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## **Biology Notes: Fundamentals of Life**
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### **Page 1: Introduction to Biology**
**Biology** is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It covers
structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of life.
**Major branches**:
* **Botany**: Study of plants
* **Zoology**: Study of animals
* **Microbiology**: Study of microscopic organisms
* **Genetics**: Study of heredity and variation
* **Ecology**: Study of organisms and their environment
**Characteristics of living things**:
* Made of cells
* Grow and develop
* Reproduce
* Maintain homeostasis
* Respond to stimuli
* Use energy
* Adapt and evolve
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### **Page 2: The Cell – The Basic Unit of Life**
All living things are made of **cells**. They can be:
* **Unicellular**: Single-celled (e.g., bacteria)
* **Multicellular**: Composed of many cells (e.g., humans)
**Prokaryotic cells**: No nucleus (e.g., bacteria)
**Eukaryotic cells**: Have a nucleus (e.g., animal and plant cells)
**Cell organelles**:
* **Nucleus**: Contains DNA
* **Mitochondria**: Powerhouse of the cell
* **Ribosomes**: Protein synthesis
* **Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)**: Transport system
* **Golgi apparatus**: Packaging and secretion
* **Lysosomes**: Digestion
* **Chloroplasts** (plants): Photosynthesis
* **Cell wall** (plants): Support and protection
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### **Page 3: Cell Division**
Cells reproduce by dividing:
1. **Mitosis** – For growth and repair (identical cells produced)
* Stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
2. **Meiosis** – For sexual reproduction (produces gametes with half the
chromosomes)
**Mitosis** maintains chromosome number
**Meiosis** reduces chromosome number by half (from diploid to haploid)
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### **Page 4: Biomolecules**
Life is based on **biomolecules**:
1. **Carbohydrates** – Energy source (e.g., glucose, starch)
2. **Proteins** – Made of amino acids; for structure and function
3. **Lipids** – Fats and oils; energy storage and insulation
4. **Nucleic acids** – DNA and RNA; carry genetic information
**Enzymes** are proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.
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### **Page 5: Genetics and Heredity**
**Genetics** is the study of heredity.
* **Genes**: Units of heredity made of DNA
* **Chromosomes**: Structures made of DNA, found in the nucleus
* **Alleles**: Different forms of a gene
**Mendel's Laws**:
1. **Law of Segregation** – Alleles separate during gamete formation
2. **Law of Independent Assortment** – Genes for different traits are inherited
independently
**Genotype**: Genetic makeup
**Phenotype**: Physical appearance
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### **Page 6: DNA and RNA**
**DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)**:
* Double helix structure
* Made of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base)
* Bases: A-T, G-C
**RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)**:
* Single-stranded
* Bases: A-U, G-C
* Helps in protein synthesis
**Replication**: DNA copying itself
**Transcription**: DNA → RNA
**Translation**: RNA → Protein
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### **Page 7: Human Body Systems**
Major systems:
* **Digestive system**: Breaks down food (mouth, stomach, intestines)
* **Circulatory system**: Transports blood (heart, blood vessels)
* **Respiratory system**: Gas exchange (lungs, trachea)
* **Excretory system**: Removes waste (kidneys, bladder)
* **Nervous system**: Controls body (brain, spinal cord, nerves)
* **Skeletal system**: Supports and protects (bones)
* **Muscular system**: Movement (muscles)
* **Reproductive system**: Produces offspring
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### **Page 8: Photosynthesis and Respiration**
**Photosynthesis**:
* Occurs in chloroplasts (plants)
* Equation:
$6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$
**Cellular Respiration**:
* Occurs in mitochondria
* Converts glucose into ATP (energy)
* Aerobic (with oxygen) and Anaerobic (without oxygen) types
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### **Page 9: Evolution and Classification**
**Evolution** is the change in species over time.
**Natural Selection** (Darwin):
* Organisms better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce.
**Classification**:
* Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
**Five Kingdoms**:
1. Monera (bacteria)
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia
Binomial nomenclature: Scientific naming using Genus + species (e.g., *Homo
sapiens*)
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### **Page 10: Ecology and Environment**
**Ecology**: Study of organisms and their environment.
**Levels of organization**:
* Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere
**Ecosystem**:
* **Biotic factors**: Living things
* **Abiotic factors**: Non-living things (light, water, soil)
**Food chain**: Shows energy flow
* Producers → Consumers → Decomposers
**Environmental issues**:
* Pollution
* Climate change
* Deforestation
* Biodiversity loss
**Conservation** aims to protect and sustain ecosystems.
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