferred from the
primary circuit to the secondary circuit via the magnetic field in the core.

22. Compare core type and shell type transformer with proper diagram. The provided sources
mention that transformers are classified into Core type and Shell type based on their construction.
They provide details about the Shell type transformer, describing its construction (core encircles
most of the windings, double magnetic circuit, three limbs, multilayer/sandwich coils, limited natural
cooling, difficult to dismantle, high mechanical strength, central limb twice the width of outer limbs).
However, the sources do not provide details about the construction of the Core type transformer, nor
do they offer a direct comparison between the two types or provide diagrams for either. Therefore, a
comparison with diagrams cannot be fully generated based on the provided excerpts.

23. Explain the concept of DC Load line on output characteristics in Common emitter transistor
circuit. The sources introduce the concept of a DC load line as a graphical analysis method that
provides a precise relationship between current and voltage without using approximations. The load
line is described as a straight line that gives the exact values of current and voltage in a circuit. It is
applied by finding two points on the line: the saturation point (where current is maximum and
voltage is zero) and the cut-off point (where voltage is maximum and current is zero). Joining these
two points creates the load line. The intersection of the load line with the device's characteristic
curve defines the Operating point (Q-point), also called the bias point.
While the sources explain this concept and illustrate it with a simple diode circuit, the principle is
generally applied to the output characteristics of transistors (like the Common Emitter configuration)
to determine the transistor's DC operating point for a given load resistance and supply voltage. The
output characteristics of a Common Emitter transistor are a plot of collector current (IC) versus
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) for different constant values of base current (IB). The DC load line,
determined by the DC supply voltage (VCC) and the collector resistor (RC) in the output circuit (VCC =
VCE + IC*RC, which can be rearranged to IC = -1/RC * VCE + VCC/RC), is plotted on these
characteristics. The intersection of this straight line with the transistor's output characteristic curve
(corresponding to the specific base current IB set by the biasing circuit) gives the Q-point (ICQ,
VCEQ), which represents the transistor's DC operating point. (Note: The specific application to the CE
configuration's output characteristics with associated formulas for finding load line points is not
explicitly detailed in the provided sources, but the general concept of the DC load line and Q-point is
explained using a diode example.)

24. Summarize the input and output characteristics of a transistor and the current components in a
transistor. A transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device (Emitter, Base, Collector).

 Current Components: The three main current components in a transistor are the Emitter
current (IE), the Base current (IB), and the Collector current (IC). The flow of free electrons
from the emitter to the base constitutes the emitter current. A small percentage of these
electrons combine with holes in the base region to form the base current. The remaining
large number of electrons cross the base to reach the collector, forming the collector current.
The relationship between these currents is IE = IB + IC. In the active state, the collector
current is related to the base current by the current gain beta (IC = β IB).

 Input Characteristics: These show the relationship between the input current and input
voltage, keeping the output voltage constant. For the Common Base (CB) configuration, it's
the relationship between emitter current (IE) and base-emitter voltage (VBE) for constant
collector-base voltage (VCB). The curve resembles a pn junction diode characteristic, with
negligible current below a certain voltage. For the Common Emitter (CE) configuration, it's
the relationship between base current (IB) and base-emitter voltage (VBE) for constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This curve also resembles a pn junction diode characteristic.

 Output Characteristics: These show the relationship between the output current and output
voltage, keeping the input current (or base current for CE) constant. For the Common Base
(CB) configuration, it's the relationship between collector current (IC) and collector-base
voltage (VCB) for constant emitter current (IE). With a very small emitter current, the
transistor is in cut-off. As emitter current increases, IC increases and remains constant with
varying VCB in the active region. When VCB is very low (near 0V or negative), the transistor is
in saturation, and IC drops significantly. For the Common Emitter (CE) configuration, it's the
relationship between collector current (IC) and collector-emitter voltage (VCE) for constant
base current (IB). With very small base current, the transistor is in cut-off. As VCE increases,
IC increases significantly and becomes constant after a "knee voltage", operating in the
saturation region below the knee and the active region above the knee.

25. Explain the Characteristics of JFET. (i). Output characteristics (Drain) V-I curves of JFET (ii).
Transfer characteristics of JFET. A JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) is a voltage-controlled device
where the drain current (ID) is controlled by the gate-source voltage (VGS).
  Output Characteristics (Drain V-I curves): These are plots of the drain current (ID) versus the
drain-source voltage (VDS) for different constant values of gate-source voltage (VGS). The
sources describe four regions:

o Ohmic Region (OA): In this region, ID increases linearly with VDS. The device
behaves like a simple resistor and obeys Ohm's law. This region is to the left of the
"Knee point".

o Curve AB Region: As VDS increases, the depletion layer width increases, reducing
the channel width. ID increases but at an inverse square law rate. At the "Knee
point", the linear relationship changes to a curve.

o Pinch-off Region (BC): Also called the constant current region, saturation region, or
active region. After reaching the pinch-off voltage (VDS corresponding to point B)
where the channel width is minimum, the drain current ID remains constant at its
maximum value (IDSS for VGS=0V) and does not significantly increase with increasing
VDS. In this region, ID depends on VGS. This region is to the right of the "Pinch off
point".

o Breakdown Region (CD): If VDS is increased too much, breakdown occurs at the
Gate-Source junction, usually due to the Avalanche effect. The drain current
increases rapidly with VDS. The VDS value causing this is the Breakdown Voltage
(VBR).

 Transfer Characteristics: These are plots of the drain current (ID) versus the gate-source
voltage (VGS) while maintaining the drain-source voltage (VDS) constant. This curve shows
how the drain current is controlled by the gate voltage.

o When VGS = 0V, the drain current is maximum, denoted as IDSS. This is the current
flowing in the pinch-off region with the gate shorted to the source.

o As VGS is made more negative (for an N-channel JFET), the channel width reduces.

o When VGS reaches the pinch-off voltage (VP), the channel effectively closes, and the
drain current ID becomes approximately zero.

o The transfer characteristic curve starts at ID = IDSS for VGS = 0V and drops to ID = 0
at VGS = VP.

(Note: Diagrams for these characteristics are described but not explicitly provided in the excerpts.)

26. Explain the Construction, Principle of Operation and types of MOSFET. A MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a type of Field Effect Transistor (FET). MOSFETs are very
important devices used in integrated circuits.

 Types of MOSFETs: MOSFETs fall under the broader category of MISFETs (Metal Insulator
Semiconductor FETs). There are two main types of MOSFETs based on their operating mode:
Depletion mode and Enhancement mode [Implied by questions 10, 34, 141, 147, 162].

 Construction (Depletion Mode N-channel MOSFET): A Depletion mode MOSFET contains a

physical channel between the source and drain terminals.

 Principle of Operation (N-channel Depletion Mode MOSFET): Depletion mode MOSFETs are
typically normally ON devices.
 o Case 1: VGS = 0V and VDS is positive: A physical channel exists, and current flows
from drain to source (IDS > 0). This is why it's normally ON.

o Case 2: VGS is negative and VDS is positive: The negative voltage applied to the gate
repels electrons out of the N-channel. This creates a depletion region, which
increases the resistance of the channel. As VGS is made more negative, the channel
becomes narrower, resulting in less drain current (ID). This mode is called depletion
because the conductivity of the channel is depleted by the negative gate bias. If VGS
is made sufficiently negative (reaching the pinch-off voltage VP), the channel can be
fully depleted, and the drain current effectively stops.

(Note: The provided sources describe the working of the N-channel Depletion mode MOSFET but do
not include diagrams for its construction or working, nor characteristic plots. Details on the working
of Enhancement mode MOSFETs are not provided in the excerpts.)

27. Circuit elements can be defined as the simplest building blocks of an electrical circuit that
control or influence the electric current. Define list the Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements.
Circuit elements are the simplest building blocks of an electrical circuit that control or influence the
electric current.

 Linear Element: A linear element is one that shows a linear relationship between voltage
and current. Examples are typically resistors [Implied by Ohm's Law which applies to linear
elements R, but not explicitly listed as examples of linear elements in the provided definition
section].

 Non-linear Element: These are devices for which the relationship between voltage and
current is not linear. Examples include diodes and transistors. Ohm's Law is not applicable to
these devices.

28. Define kirchoff voltage law. Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL), developed by Gustav Kirchhoff, states
that the algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop at any instant is equal to zero. A loop is
defined as a path that starts and ends at the same node. The algebraic sum of voltages means that
both the magnitude and direction of the voltages must be considered.

29. Define static (DC) and dynamic resistance of a Diode? For a PN junction diode in forward bias,
the sources define two types of resistance based on its V-I characteristics:

 Static Resistance (RS): Also called DC resistance. It is defined as the ratio of the voltage (VD)
to the current (ID) when the diode is forward biased. It is calculated from a single operating
point on the V-I curve, given by the formula RS = VD / ID.

 Dynamic Resistance (rD): Also called AC resistance. It is the resistance offered by the diode
under AC conditions. It is defined as the ratio of the change in voltage (ΔVD) to the
corresponding change in current (ΔID) when the diode is forward biased. It is calculated
from the slope of the V-I characteristic curve and is the reciprocal of the slope. The formula
is rD = ΔVD / ΔID.

30. Explain the VI characteristic of diode and define parameters in forward and reverse bias. The V-
I characteristic curve of a PN junction diode shows the relationship between the voltage across the
diode (VD) and the current through it (ID).

 Forward Bias: When the diode is forward biased (positive voltage applied to the anode
relative to the cathode), the current remains very small until the applied voltage reaches a
 certain threshold. This threshold voltage is called the Knee Voltage (Vγ) or cut-in voltage. For
silicon diodes, Vγ is approximately 0.7V, and for germanium diodes, it is approximately 0.3V.
Once the forward voltage exceeds Vγ, the current increases sharply and exponentially with
further increases in voltage.

o Parameters in Forward Bias:

 Knee Voltage (Vγ): Minimum forward-bias voltage required for the diode to
conduct significantly.

 Maximum Forward Current (ID(max)): The maximum current that can flow
through the diode safely under forward-bias conditions.

 Static Resistance (RS): Ratio VD/ID at a specific operating point.

 Dynamic Resistance (rD): Ratio ΔVD/ΔID, reciprocal of the slope of the V-I
curve.

 Reverse Bias: When the diode is reverse biased (positive voltage applied to the cathode
relative to the anode), only a very small current, called the reverse saturation current (IS) or
leakage current, flows. This current is due to minority carriers and is typically very low (in the
order of microamperes) and almost constant as the reverse voltage increases. As the reverse
voltage increases further, it eventually reaches the breakdown voltage (VBR) or Peak Inverse
Voltage (PIV). At this voltage, the reverse current increases abruptly and rapidly. Ordinary
diodes are not designed to operate in this region, as it can lead to damage.

o Parameters in Reverse Bias:

 Reverse Saturation Current (IS): Small current due to minority carriers in

reverse bias.

 Reverse Resistance (Rr): Resistance offered by the diode under reverse bias
conditions.

 Breakdown Voltage (VBR) / Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The maximum

reverse voltage that can be applied before breakdown occurs.

 Maximum Power Rating (MPR): The maximum power the diode can safely
dissipate.

(Note: A sketch of the V-I characteristic is not provided in the excerpts, although the shape is
described. The effect of temperature on the V-I characteristics is mentioned implicitly through
thermal voltage dependence and breakdown voltage temperature coefficients, but a comprehensive
explanation or illustration is not provided.)

31. A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another circuit, or multiple circuits. List various types of transformer based on construction.
Based on construction, the sources list the following types of single-phase transformers:

 Core type Transformer.

 Shell type Transformer.

32. The transformer is basically a voltage control device that is used widely in the distribution and
transmission of alternating current power. A single phase, 50 Hz transformer has a turns ratio of 2
and 30 turns in the primary winding then identify the number of turns in the secondary winding.
The sources define the Turns ratio as the ratio of primary to secondary turns: Turns Ratio = N1 / N2.
Given:

 Turns Ratio = 2

 Number of turns in the primary winding (N1) = 30 turns

Using the formula: 2 = 30 / N2 N2 = 30 / 2 N2 = 15 turns

Therefore, the number of turns in the secondary winding is 15 turns.

33. State the EMF equation of a single-phase transformer. The sources provide the relationship
between the EMFs induced in the primary (E1) and secondary (E2) windings and the number of turns
in those windings (N1 and N2). This relationship is given by the equation: E2 / E1 = N2 / N1.

(Note: The more complete EMF equation, which relates the induced EMF to frequency and maximum
flux, is not explicitly provided in the given excerpts.)

34. Compare enhancement type MOSFET and a depletion type MOSFET. The sources discuss
Depletion mode MOSFETs and refer to Enhancement type MOSFETs.

 Depletion Mode MOSFET (D-MOSFET): This type of MOSFET is described as being normally
ON. This means that a channel exists between the source and drain even when the gate-
source voltage (VGS) is zero. It contains a physical channel. Applying a gate voltage (negative
for N-channel) reduces the channel conductivity and drain current.

 Enhancement Mode MOSFET (E-MOSFET): The sources do not explicitly describe the
working of Enhancement mode MOSFETs in detail, but by contrast with depletion mode,
they are typically normally OFF devices. This means that no channel exists between the
source and drain when VGS = 0V. A gate voltage (positive for N-channel) must be applied to
create or enhance a channel for current flow.

Thus, a key difference lies in the state of the channel at zero gate voltage: Depletion mode MOSFETs
have a physical channel and are ON, while Enhancement mode MOSFETs lack a physical channel and
are OFF, requiring a gate voltage to induce one.

35. Identify the formula for drain current and explain each parameter. In which region does a
transistor act as an amplifier? What is the function of the base in a transistor? The sources describe
the output characteristics of a JFET, where the drain current (ID) depends on VDS and VGS. The
transfer characteristics show the direct relationship between ID and VGS. For VGS = 0V, the current in
the pinch-off region is IDSS, and when VGS equals the pinch-off voltage VP, ID is approximately zero.
However, the explicit mathematical formula expressing ID as a function of VGS (e.g., Shockley
equation for JFETs) is not provided in the excerpts. The parameters involved in these characteristics
are the drain current (ID), gate-source voltage (VGS), drain-source voltage (VDS), pinch-off voltage
(VP), and IDSS (drain current in saturation with VGS=0).

Regarding transistor operation:

 A transistor (specifically a BJT) must be biased to operate in the active region to work as an
amplifier. In the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and the collector-
base junction is reverse biased. This allows the transistor to amplify small input signals.
  The function of the base terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor is to pass majority carriers
from the emitter to the collector. The base region is thin and lightly doped to facilitate this.
The base current (IB), which is a small fraction of the emitter current, controls the larger
collector current (IC) in the active region (IC = β * IB).

36. Explain the current gain in the Common Base (CB) and Common Emitter (CE) configuration of a
BJT. Identify the relation between them.

 Common Base (CB) Current Gain (α): In the Common Base configuration, the base is the
common terminal. The current gain, alpha (α), is the ratio of the change in collector current
(ΔIC) to the change in emitter current (ΔIE) at constant collector-base voltage (VCB). α =
(ΔIC / ΔIE) VCB. Practical values of α are typically less than unity, ranging between 0.9 and
0.99.

 Common Emitter (CE) Current Gain (β): In the Common Emitter configuration, the emitter is
the common terminal. The current gain, beta (β), is the ratio of the change in collector
current (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage
(VCE). β = (ΔIC / ΔIB) VCE. Practical values of β are much larger than alpha, ranging between
20 and 500.

Relation between α and β: The sources provide the relationship between these two current gain
factors based on the fundamental current relationship IE = IB + IC:

 β = α / (1 - α).

 α = β / (1 + β).

37. With the help of phasor diagram, in a series RLC circuit, obtain the relationship of voltage and
current. Explain the performance of power factor using impedance angle. The provided sources
discuss series RLC circuits and introduce concepts relevant to their analysis, such as impedance (Z),
power factor (p.f.), and phase angle (φ). Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to
apparent power, or cos(φ), and also as R/Z. The phase angle φ is related to the impedance
components; for an RL circuit, φ = tan⁻¹(XL/R).

In a series RLC circuit, the impedance Z is determined by the resistance R, inductive reactance XL,
and capacitive reactance XC. The sources provide the formula for Z only for a series RL circuit (Z =
√(R² + XL²)). The phase angle φ between the total voltage and total current in a series RLC circuit
depends on the net reactance (XL - XC).

 If XL > XC, the circuit is inductive, current lags the voltage, and the phase angle φ is positive.

 If XL < XC, the circuit is capacitive, current leads the voltage, and the phase angle φ is
negative.

 If XL = XC, the circuit is purely resistive (resonance), current is in phase with voltage, and the
phase angle φ is zero.

The power factor (p.f.) is given by p.f. = cos(φ) = R / Z. It indicates how effectively the electrical
power is being converted into useful work. A power factor closer to 1 indicates more efficient power
usage.

 In a purely resistive circuit (φ = 0°), p.f. = cos(0°) = 1 (unity). Current and voltage are in phase.

 In an inductive circuit (φ > 0°), p.f. = cos(φ) < 1 (lagging). Current lags voltage.
  In a capacitive circuit (φ < 0°), p.f. = cos(φ) < 1 (leading). Current leads voltage.

The impedance angle φ determines the power factor. The phase angle is the angle between the
voltage phasor and the current phasor in a phasor diagram. The phasor diagram for a series RLC
circuit would typically show the current phasor as a reference, the voltage across R (VR) in phase
with current, the voltage across L (VL) leading the current by 90°, the voltage across C (VC) lagging
the current by 90°, and the total voltage (V) as the phasor sum of VR, VL, and VC. The angle between
the total voltage phasor V and the current phasor I is the phase angle φ.

(Note: While the sources define power factor and phase angle and mention phasor diagrams, they do
not explicitly provide the general formulas for RLC impedance and phase angle or illustrate the
voltage phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit.)

38. A circuit consists of a resistance of 10 Ω, an inductance of 16 mH and a capacitance of 150 µF in

series. A supply of 100 V at 50 Hz is applied across the circuit. Find the power consumed by the
circuit. Illustrate using vector diagram. The provided sources include this exact problem statement
and discuss AC circuits including series RLC circuits. They provide formulas for power factor and
power consumed in AC circuits (P = Vrms * Irms * cos φ). However, the sources do not explicitly
provide the formulas needed to calculate the inductive reactance (XL = 2πfL), capacitive reactance
(XC = 1/(2πfC)), total impedance (Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²)), total current (I = V/Z), or the phase
angle/power factor (cos φ = R/Z) for a series RLC circuit with the given values. Furthermore, while
vector diagrams are mentioned, a specific example or general method for drawing the vector
diagram for this type of circuit is not detailed in the provided excerpts. Therefore, I cannot perform
the calculation for the power consumed or illustrate the vector diagram based solely on the provided
sources.

39. Convert into equivalent Delta circuit. The provided sources mention Star-Delta Conversion as a
topic and refer to a figure that is not included in the excerpts. To convert a Star network to an
equivalent Delta network, specific formulas are required relating the resistances in the Star
configuration to the equivalent resistances in the Delta configuration. These general formulas for
converting from Star to Delta are not explicitly stated in the provided sources. Therefore, I cannot
perform this conversion based on the provided excerpts.

40. Explain the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode with a neat diagram. Discuss the breakdown
mechanism in Zener diodes. A Zener diode is a silicon PN junction diode specifically designed to
operate in the reverse breakdown region. Its V-I characteristic curve is similar to that of a regular
diode in the forward bias, but significantly different in reverse bias.

 V-I Characteristics:

o Forward Bias: In forward bias, the Zener diode behaves like a normal diode. The
current is negligible until the forward voltage reaches the knee voltage (Vγ, approx.
0.7V for silicon). Beyond Vγ, the forward current increases rapidly.

o Reverse Bias: When reverse biased, a small reverse saturation current (IS) flows,
similar to a regular diode. This current is due to minority carriers. As the reverse
voltage is increased, the current remains almost constant until the voltage reaches
the Zener voltage (VZ). At VZ, the diode enters the reverse breakdown region, and
the reverse current increases abruptly and sharply. The voltage across the Zener
diode remains relatively constant at VZ over a wide range of reverse current (from
the knee current IZMmin to the maximum current IZMmax). This constant voltage
 characteristic in the breakdown region is the basis for its use as a voltage regulator.
(Note: While the characteristics are described, a diagram is not provided in the
excerpts.)

 Breakdown Mechanisms: There are two main mechanisms that cause breakdown in a PN
junction diode when subjected to a sufficiently high reverse voltage: Zener breakdown and
Avalanche breakdown. Both can occur in Zener diodes, depending on the doping level and
voltage.

o Zener Breakdown: This occurs mainly in heavily doped diodes where the depletion
region is very narrow. When reverse biased, the intense electric field across the
narrow depletion region becomes very large. This high electric field is strong enough
to directly break the covalent bonds within the semiconductor material, pulling
valence electrons out. This process creates new electron-hole pairs, which
significantly increases the reverse current and causes breakdown. This phenomenon
is called the Zener Effect. Zener breakdown typically occurs at lower reverse voltages
(VZ less than 6V). It has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning VZ decreases
slightly as temperature increases.

o Avalanche Breakdown: This occurs when the reverse bias voltage is increased, and
minority carriers crossing the depletion region gain significant kinetic energy. These
high-energy carriers collide with atoms in the crystal lattice, breaking covalent bonds
and releasing more valence electrons. This process is called Impact Ionization. The
newly created electron-hole pairs also gain energy and collide with other atoms,
causing further ionization and creating even more charge carriers. This cascading
effect, where one collision leads to multiple carriers and subsequent collisions, is
called Carrier Multiplication or the Avalanche Effect. This rapid multiplication of
charge carriers results in a large reverse current and breakdown. Avalanche
breakdown typically occurs at higher reverse voltages (VZ greater than 6V). It has a
positive temperature coefficient, meaning VZ increases slightly as temperature
increases.

41. Outline the output waveform for clipper circuit. (Given Input Voltage Vi= ±15V, Diode Si Type)
The provided sources define a clipper circuit as one that prevents a signal from exceeding a
predetermined reference voltage level and discusses biased clippers which remove a portion of the
input signal. Source shows a circuit diagram which appears to be a shunt positive clipper with
positive bias, consisting of a series resistor, a silicon diode (Si Type, with Vγ ≈ 0.7V), and a DC battery
(5.3V). The diode's anode is connected to the output node (Vo) and the cathode is connected to the
positive terminal of the 5.3V battery.

In this configuration, the diode conducts when the voltage at its anode is greater than the voltage at
its cathode plus the diode's cut-in voltage (Vγ) [Implied by diode operation principles]. The voltage at
the cathode is 5.3V. So, the diode conducts when Vo > 5.3V + Vγ. Assuming a silicon diode, Vγ ≈ 0.7V.
Thus, the diode conducts when Vo > 5.3V + 0.7V = 6V.

 When the diode is conducting (Vo > 6V), it acts like a closed switch (with a voltage drop of
Vγ), and the output voltage Vo is clamped to the voltage across the parallel combination of
the diode and battery, which is 5.3V + 0.7V = 6V.

 When the diode is not conducting (Vo <= 6V), it acts like an open switch, and the output
voltage Vo is determined by the input voltage Vi and the series resistor (which is assumed to
 be present but not explicitly shown as labeled in the snippet, but implied by the concept of a
clipper). Assuming Vo is measured across the diode-battery combination in a standard shunt
clipper, Vo approximately follows Vi when the diode is off.

Given the input voltage Vi swings from +15V to -15V:

 When Vi is less than or equal to 6V (e.g., -15V to 6V), the diode is reverse biased or just at
the threshold, it acts as an open circuit (in series with the battery), and the output voltage Vo
is approximately equal to the input voltage Vi (assuming the series resistor's drop is
negligible when the diode is off, which is typical when Vo is measured across the diode).

 When Vi is greater than 6V (e.g., 6V to 15V), the diode becomes forward biased and
conducts. The output voltage Vo is then clamped to 6V.

Therefore, the output waveform (Vo) would follow the input waveform (Vi) as long as Vi is less than
or equal to 6V, and it would be clipped and remain constant at 6V whenever Vi attempts to exceed
6V. The negative portion of the input (-15V to 0V) and the positive portion up to 6V would appear at
the output, while the positive peak above 6V would be cut off at 6V.

(Note: This analysis is based on the provided circuit snippet and general principles of biased shunt
clippers, as the exact operation and waveform are not explicitly provided in the source descriptions of
biased clippers.)

42. Center for Nanofabrication facility at IIT Bombay is planning to fabricate a pn-junction diode. To
help them understand, draw the schematic of the pn-junction diode labelling each region. Explain
the process that a pn-junction diode undergoes if it is connected in forward bias and reverse bias
mentioning all key phenomenon that takes place. Please refer to the answer provided for Question
18, which covers the process a PN junction diode undergoes in forward bias and reverse bias,
including the key phenomena. Schematics showing the p-region, n-region, and metallurgical junction
are described in the sources but not explicitly drawn.

43. A diode is an electrical component that is used to facilitate the flow of electrical currents in one
direction. When a reverse bias is applied to a germanium PN junction diode, the reverse saturation
current at room temperature is 0.3µA. Compute the current flowing in the diode when 0.15V
forward bias is applied at room temperature. The sources provide the Shockley Diode Equation: ID =
IS * (e^(VD / (ηVT)) - 1). Given:

 Reverse saturation current (IS) = 0.3 µA = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ A

 Forward bias voltage (VD) = 0.15 V

 Room temperature (assume 25°C)

 For a germanium diode, the ideality factor (η) = 1.

First, calculate the thermal voltage (VT) at room temperature (25°C = 25 + 273.15 = 298.15 K, usually
approximated as 298K). The source provides VT = T / 11600. VT = 298 / 11600 ≈ 0.0257 V [56 uses
0.025V or 0.026V in examples] Using VT ≈ 0.0257V: ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (e^(0.15 / (1 * 0.0257)) - 1) ID =
0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (e^(5.836) - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (342.45 - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * 341.45 ID ≈ 102.435 × 10⁻⁶ A
= 102.435 µA.

Alternatively, using VT = 0.026V as used in a source example for germanium: ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ *
(e^(0.15 / (1 * 0.026)) - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (e^(5.769) - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (320.24 - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶
* 319.24 ID ≈ 95.77 × 10⁻⁶ A = 95.77 µA.
Using VT = 0.025V as used in a source example for VT calculation: ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (e^(0.15 / (1 *
0.025)) - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (e^(6) - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * (403.43 - 1) ID = 0.3 × 10⁻⁶ * 402.43 ID ≈
120.73 × 10⁻⁶ A = 120.73 µA.

The current flowing in the diode when 0.15V forward bias is applied at room temperature is
approximately between 95.77 µA and 120.73 µA, depending on the exact value used for thermal
voltage (VT). Source uses 0.025V for VT at 25°C in one example calculation, so 120.73 µA is a likely
answer based on the source's examples.

44. Explain the EMF equation of Transformer. Also Explain the impact of hysteresis and eddy
current losses on transformer efficiency. How can these losses be minimized? The sources provide
the relationship between the induced EMFs (E1, E2) and the turns (N1, N2) in a transformer winding
as E2 / E1 = N2 / N1. This equation shows that the voltage induced in each winding is directly
proportional to the number of turns in that winding. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1, and the transformer is
a step-up transformer. If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1, and it's a step-down transformer. This principle
allows transformers to change AC voltage levels.

(Note: The derivation or explanation of the full EMF equation (E = 4.44 f N Φm), which relates the
induced EMF to the frequency (f) of the AC supply, the number of turns (N) in the winding, and the
maximum value of the magnetic flux (Φm) in the core, is not provided in the excerpts. Also, the
impact of hysteresis and eddy current losses on transformer efficiency and methods to minimize them
(like using laminated cores for eddy currents) are not discussed in the provided sources.)

45. Explain the construction of 3 phase induction motors. The provided sources discuss the working
principle and applications of 3-phase induction motors. They mention "Construction and Types of 3-
ϕ Induction Motors" as a topic covered. However, the excerpts do not contain detailed information
explaining the physical construction of 3-phase induction motors (e.g., stator, rotor types like squirrel
cage or slip ring, windings, frame).

46. Explain the working principle of a DC motor. Please refer to the explanation of the principle of
operation of a DC motor in the answer provided for Question 19. The working principle is based on
the interaction of the magnetic field produced by the stator and the magnetic field produced by the
current flowing in the armature conductors in the rotor, which results in a torque causing rotation.

47. Describe the relationship between the armature current and the torque produced by a DC
motor. The sources provide the torque equation for a DC motor. The armature torque (Ta), which is
the torque developed by the motor's armature, is given by the formula: Ta = 0.159 * Φ Z Ia * (P/A) N-
m. In this equation, Φ is the flux per pole, Z is the total number of armature conductors, Ia is the
armature current, P is the number of poles, and A is the number of parallel paths. From this
equation, it is clear that the armature torque (Ta) is directly proportional to the armature current
(Ia) and the flux per pole (Φ) [Implied by the formula]. Therefore, increasing the armature current
will increase the torque produced by the DC motor, assuming the flux remains constant.

48. Explain the single stage amplifier circuit and illustrate input and output signal. List its
advantages. The sources explain that a transistor can act as an amplifier and that a transistor must
be in the active region to function as an amplifier. A single-stage amplifier uses one transistor for
signal amplification. To ensure the transistor operates in the active region regardless of the input
signal polarity, a bias voltage (e.g., VBB) is applied to the input circuit (emitter-base junction) to keep
it forward biased. With no AC input signal applied, this bias voltage establishes a DC collector current
(IC) in the collector circuit, known as the zero signal collector current.
When an AC input signal is applied (e.g., to the base-emitter junction in a Common Emitter
configuration), during the positive half-cycle of the signal, the forward bias across the emitter-base
junction increases. This increased forward bias causes the base current (IB) to increase, which in turn
causes the collector current (IC) to increase (since IC = β * IB in the active region). Similarly, during
the negative half-cycle of the signal, the forward bias across the emitter-base junction decreases,
causing the base current and consequently the collector current to decrease [Implicit]. Thus, the AC
input signal voltage causes variations in the base current, which are amplified into larger variations in
the collector current. This varying collector current flowing through a load resistor in the collector
circuit produces an amplified AC voltage output. The total collector current is the sum of the DC zero
signal collector current (IC) and the AC collector current (ic) due to the input signal (iC = ic + IC).

(Note: While the principle of a single-stage amplifier's operation is described, illustrations of the
circuit, input/output signals/waveforms, or a list of specific advantages of a single-stage amplifier
are not provided in the provided excerpts.)

49. Express the output current (I_D) as a function of input voltage (V_GS). Describe using the
transfer and drain characteristics for a n-channel J FET and label the operating region in the curve
properly. For an N-channel JFET, the drain current (ID), which is the output current, is controlled by
the gate-source voltage (VGS), which is the input voltage. The relationship between ID and VGS is
shown by the Transfer Characteristics.

 The Transfer Characteristic is plotted with ID on the vertical axis and VGS on the horizontal
axis, typically for a constant drain-source voltage (VDS).

 When VGS = 0V, the drain current is at its maximum value in the saturation/pinch-off region,
denoted as IDSS.

 As VGS is made negative (for an N-channel JFET), the drain current decreases.

 When VGS reaches the pinch-off voltage (VP), the drain current becomes approximately zero.

 The curve typically follows a square-law relationship (ID = IDSS (1 - VGS/VP)²), though this
specific formula is not explicitly stated in the sources.

The Output (Drain) Characteristics show ID versus VDS for different constant values of VGS. These
characteristics illustrate the operating regions:

 Ohmic Region: Here, ID is nearly linear with VDS. The device acts like a resistor. This region is
to the left of the knee point.

 Pinch-off/Saturation/Active Region: Here, ID remains relatively constant for increasing VDS.

This is the region where the JFET acts as a constant current source (controlled by VGS) and is
used for amplification. This region is to the right of the pinch-off point.

 Breakdown Region: If VDS is too high, ID increases rapidly.

By using the transfer characteristic (ID vs VGS), one can determine the drain current for a given gate-
source voltage, and the output characteristic (ID vs VDS for specific VGS curves) shows how this
current behaves with respect to VDS and defines the operating region. The operating region for
amplification is the Pinch-off/Saturation/Active region.

(Note: The explicit formula for ID(VGS) is not provided, and diagrams for the characteristics are
described but not included in the excerpts.)
50. Explain the working of the n-channel depletion type MOSFET with diagrams and plot the drain
and transfer charateristics. Please refer to the explanation of the working principle of the N-channel
Depletion mode MOSFET provided in the answer for Question 26. This explanation covers the
operation with VGS = 0V and with negative VGS. (Note: The provided sources describe the working
but do not include diagrams for construction or working, nor do they provide characteristic plots
(drain or transfer) specifically for the depletion mode MOSFET, although the concept of these
characteristics is discussed for JFETs.)

51. Compute (i) Value of base resistor RB (ii) voltage between collector & emitter. (Given +VCC =
12V, RC=300 Ohm, β=100, fixed bias circuit, IB=0.3mA, assume VBE=0) This question describes a
fixed bias circuit for a BJT and asks for calculations. A fixed bias circuit typically connects the base
resistor (RB) between the supply voltage (VCC) and the base terminal, and the collector resistor (RC)
between VCC and the collector terminal, with the emitter grounded [Implied by diagram in 155]. The
sources mention biasing is used to set the operating point and relate collector current (IC) and base
current (IB) in the active region via beta (IC = β * IB).

Given:

 Supply voltage (VCC) = 12 V

 Collector resistor (RC) = 300 Ω

 Beta (β) = 100

 Base current (IB) = 0.3 mA = 0.3 × 10⁻³ A

 Base-emitter voltage (VBE) = 0 V (assumed)

(i) Value of base resistor RB: In a fixed bias circuit, the voltage across RB is VCC - VBE. By Ohm's Law,
RB = (VCC - VBE) / IB. RB = (12 V - 0 V) / (0.3 × 10⁻³ A) RB = 12 V / (0.0003 A) RB = 40,000 Ω = 40 kΩ

(ii) Voltage between collector & emitter (VCE): First, calculate the collector current (IC) using the
beta relationship in the active region: IC = β * IB IC = 100 * (0.3 × 10⁻³ A) IC = 30 × 10⁻³ A = 0.03 A =
30 mA.

Now, apply Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) around the collector-emitter loop: VCC = Voltage drop
across RC + VCE. VCC = (IC * RC) + VCE 12 V = (0.03 A * 300 Ω) + VCE 12 V = 9 V + VCE VCE = 12 V - 9 V
VCE = 3 V

Thus, the value of the base resistor RB is 40 kΩ, and the voltage between the collector and emitter
(VCE) is 3 V. These calculations utilize Ohm's Law and the definition of beta, concepts supported in
the sources.

52. With the help of phasor diagram, show that the current drawn by the R-L series circuit, lags the
applied voltage by an angle φ with respect to voltage. Identify an equation for the power
consumed by an R-L series circuit. Draw the waveform of voltage, current and power. The sources
discuss series RL circuits, power factor, phase angle, and power consumed. For a series RL circuit, the
impedance Z has both a resistive (R) and inductive (XL) component. Inductive reactance XL is given by
XL = 2πfL. The total impedance is Z = √(R² + XL²). In an inductor, the voltage leads the current by 90°
[Implied by waveform/phasor description in source 6 for pure L]. In a resistor, voltage and current are
in phase [Implied]. In a series RL circuit, the total voltage is the phasor sum of the voltage across the
resistor (VR) and the voltage across the inductor (VL). Since the current (I) is the same through both
elements and is in phase with VR, and VL leads I by 90°, the total voltage V (phasor sum of VR and
VL) will lead the current I by a phase angle φ. This means the current lags the applied voltage by
angle φ.

The phase angle φ is given by tan(φ) = XL/R. Since XL is positive, φ is positive, indicating a lagging
angle for the current. The power factor is cos(φ) = R/Z. For an RL circuit, the power factor is always
lagging.

The equation for the power consumed by an R-L series circuit (real power) is given by: P = Vrms *
Irms * cos(φ) Where Vrms and Irms are the RMS values of the applied voltage and total current, and
cos(φ) is the power factor. Alternatively, power can be calculated as P = I²rms * R, as power is only
dissipated in the resistor.

(Note: While the sources describe the lagging power factor and provide the power formula, they do
not explicitly show a phasor diagram illustrating the voltage-current relationship and the lagging
angle φ in a series RL circuit, nor do they provide waveforms of voltage, current, and power for this
circuit type.)

53. Compute the loop current and the voltage across 1 ohm resistor. The provided sources include a
question asking to compute the loop current and voltage across a 1 ohm resistor, along with a
snippet of a circuit diagram. However, the complete circuit diagram with all components, values, and
voltage/current sources is not provided within the excerpt. The sources do cover methods for circuit
analysis such as Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, and Mesh Analysis. Without the full circuit details, it is
impossible to perform the computation based on the provided information.

54. A circuit consists of a resistance of 20 Ω, an inductance of 0.005 H in series. A supply of 230V at

50Hz is applied across the circuit. Identify the current, power factor and power consumed by the
circuit. Draw the vector diagram. This is a series RL circuit problem similar to the solved example in
the sources, but with different values for inductance and supply voltage assumed as RMS. I will use
the calculation method shown in sources.

Given:

 Resistance (R) = 20 Ω

 Inductance (L) = 0.005 H

 Supply Voltage (V) = 230 V (assuming RMS)

 Frequency (f) = 50 Hz

1. Calculate Inductive Reactance (XL): XL = 2πfL XL = 2 * 3.14 * 50 Hz * 0.005 H XL = 1.57 Ω

[Similar formula use in 8]

2. Calculate Total Impedance (Z): Z = √(R² + XL²) [Formula used in 8] Z = √(20² + 1.57²) Z = √(400
+ 2.4649) Z = √402.4649 Z ≈ 20.06 Ω

3. Calculate Current (I): Assuming 230V is the RMS supply voltage: Irms = Vrms / Z [Based on
Ohm's Law, V=IZ] Irms = 230 V / 20.06 Ω Irms ≈ 11.46 A (Note: The example in source
assumes the given voltage is peak and calculates Irms from Ipeak. Assuming 230V is RMS is a
common convention for supply voltages.)

4. Calculate Power Factor (p.f.): p.f. = R / Z [Formula used in 7, 8] p.f. = 20 Ω / 20.06 Ω p.f. ≈
0.997 (Lagging, as it's an RL circuit)
 5. Calculate Power Consumed (P): P = Vrms * Irms * cos(φ) [Formula used in 7] P = 230 V *
11.46 A * 0.997 P ≈ 2631 W Alternatively, using P = I²rms * R: P = (11.46 A)² * 20 Ω P =
131.3316 * 20 P ≈ 2626.6 W. (The difference is due to rounding Z and Irms. Both formulas for
power are valid and supported.)

Vector Diagram: The source mentions drawing a vector (phasor) diagram but does not show it. For a
series RL circuit, the vector diagram would show:

 The current phasor (I) typically drawn along the horizontal axis as the reference.

 The voltage across the resistor (VR = I*R) drawn in phase with the current I.

 The voltage across the inductor (VL = I*XL) drawn leading the current I by 90°.

 The total supply voltage phasor (V) as the vector sum of VR and VL.

 The angle between the total voltage phasor V and the current phasor I is the phase angle φ,
which is positive (voltage leads current, or current lags voltage). This angle can also be
represented in the impedance triangle, where impedance Z is the hypotenuse, R is the
adjacent side, and XL is the opposite side, with the angle φ between R and Z.

55. Compute the equivalent resistance between terminal A and B. The provided sources include a
question asking to compute the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B, along with a
snippet of a circuit diagram. However, the complete circuit diagram with all resistor values and
connections is not provided within the excerpt. The sources do cover methods for combining
resistors in series and parallel. Without the full circuit diagram, it is impossible to perform the
computation based on the provided information.

56. Explain the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode with neat sketch. Also show the effect of
temperature on the V-I characteristics of diode. Please refer to the explanation of the V-I
characteristics of a PN junction diode and the definition of parameters in forward and reverse bias
provided in the answer for Question 30. This explanation covers the shape of the curve and key
parameters in both forward and reverse bias. (Note: While the characteristics are described, a sketch
is not provided in the excerpts. The effect of temperature is mentioned through VT dependence and
breakdown voltage temperature coefficients, but a detailed explanation or illustration of the overall
effect of temperature on the V-I curve is not present in the sources.)

57. Outline the output waveform of clamper circuit. The provided sources define a clamper circuit
as a device that changes the DC level of a signal without changing its shape. Source also asks about
outlining the output waveform. However, the sources do not contain specific information about the
types of clamper circuits, their operation with different inputs, or examples of their output
waveforms.

58. Compute the output voltage for the clipper circuit. (Given, Input Voltage, +Vi = +20V, -Vi = -10V,
Assume D1 and D2 as Ideal Diode) The provided sources include a question with a circuit diagram
showing two ideal diodes (D1 and D2) and a 5V battery connected at the output node (Vo). D1 is
connected with its anode at Vo and cathode to the positive terminal of the 5V battery. D2 is
connected with its anode to ground (0V) and its cathode at Vo. Assuming this is a shunt clipper
configuration with a series resistor (not explicitly shown), the output voltage Vo is determined by the
clamping action of the diodes.

Assuming ideal diodes:

  D1 conducts when the voltage at its anode (Vo) is greater than the voltage at its cathode
(5V). So, D1 conducts when Vo > 5V. When D1 conducts, it acts as a short circuit, clamping
the voltage at Vo to 5V.

 D2 conducts when the voltage at its anode (0V) is greater than the voltage at its cathode
(Vo). So, D2 conducts when 0V > Vo, or Vo < 0V. When D2 conducts, it acts as a short circuit,
clamping the voltage at Vo to 0V.

Given the input voltage Vi swings from +20V to -10V:

 When Vi is positive and attempts to go above 5V, D1 will become forward biased. Assuming a
series resistor, the output voltage Vo will be clamped by D1 at 5V. (D2 will be reverse biased
as Vo = 5V > 0V).

 When Vi is between 0V and 5V, both diodes are reverse biased (Vo <= 5V and Vo >= 0V). The
output voltage Vo follows the input voltage Vi (assuming the series resistor drop is negligible
when diodes are off).

 When Vi is negative and attempts to go below 0V, D2 will become forward biased. Assuming
a series resistor, the output voltage Vo will be clamped by D2 at 0V. (D1 will be reverse
biased as Vo = 0V < 5V).

Therefore, for the given input swing of +20V to -10V:

 When Vi is in the range (5V, +20V], Vo is clamped at 5V.

 When Vi is in the range [0V, 5V], Vo = Vi.

 When Vi is in the range [-10V, 0V), Vo is clamped at 0V.

The output voltage Vo will be limited to a range between 0V and 5V. Positive inputs above 5V are
clipped at 5V, and negative inputs are clipped at 0V.

(Note: This analysis is based on the provided circuit snippet and general principles of ideal diode
shunt clippers, as this specific circuit configuration and its analysis are not explicitly provided in the
source descriptions of clippers.)

59. Explain with a neat circuit diagram how a Zener diode works as a voltage regulator for
variations in input voltage and load current. Please refer to the answer provided for Question 15,
which explains how a Zener diode works as a voltage regulator for variations in input voltage and
load, and describes the circuit diagram.

60. Describe the main components of a DC motor and their functions. The provided sources discuss
the operation, back EMF, and torque of a DC motor but do not explicitly list or describe the main
physical components of a typical DC motor such as the stator (field frame, field poles, field winding
or permanent magnets), rotor (armature core, armature winding, commutator), or brushes.

61. Explain the significance of the torque-speed characteristics of a DC motor. Explain how the
back EMF vary with the speed of the DC motor? The provided sources discuss the back EMF and
torque equations for a DC motor. The significance of the torque-speed characteristics (a graph
showing how the motor's torque varies with its rotational speed) is not explicitly discussed in the
sources. However, this characteristic is crucial for understanding how a motor will perform under
different load conditions and is used for motor selection and control.
Regarding the back EMF and speed: The back EMF (Eb) in a DC motor is induced as the armature
rotates in the magnetic field [Implied]. The formula for back EMF is given by: Eb = (Φ Z N / 60) *
(P/A) Volts. In this equation, N represents the speed of the armature in revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.). Assuming the flux per pole (Φ), the total number of armature conductors (Z), the number of
poles (P), and the number of parallel paths (A) are constant for a given motor, the formula shows
that the back EMF (Eb) is directly proportional to the speed (N) [Implied by the formula]. Thus, as
the speed of the DC motor increases, the back EMF induced in the armature winding also increases
proportionally.

62. Describe the back EMF (Electromotive Force) in a DC motor, and its affect in the operation of
the motor. Please refer to the explanation of Back EMF provided as part of the answer for Question
19. Back EMF (Eb) is an EMF induced in the armature conductors as they rotate in the magnetic field,
and it opposes the applied voltage. Its presence is significant because it makes the DC motor a self-
regulating machine. The relationship V = Eb + IaRa shows that the effective voltage driving the
armature current (Ia) is the difference between the applied voltage (V) and the back EMF (Eb). If the
load on the motor increases, the speed momentarily drops, which causes the back EMF (Eb) to
decrease (since Eb is proportional to speed). This decrease in back EMF increases the voltage
difference (V - Eb), leading to an increase in the armature current (Ia). The increased armature
current produces more torque (as torque is proportional to armature current), which is required to
drive the increased load. Conversely, if the load decreases, the speed increases, back EMF increases,
armature current decreases, and torque reduces to match the lighter load. This self-regulating
property ensures that the motor draws only as much armature current as is necessary to develop the
torque required by the load.

161 (Part 1): Describe the principle of operation of single-phase transformer. Also describe the role
of the magnetic core in a single-phase transformer and compute the need of laminated core.
Please refer to the explanation of the working principle of a single-phase transformer provided in the
answer for Question 21. The principle is based on electromagnetic induction (Faraday's Laws) and
mutual induction between windings linked by a changing magnetic flux. The magnetic core is
essential for the operation of a transformer. Its role is to provide a path for the magnetic flux
produced by the primary winding to link with the secondary winding [Implied by description of
changing magnetic field getting linked with secondary winding in 130]. This linkage of flux induces
the voltage in the secondary winding. An efficient core ensures that almost all the flux produced by
the primary links the secondary, facilitating maximum power transfer. (Note: The provided sources do
not discuss the need for a laminated core or how it helps in minimizing eddy current losses.)

161 (Part 2) / 60: The process of applying a small DC voltage or current to keep the transistor in
active mode throughout a wave cycle. Compute IB, IC, VCE, VE, VB and VC. The process described,
applying a small DC voltage or current to set the transistor's operating conditions, is known as
biasing. Biasing is necessary for the proper working and efficient operation of a transistor, especially
for amplification, where the transistor needs to operate in the active region.

The request to compute IB, IC, VCE, VE, VB, and VC requires analysis of a specific transistor circuit,
including its configuration (Common Emitter, Common Base, etc.), component values (resistors), and
supply voltages. This information is not provided with the question in the excerpts. While the sources
discuss transistor biasing, current relationships (IC = β IB, IE = IB + IC), and provide examples of circuit
analysis using Mesh and Nodal analysis or simple Ohm's and Kirchhoff's laws for resistor circuits, the
specific circuit diagram and parameters needed to perform these computations (IB, IC, VCE, VE, VB,
VC) are missing.
162 (Part 1): Explain the working of the n-channel Enhancement type MOSFET with diagrams and
plot the drain and transfer charateristics. The provided sources introduce MOSFETs and discuss
Depletion mode MOSFETs. They refer to N-channel Enhancement type MOSFETs but do not provide
an explanation of their working principle, diagrams of their construction or operation, or plots of
their drain and transfer characteristics.

162 (Part 2) / 62: Explain the Input and output characteristics of common base configuration.
Please refer to the description of the Input Characteristics (IE vs VBE for constant VCB) and Output
Characteristics (IC vs VCB for constant IE) of the Common Base (CB) configuration of a BJT provided
as part of the answer for Question 24.

163. Explain the working of N channel JFET. Please refer to the explanation of the working principle
of the N-channel JFET provided in the answer for Question 25. This explanation covers the operation
under different gate-source and drain-source voltage conditions, describing how the gate voltage
controls the channel width and thereby the drain current.