General Psychology

the
same
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION organsand
by sense information is
*
where stimuli is detected where the
Sensation is process transmission is
information is relayed via
nerve organs and
by the sense
translated by the brain. the detection of stimuli order to
Sensation involves stimuli sensations in
detecting the
Iimited to simply of allthe the environmenL.
perception is the organisation place in
Whereas of eventstaking
Recept r understandthe meaning
sense, is the step after
sensation.
figure given below:
Perception, in that by the
Aceu or be understood
scnsation canReceptors-->Nerve Impulse to the Brain
The process of
Sensory Stimulus) --
yeeeies Shee Incoming stimuli-->
(Transduction)-->Feature Detectors(Analysisof
with preexistin
Neural Impulse--> Comparison
>Reconstructed into Interpretation are
schemas-- > Recognition & characteristics of a stimulus
which
Transduction the process by
converted into nerve impulses.

The sensory systems

(sight),
systems in the human body, namely, vision senses
Ihere are 5 sensory (smnell), (taste) and somesthetic
gustation
Nestblar audition (hearing), olfactory
(touch). through
Sere - detected by the human eye
Vision: Stimulus for vision is
electromanetic ways or light waves. eye is capable of sensing
(nm). Human
These are measured in Nanometers
nanometers
paa ncr ear, light waves between 700to 400
commonly referred to as the VIBGYOR
400to 700 nanometers is also and reach the visual
stimuli, enter the eye
The Human Eye: Light waves, as stimuli) in the following
balance sms cortex (the part of the brain that senses visual
tom ear manner:
Optic Nerve-->
Light Waves-->Cornea--> Pupil--> Iris-->Lens--> Retina-->
VIsual Cortex (ocpita Lobe)
bruin Cornea is the transparent protective structure surrounded by the
aqueous humor
Pupil is the adjustable opening which is usually black and dilates or
constricts adjusting to the amount of light.
remuinigi
pluee
Iris are the muscles surrounding the pupil and they control the size of
the pupil
Lens an elastic structures that becomes thinner to focus on distant
objects and thicker to focus on nearby objects
Retina is a multilayered light sensitive tissue at the rear of the fluid
filled eyeball.
The lens reverses the incoming innage (stimuli) from right to
leftand top tobottom and projects it uponthe
retina. Later, the
brain changes this upside down visual input back
we seethe images that we perceive. to normal and
rhe lens is also responsible lor clarity of
close or far away vision.
 but problemwith scCng
exists
clear ncar sight Ncarsightedness. Myopta
Vyopia occurs when also known as
clearly,
lar away objects
'minus" power spectacles objects butclcar
requires the difficulty in seeing close by Hyperopia
Hyperopia occurs with as farsightedness.
away objects, it is also aptly known
lar powered spectacles.
requires the "plus" Retina Is als0
of the light sensitive photoreceptors.
The Retina isthe seat the Brain. Rods and
considered as an extension of photoreceptors, namely.
sensitive
There aretwotypes of Light through protein
energy into nerve impulses
Cones. They convert light
molecules called photopigments. densely
center of the retina there is Fovea. It is the place of colour
Atthe helping in clear and detailed
connected cones and no rods,
vision.
Rods- (Dossenbach, 1998)
from the fovea.
Mostly present in the periphery, awayfunction best under dim light
More sensitive tolight and therefore
Useful for dark adaptation. Dark adaptation is the progress/ve
under
improvement in brightness sensitivity that occurs overtime
conditions of low illumination.
Also responsible for achromatic vision i.e. Black and white
120 million rods in the eye
Cones- Present in the fovea and slowly reduces in number while moving
away.
Function best under bright illuminations
Responsible for colour vision
o Rods and cones connect to synapses of bipolar cells which have synapse with
1million ganglion cells which have axonconnections to the Optic Nerve.
o Near the Fovea existsa place where there are no photoreceptors and hence,
doesn't assistvision, it is aptly named Blindspot.
neories of Colour Vision

Trichromatic Theory- Thomas Young & Hermann von Helmholtz

Proposed that each individual cone is sensitive to one type of colour
Suggested that there are 3 types of colour receptors in the retina which
respond toBlue, Green or Red colour.
If all three are stinmulated then white is produced
Similarly, yellow = red + green receptor stimulation
The reason for dissatisfaction with this theory was that it could
not
explain the concept of After Image clearly.
After Image occurs when a visual sensation
the original stimulus is removed. This visual persists fora time after
the original stimulus and cannot be sensation is differed from
explained by the three colour
receptortheory but can be done by Ewald
theory. Hering's
Opponent Process
Opponent process theory Ewald Hering
Agreed with TCT in that there are three
that these 3 types of cones types of cones
have two types of colour but proposed
which respond to tWodifferent receptors each
wavelengths.
 White
Black o
Yellow; Red or Green; Geniculate
Receptors are Bluc or Afterimage perfectly Lateral
This systemexplaincd placeeinthe
Proposcdthat this process also takes cones butthc
Nucleus located in the Thalamus. understanding of
their
This theory as incorrect with
mechanismfor afterimage was correct
Dual Process theory- Valberg process
transduction
Combination of the two theories for colour
cones having spccific
TCT was correct about the concept of
specific
photo pigments process aking place
Opponent process was incorrect about opponcntresearch has shownthat
in the Cones, however correct in the sense thatCxtendiDg till the visual
this process takes place in the Ganglion cells
Cortex rather than the cOnes.
Colour deficient vision is of twotypes: Blue Yellow(BY)or Red
Dichromats are blind to onesystem ofeitber
Green (RG)
Monochromats are sensitive to only black & whites combinatiOns
Related to sex linked inheritance and nen are more prone to eoou
deficient vision.
Nerve lmpulses move from optic nerve to the visual cortex and then these are
analyzed bythe visual associatton cortex, interpreting the incoming
information with previously existing memories and knowledge, leading t0
percepti0n.
Audition
2Stimulus for audition or hearing is detected by the ears through
pressure waves (sound waves) through aconducting medium. It is a
form of mechanical energy
Sound has two major characteristics called Frequency and Amplitude.
Frequency is the numnber of sound waves or cycles per second. These
cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz). 1Hz = 1Cycle. Normal human car
can hear between 20-20,000Hz.
Frequency is related to pitch, Pitch is the quality that defines
the "highness or lowness" of any sound.
More cycles of frequency per second = Higher Pitch, thercfore.
Higher Hz = Higher pitch.
Amplitude is the vertical size of the sound wave. It is alsodefined as
the amount of compression andexpansion of
conducting medium.
molecules in the
Amplitude is related to loudness. Amplitude is
Decibels (dB). Human ear can hear measured in
140 dB can cause deafness. between 0-140 dB. where
Each increase of 10
loudness. decibels is equal to a tenfold increase in
The Human ear: Sound waves enter the
ear and the
in the following manner reach the auditory canal
Pinna à Auditory Canal à
Hammer/Membrane
Oval window àCochlea àBasilar Malleus à àAnvil/Incusof à Stirrup/Stapes) à
Nerve à Thalamus àAuditory cortex Organ Corti à Auditory
 m
humancar. Itheips
part of the
cxternal or the visible
Pinna is the thc car.
funneling thesound into passageway to the ear drum. membrane
canal is the membrane. It is a
Auditory
known as the tympanic stimuli (Sound waves) and
Ear drum is also response totheincoming
whichvibrates inmiddle ear Hammer/Malleus,
passes it on the called of
comprises of 3 tiny bones to increase the amplitude
Middle ear function
Anvil/Incus,Stirrup/Stapes. They times.
by more than 30 firmly attached to the ear
the sound waves and is
Hammer/Malleus is first bone
the hammer
drum.
second bone attached to end
the Anvilon one
Anvil/lncus is the
attached to
Stirrup/Stapes is third bone
the other.
and the oval window on and the rgan
Basilar Membrane
Inner ear comprises of the Cochlea.
tube which is about 3.5
of corti
Cochlea is aceiled, nail-shaped
and is filled with fluid.
centimeters (1.4 inches) in length stirrup of the middle
Vibrations from the Hammer,anvil, and
motion.
ear set the fluid inside the cochlea into
runs within the
Basilar Membrane is a sheet of tissue that
cochlea.
Organ of Corti rests on the basilar membrane. It contains
thousands of tiny hair cells that are the actual sound receptors.
The tips of the hair cells are attached to another
membrane called the tectorial membrane that hangs on
the basilar membrane along the entire length of the
cochlea. These hair cells synapse with the auditory
nerve.
The entire process functions as follows:
Sound waves strikethe eardrumàpressure is created by the hammer anvil, and
stirrup of the middle ear at the oval windowàthis pressure sets the fluid inside
the cochlea into motionàThe fluid waves then vibrate the
basilar membrane
and the tectorial membraneà this causes a bending of the
of Cortià release of hair cells in the organ
neurotransmittersàneurotransmitters attach to the auditory
nerveànerve impulses sent to the brain (Musiek && Baran, 2006).
The neural process is different for judging the pitch
any sound.
and loudness of
M Loudness: In case of loudness of
sound waves cause the hair cells tosound
or amplitude,
high-amplitude
bend more and release more
neurotransmitters, therefore increasing the neural firing in the auditory
nerve. Moreover. certain
fire only when thesound neurotransmitters have higher
is of high amplitude or intense thresholds and
rÝ Pitch:There are two theories sound.
Frequency theory by Ernest regarding
Rutherford
pitch perception
In this theory Rutherford
auditory neurons is equal propagated that the rate of
to the frequency of the firing of
Eg. If a neuron fires at a rate of
100, the
sound waves.
Hz. frequency is also 100
 frequcHe,
kiow
theory
beuns with
specd and we i/
thc
Problen: The issuc with atthathipherthat 100
DO DCUron cap lire
as
above I000 H%. :
of requcncy
that humans can hear sounds Herman von
up till20000 Hz. propagated hy Bekesy
Place theory of pitch perception Georg Von produced waves that
research by
Helmholtz supported by Waves frequency
Bckesy found that high frequency window, while low cOchlear
Werc at their height near the
oval ncarthe
pcaked
Waves produccd slow wavcs that cochlea,
canal. pointsinthe
The Place theory suggestcd that
specific of the
waves
the frequency
fluid waves peak depending on
bending of the hair cells. of varying
Which also influence the perception
This theory successfully explained pitch
frequency levels. sOurce of
tolocatethe
Sound localization is the ability of the nervous systemdifferences as perceived
sound by using information about time and intensity
by the two ears.
oHearing loss is of two major types: mnechanical
Conduction deafncss: this is related to the nproblems of thetransmiting
for
Systems (outer and middlc car) which are responsible
sound waves to the cochlca.
Nerve deafness: this is rclated to damage of receptors in the innCr car
Or auditory nerve usually due to loud noise. Treatments include
cochlear implants which send incoming auditory information directly
tothe brain.
Hearing impairment is related to difficulties in hearing and not related
tocomplete loss in hearing
Taste or gustation
Taste buds are responsible for taste perception. They are chemical
receptors concentrated along the tip, edges, and back surface of the
tongue.
9000taste buds
When a substance is chewed it interacts with the saliva and
lodges intoone of the receptors and creates complex patterns of
neural activity which have four major qualities.
We have instinctual understanding of taste qualities and can
discriminate toxin substances.
Four major qualities:
Sour, Sweet, Salty and Bitter as given by Hans Hering.
Fifth quality is called Umami (brothy taste eg.
Lindermann. Soup) given by
Umami increases the intensity of other taste
Olfactionor smell qualities.
Olfaction is the sense of smell.
Receptors are long cells located at the nasal cavity and have
numerous membranes.
40 million receptors are
present.
Olfactory bulbs are structures that receiveThey are known as Cil1a.
neural input from the cilia or
receptorcells of the nasal cavity
 cavity
located in the forebrain,above the nasal
They are olfactory
odorous chemical has limited receptors in the
Each
odors are coded in terms of the specitic area
bulb, and specific
of the olfactory bulb. exist in natural body scents
Pheromones are chemical odors which
not as extensively as they affect
which may affect human behavior but
animal behaviour.
where women's
May be related to nmenstrual synchrony they begin
menstrual cycles begin to start in similar time once
McClintock.
to live together for a long time. Martha
Somesthetieor Tactile or Skin/Body sense
Three major types
Touch is body sense
Kinesthesis is body sense
Equilibrium is vestibular sense
Touch has 4 major characteristics
Pressure is felt by paçiniancorpuscles, free nerve endings, and
basket cells
Pain is felt by free nerve endings
Warmth and Cold together form Temperature which is felt by
free nerve endings
Pain Gate theory is a theoryof pain perception suggested by
Malzack and Wall.
They claim that the spinal cord has a "gate which
decides whether to send the signal of pain to the brain
or not, at the same time, the brain decides
whether this
gate" should remain open or close. depending on its
ability to tolerate the incoming pain. This is done
through a chemical called Substance P.
Skin receptors are located in the
somatosensory cortex of the brain.
Kinesthesis is the feedback one receives
about the position and movement of the from one's muscles and joints
Receptorsare located in the nervebody.
endings of muscles, joints
and tendons. They are
Vestibular or equilibrium sensecalled proprioceptive
works in conjunctionreceptors,
senses. with kinesthetic
Vestibular sense is the sense of body
orientation
Receptors are located in vestibular apparatus
One part consists of three of the inner ear
Contain receptors for head semicircular canals which
They lay left-right, movement
down. backward-forward, or up
Depending on the head [Link] fluid in
these canals moves
appropriately
signals to the brain about the
andsend
head. position of the
They alsO respond to
deceleration. acceleration
But remain in their
or
at constant speed. position whiie
 about
information
for titlcdor
[Link]
whether itis
Vestibular sacs arebodvand
positionofthe betwecnthe
lhe
straight. disagreement the body. It is
results as a moovement of
Motion sickness and the
Imovement of the eyesconflict theory.
sensory
known as the

PERCEPTION incoming sensory

interpretation of the
involves meaning.
Perception is aprocess thatthem and attaching some
information by organizing
by payingselective
Perceptual process: byour sense
organs
up
Raw sensory information is picked impulses and sent
attention to thenm. converted into nerve and
These sensations, once attended to, areaccordance to their features
to the brain where they are filtered in
frameworks (schemas) meaning
COmpared with existing mental interpreted as stimuli with
o Following whichthey are organised and
relevant to the individual.
the brain:
Perception is carried out in two ways by elements
processing. In this method. from the external stimuli are
o Bottom up combined to form a unified
selected as individual elements and then
perception.
information 1s
o Top down processing:In this method, the incoming sensory
expectation.
understood with reference to existing concepts, ideas or
Individual elements of the stimuliare not taken as independent entities are not
as important as the whole stimuli.
Perception is essentially a form of hypothesis testing based on incoming
sensations. Perception is heavily dependent on where attention is focused.
There are twoprocesses that are involved with attention:
Focusing it on certain stimuli
o Filtering out other extraneous elements in the environment
Shadowing:requires usingboth of the above mentioned [Link]
refers to the process where two stimuli are simultaneously presented and the
individual is asked to pay selective attention to one while ignoring the other.
Inattentional blindness is a phenomenon where an unattended stimulus fails
to register itself intoan individual's consciousness.
o Factors affecting attention are its
intensity, novelty,
repetition, and the individual's motives and [Link], contrast,
o Perceptual Organisation - Gestalt principles
The whole is greater than the sun of its
parts"
Gestalt psychologists sought to understand and
howindividuals organize created laws which explain
elements. These are: perception into a whole rather than individual
Figure-ground relations It is the tendency to Organize stimuli
figure and a background. into acentral
In terms of vision the central igure
Distinct colour or contrast appears to be
the Figute
inn
borders make that parton top
appear as part of

Grund.
 of a
similar whole althougl1 they
seen as parts
are
Similarity: When stimuli other. near cach other are
perceived to,
independent of each which are
may be stimuli
of the
Proximity: Elements
whole. figure/stimulito gIve it a
definite
part of the same gap of
be tendency to close the
Closure: The
elements of a stimuli together so
form,
to link individual
Continuity: The tendency line that makes sense. to
form a continuous
time are thought to be related
that they appear nearer in
Contiguity: Objects which
ventriloguists. 4 Penan e seen
common area or region are
One another e.g. that are located in a
Common region: objects
distinctive features
as part of the same group. representation of critical or
Perceptual schenma is a mental etc. It was propagated by Richard L.
of stimuli such as people, events
Gregory perception is influenced by
that pe
The case of the USS Vincennes suggested
expectations and due to a perceptual set
readiness to assess a stimuli in a
Perceptual set is a predetermined
certain way stimuli as the same
o Perceptual constancies are the tendency to view familiar
perceptual
under varying circumstances. There are two types of visual
Yineple tht Constancies:
ea memos Shape constancy: to recognize stimuli as being the same even though
empeeuencao e they are seen fromdifferent angles.
Unbecl when ne i
Brightness constancy: the tendency to perceive the relative brightness
of objects as similar under different conditions of illumination.
fequenty Sugeienueds where
DepthwePercepion: The world we live inexists in athree dimensionalplane
are constantly making spatial movements.
with ihe otñer
These movements are extremely precise and any digression from this
precision can lead to unfortunate effects.
Pagnans
yhnqrs
Anintriguing aspect of spatial understanding is that our retina can only
process images in a two-dimensional plane while it is the brain that is
Poefe enpeuenes required to create an understanding of three dimensional vision by
Shmllf a ta e recreating this two dimensional image into a three dimensional object.
This requires an understanding of depth perception which is
understood by the brain with the assistance of visual cues that exist in
the environment known as monocular and binocular
Monocular cues: these are depth cues which require the cues. of
one eye. Here, patterns of light and shadow assistance only
3D effect. The following are types of effects are noted for creating the
perception using
Linear perspective: The tendency to View twomonocular cues:
running
as converging at a distance while
looking at a 2D image. parallel lines
Interposition effect: The tendency to perceive objects that cut a
of other objects as being closer to us. part
Texture: tendency to observe an object to be
the
texture appears smooth and the further away as the
tendency
closer as the texture appears grainer. to observe an object as being
Relative size: The tendency to
from another, provided they are perceive
of similarone object being further away
sizes, depends on the
size of
LEARNING

"Learning is a relatively enduring change in an individual's behaviour.

There are four types of learning. They are as follows:
Habituation: it is decrease in the strength of a response due to repeated
stimulus.
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
o Observational learning
Classical conditioning:
Classical Conditioning takes place when an unconditioned stimulus, which
evokes an unconditioned response, is associated with a neutral stimulus for a
period of time such that the neutral stimulus converts into a cond ed
 response which is n0w known ac
Stimulus and begins to evoke the same
conditioned response. about the
lvan Pavlov, aRusSsian physiologist, was the first to study and write
basic principles of classical conditioning.
KEY POINTS:
Unconditioned stimulus(UCS) Astimulus that leads to an involuntary
response (unconditioned response).
oUnconditioned response (UCR)- an involuntary response to an
unconditioned stimulus.
Neutral stimulus (NS)-Stimulus that gives no specific response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) -The neutral stimulus, after continually being
paired with the Unconditioned stimulus becomes capable of producing the
response similar to the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR) -Response to a conditioned stimulus. Similar to
the unconditioned response.
Acquisition- period of learning the response.
Normal classical conditioning stages:
UCS .-> UCR
NS+ UCS- . . ---> UCR
NS=CR
CS --. --> CR
Forward conditioning is the best form of classical conditioning. It is of two
major sub types:
o Delayed Conditioning- this is the fastest type of
conditioning. Here the CS is
presented first, followed by the UCS. But they overlap in their timing such
that towards the end of the CS, the UCS starts.
CS+
UCS (timing overlap)à UCRICR
oTrace conditioning- Here, CS is presented first, then after a short
UCS is presented. delay the
CS+ (short delay)...... UCSàUCRICR
Two other types of conditioning are:
Simultaneous conditioning: Asthe name suggests, both CS and UCS are
presented at the same time, i.e. simultaneously.
CS+
UCS (simultaneously)à UCR/CR
Backward Conditioning: Here the UCS is presented frst
UCS+CSàUCR/CR followed by the CS.
Basicconcepts in classical conditioning
Extinction: it is the disappearance or weakening of a learned
(CS=CR)following the removal or absence of the response
Spontaneous recovery:the unconditioned stimulus.
extinction has occurred if thereappearance
of a learned response after
UCS presented again.
Generalization:the tendency to
original conditioned stimulus withrespond to stimuli that are similar to the
the conditioned response.
Discrimination: the response to
stimulus and no other stimulus. stimuli limited to only the conditioned
is
Higher order conditioning: this occurs when a new
with an existing conditioned neutral stimulus is paired
stimulus such that it develops
stimulus by itself and evokes theconditioned response. into a conditioned
 conditioning are
Conditioned responses formed out of higher order
weak and extinguish faster.
Two explanations for the working of classical conditioning
same part of the brain is
Stimulus substitution: Pavlov's assumptionthat the conditioned
replaced by the
activated for unconditíoned stimulus which is then
stimulus. becausethe
Occurred
Pavlov stated that classical conditioning
theunconditioned
conditioned stimulus became asubstitutefor
stimulus by being paired closely together. that it can't explain why
The problemwith this explanation is conditioned stimulusoccurs
conditioning takes place when the Backward conditioning.
E.g.
atter the unconditioned stimulus.
takes place due to expeCtaney
COgnitive perspective: states that conditioning stimulus is presented.
of the unconditioned stimulus after the conditioned
This is a modern theory.
o Operant conditioning: learning of
Operant conditioning(instrumental conditioning) refers to the
voluntary behaviour through the effects of pleasant and unpleasantAccording
consequences (rewards or punishment) that follow the behaviour.
to Skinner, behaviour is controled by its own consequences.
law
táhveo n e Prior to the development of operant conditioning Thorndike theorized his
kime e h of effect.
Thorndike's law of effect: states that if a response is followed by pleasurable
consequences,it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant
consequence, the response witl not be repeated. Positive response increase
hen same behaviour but negative response decrease the same behaviour.
Operant conditioning agreed and disagreed with parts of the law of
effect.
(Note: B.F Skinner coined the term operantconditioning)
o According to operantconditioning there are two main types of consequences
to a behavior/response:
o Reinforcement: the strengthening of therepetition of behaviour because of its
consequence.
Positive Reinforcement: the strengthening of a response (behaviour)
by the additionor experience of a pleasurable
behaviour.
consequence after that
Negative Reinforcement: the strengthening of a response
bythe removal or avoidance of an (behaviour)
behaviour.
unpleasant stimulus after that
oPunishment: the weakening of the repetition of behaviour because of its
consequence.
Positive punishment: weakening of a
or experiencing of an response because of the addition
unpleasant
Negative punishment: weakeningconsequences after that
of a response by the behaviour. Be
pleasurable consequences after that behaviour. removal of
Punishment is most effective
Immediately after the
When reasons for behaviour that needs to be
punishment is weakened
When wrong behavIOur
the punishment. ispaired consistent
with the right
behaviour: post
 Concepts of operant conditioning: naturally espccallY if it meets
occurs
[Link] reinforcer any reinforcer that
a basic biological need. E.g. Hunger. reinforcing atter heing
becomes
reinforcer anyreinforcer that
Secondary
Palred/associated with a primary reinforcer. E.g. money. response bccause it
ts
Operant reinforced. weakening and disappearance of a
no longer extinction:
which non reinforced
Kesistance to extinction is the degree to
responses
o Shaping: involvespersists.
using successive approximation towards the attainment of a
vasmone final response.
Successive approximations are small steps involved in shaping.
o Chaining: developing a sequence (chain) of responses by reinforcing each
Tesponse in order to perforn the next response. Usually starts with final
response and works backwards
Operant generalization: An operant response occurs to similar stimuli like
the one that has been
reinforced.
Operant discrimination: operant response willoccur to only one
Stimulus but not to the other, leading to stimulus particular
-o Escape conditioning: control.
learningofa response in order to terminate an
stimulus/consequence. Built on the concept of negative aversive
Avoidanceconditioning: learns to reinforcement.
avoid an aversive stimulus
stimulus control. Avoidance
behaviour is self reinforcing leading to
of avoidance itself. because of the relief
Two theoriesPropagated
are
by Richard Solomon
both classical involved with respect to avoidance
conditioning operant conditioning conditioning
Schedules of reinforcement: and is involved.
i.e.
Continuous reinforcement: every response is
Partial
reinforcement:
Ratio: takes place after sometimes the responsesreinforced.
are
à
certain reinforced. Four types:
0Ccurred.
percent
Interval: Reinforcement takes place age/number of response have
passed. after a certain
Fixed schedule: amount of time interval has
(response) Reinforcement takes place after fixed amount of
time or trails
Variable schedule:
or trails (response). Reinforcement takes place after variable number of
Together these
scheduless types of partial
of reinforcement.
times
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedules form 4major types ol
rates of schedule - reinforcement after fixed
Variableresponding and a
number of trails. Increase
ratio scheduleincreased
- pausing after response.
Increase rates of reinforcement after variable number of trails.
extinction. E.
Fixed interval g. respondi
Gambling. ng, less pausing of response due resistance to

reinforced. schedule - the first roesponse after a fixed time interval in

Variable
[Link] schedule: first Tesponse after avariable time interval is
For
lcarning anew
reinforcement. response continuous reinforcement is better than partial
 SctEDULES OP
KaNPoLEUEN.
ANeidance estape
tnttuoes eelntoremen,
e Bo ae arfl kitopreement.
ttgt beharios Rafo

Auoidante eomgle te y
eiinates to Venive ei Amcr VeLsu abte heckule
A ed rano Schecle,
shesIe Cs ercpe cloe nE
huabie Yho hedule.
K
edinteral scecluley is
Naeiable interel
 reinforcement is better than
response, partial
o For delayed extinction ofa lcarning.
continuous reinforcement.
Insight learning or cognitive through a
Kohler propagated reach a banana
Insightlearning:
included the ape
joining three sticks
to
The research learning and
cognitive
moment of insight. model, latent from
Tolman propagated expectancy different routes in a maze
Edward learning the learning.
His research involved rats cognitivemap and latent stimulus
map. the concepts of conditioned
where he developed model: the presentation of the stimulus which leads to the
Expectancy unconditioned
expectancy of the
created an
layout
response. representation of a spatial is not
Cognitive map: is mental
type of learning that takes place and
the
Latent learning. it is incentive to perform positrve
learned helplessness and
shown untilthere is an
propagated the concept of
Martin Seligman individual bears
psychology movement. mental state where an
helplessness: is a those
Learned
stimuli and is mostly, unwilling to avoid
presumably
painful
aversive and escapable," because it has avoided.
painfulstimuli, even if they are
stimulicannot be controlled
or
learned over time that those
Observational learning: the
which occurs when one learns by observing/imitating
The type of learning
behaviour of others. of
propagated thesocial cognitive theory which is the type
Albert Bandura observes the behaviour of others and
learning that occurs when an individual lives.
behavioural change in their own
then implements thesame producing the treatment of the bobo doll by
His experiments included children observing behaviour.
experiment assistants and learning from their
The four step process for observational learning are:
model
Attention: paying attention to the behaviour that we want to
Retention remembering the modeled behaviour
Reproduction: practicing that modeled behaviour
Motivation: situations where that behaviour is required must exist.
Observational learning takes place in the following ways:
Imitation: is copying the behaviour one observes
Modeling: is observing the behaviour that one wants to copy from another
source who isthen referred to as the model.
Self efficacy an individual's belief abouttheir capability to produce desired
outcomes.
No single part of the brain controls learning. Hypothalåmus and dopamine
pathway are involved.

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.

Science involves two types of research:
BasicResearch - Quest for knowledge for its
Exploratory own sake
Applied Research - Designed to
Levels of Analysis solve specific, practical behaviour.