INTRODUCTION :

What is Electoral system ?

An electoral system is the set of rules and procedures that govern how elections are
conducted and how representatives are chosen in a democracy. It encompasses various
mechanisms, including methods of voting and the allocation of seats in representative
assemblies.

Key aspects of electoral systems include the method of voting, such as plurality systems
where voters choose a single candidate, or proportional representation (PR) systems where
seats are allocated based on the share of votes received by each political party.

Electoral systems can vary in their degree of proportionality, with some aiming for a direct
translation of votes to seats, while others prioritize factors like geographic representation or
political stability. Hybrid systems, like mixed-member proportional (MMP) systems,
combine elements of different systems to achieve a balance between these objectives.

Overall, electoral systems play a crucial role in shaping the distribution of political power, the
representation of diverse interests, and the legitimacy of elected governments in democratic
societies.

THEORIES OF REPRESENTATION

The Trustee model of Representation

It stems from EDMUND BURKE’S understanding of a representative as one who acts on

behalf of others using his or her superior knowledge education and experience.

THE DELEGATE MODEL OF REPRESENTATION

It sees the representative as a delegate a conduit conveying the views and interests of others.
Here, the representative does not have a capacity to act according to his own judgement or
preferences. He or she only behaves in exact accordance with the instructions emanating
from their constituencies. Those supporting the delegate model, such as Thomas Paine,
usually seek mechanisms to ensure that politicians are bound as closely as possible to the
views of the represented.

The Mandate model of representation

It sees elected representatives and political parties as having secured the command or
consent to govern from their voters. This model assumes that by winning an election, a
party gains a popular will or mandate that authorizes it to affect policies or programmes in
its election manifesto. This model places the onus of representation on political parties and,
therefore, necessitates party unity and discipline.
The Microcosmic model of representation or descriptive representation

It is based on the idea that the government should constitute a microcosm of the larger
society by including members drawn from all groups and sections in society. The
government must have representatives from all social classes, gender, age and so on, and in
numbers proportional to the size of the groups in society at large (Heywood, 2013). The
body of elected representatives must resemble the whole society as much as possible;
hence, this model is also known as the resemblance model

‘Division of labour’ representation

This approach underlines a division of labour between representatives and the electorate.
Representatives are elected to look after the interest of the voters, redress their grievances,
support appropriate legislation, report on outcomes, and be accountable for their actions.

The First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) electoral system is a method of voting in

which voters in each electoral district cast a single vote for their preferred
candidate, and the candidate with the most votes wins the seat,
regardless of whether they obtain an absolute majority. FPTP is commonly
used in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and
India.

In FPTP, each geographic area, known as an electoral district or

constituency, elects one representative to a legislative body, such as a
parliament or congress. Candidates compete for these seats, and the
candidate who receives the highest number of votes in each constituency
wins the seat, even if they do not secure a majority of the votes cast. This
means that winning candidates may be elected with less than 50% of the
vote if there are multiple candidates in the race.

FPTP tends to produce single-party majority governments, where the party

that wins the most seats forms the government. This can provide stability
and clear accountability, as the governing party has a mandate to
implement its policies. However, FPTP can also lead to disproportional
outcomes, where a party may win a majority of seats in the legislature
without receiving a majority of the popular vote. This can result in a lack
of representation for smaller parties and regions.

Single-member plurality (SMP) system or ‘first past the post’ are commonly used in the
UK (House of Commons), the USA, Canada and India. In these systems, the country is
divided into single-member constituencies, usually of equal size, and voters select a single
candidate. In order to win the seat, a candidate needs only to achieve a plurality of votes or
poll more votes than any other counterpart. This is usually referred to as the ‘first past the
post’ rule. Those votes cast for losing candidates and those cast for winning ones over the
plurality mark are effectively unaccounted for in determining the result of the election. It
under-represents small parties and ones with geographically evenly distributed support (the
‘third-party effect’) thereby distorting electoral preferences. It offers only limited choice to
voters because of its duopolistic (two-major-parties) tendencies. Further, the system
undermines the legitimacy of government because governments often enjoy only minority
support, producing a system of plurality rule.

The second ballot system is another type of majoritarian electoral system. It is used in
France, Austria, Chile, and Russia. Similar to the single member plurality system, the country
is divided into single-candidate constituencies and voters vote for one single candidate of
choice. To win the seat on the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority of the votes
cast i.e., at least 50 +1 per cent. If no candidate gains a first-ballot majority, a second ballot is
held between the leading two candidates. This system has several advantages. It broadens
electoral choice in that voters can vote with their hearts for their preferred candidate in the
first ballot, and with their heads for their second favourite candidate in the second.

Alternative vote (AV) or supplementary vote (SV) systems are yet another type of pure
Majoritarian system. These are used in Australia (House of Representatives (AV)), and the
UK (London mayor (SV)). As in the other majoritarian systems, here, too, there are single-
member constituencies. Votes are cast on the basis of preferential voting. In AV system,
voters rank the candidates in order of preference while in SV, there is only a single
‘supplementary’ vote. To win, candidates must gain at least 50+1 per cent of all the votes
cast. Votes are counted according to the first preferences. If no candidate reaches absolute
majority, the candidate with the least vote is eliminated and their votes are redistributed
according to the second (or subsequent) preferences. This continues until one candidate has a
majority.

Critics of FPTP argue that it can exacerbate political polarization and

discourage voter turnout, as voters may feel disenfranchised if they live in
a constituency where their preferred candidate has little chance of
winning. Additionally, FPTP can discourage the emergence of new political
parties, as the winner-takes-all nature of the system favors larger,
established parties.

Despite its criticisms, FPTP remains in use in many countries due to its
simplicity and familiarity. However, some jurisdictions have considered or
implemented electoral reforms to address perceived shortcomings of the
FPTP system, such as adopting proportional representation or ranked-
choice voting methods.

Proportional Representation (PR) is an electoral system that aims to

ensure that the distribution of seats in a representative assembly reflects
the proportion of votes received by each political party or candidate.
Unlike plurality systems like First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), where the
candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins the seat, PR
systems allocate seats to parties based on their share of the overall vote.
There are several variations of PR systems, each with its own set of rules
and procedures. One common form is the Party List PR system, where
voters cast their vote for a political party rather than an individual
candidate. Political parties present lists of candidates, and seats are
allocated to parties based on the proportion of votes they receive. For
example, if a party receives 30% of the vote, it is allocated approximately
30% of the seats in the legislature.

Another form of PR is the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system,

where voters rank candidates in order of preference. Seats are allocated
based on a complex formula that takes into account voters' preferences
and ensures that candidates are elected in proportion to their level of
support. STV systems are often used in multi-member constituencies,
where several representatives are elected to a single district.

Another proportional system is known as the Party-List System which is popularly used in
Israel, many European countries including Belgium, Luxembourg and Switzerland, and the
European Parliament. In this system, either the entire country is treated as a single
constituency, or, a number of large multi-member Constituencies in the case of regional party
lists. Political Parties compile lists of candidates in the fray in descending order of preference
and place them before the electorate. In this system, electors vote for parties, not for
candidates. Parties win seats in direct proportion to the votes they gain in the election. They
fill the legislative seats from candidates on their party list in descending order.

PR systems aim to address some of the shortcomings of plurality systems,

such as wasted votes and disproportionate representation. In plurality
systems, votes cast for losing candidates do not contribute to the
outcome of the election, leading to a lack of representation for minority
viewpoints. PR systems, on the other hand, ensure that even smaller
parties and minority groups are able to win representation in the
legislature, promoting inclusivity and diversity.

PR systems also tend to produce more proportional outcomes, where the

distribution of seats in the legislature closely mirrors the distribution of
votes among political parties. This can result in coalition governments,
where multiple parties must work together to form a governing majority.
While coalition governments can be more complex and challenging to
manage, they also tend to be more representative of the diverse interests
within society.

However, PR systems are not without their drawbacks. Critics argue that
PR systems can lead to political fragmentation and instability, as smaller
parties may hold the balance of power and exert disproportionate
influence over government policies. Additionally, PR systems can make it
more difficult for voters to hold individual representatives accountable, as
elected officials may be selected from party lists rather than directly
elected by constituents.
Overall, PR systems offer a more proportional and inclusive approach to
representation than plurality systems, ensuring that all voices are heard in
the political process. While they may have some drawbacks, PR systems
play a crucial role in promoting democracy, diversity, and representation
in representative democracies around the world.

The Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system is a hybrid

electoral system that combines elements of both plurality and
proportional representation (PR) systems. It aims to achieve a balance
between local representation and proportionality in the allocation of seats
in a legislative body.

In an MMP system, voters typically have two votes: one for a candidate in
their local electoral district and one for a political party at the national or
regional level. The electoral district vote is used to elect a local
representative using a plurality or first-past-the-post (FPTP) system,
similar to how elections are conducted in systems like the United States or
the United Kingdom. The candidate with the most votes in each electoral
district wins the seat.

In addition to the local representatives, seats are also allocated to political

parties based on the proportion of votes they receive at the national or
regional level. These seats are filled from party lists, which are
determined by each political party prior to the election. Parties are
allocated additional seats to ensure that the overall composition of the
legislature reflects the proportion of votes received by each party.

MMP systems aim to combine the advantages of local representation with

the proportional allocation of seats. By electing local representatives in
single-member districts, MMP systems ensure that constituents have a
direct point of contact with their elected officials and can hold them
accountable for their actions. At the same time, the proportional allocation
of seats based on party votes ensures that the overall composition of the
legislature reflects the diversity of political preferences within the
electorate.

MMP systems are used in several countries around the world, including
Germany, New Zealand, and Mexico. While the specific details of MMP
systems may vary from one country to another, they all share the basic
principle of combining local representation with proportional allocation of
seats. Despite some complexities in their implementation, MMP systems
are generally regarded as effective in balancing competing demands for
local accountability and proportionality in representation.

In conclusion, electoral systems form the cornerstone of democratic governance, defining

how elections are conducted and representatives are chosen. Whether it's the plurality
systems like First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), which prioritize simplicity and local representation,
or proportional representation (PR) systems, which aim for fairness and inclusivity, each
electoral system has its strengths and weaknesses.

Plurality systems often result in strong, majority governments but can lead to
disproportionality and underrepresentation of minority voices. On the other hand, PR systems
strive for proportionality but may foster political fragmentation and coalition governments.
Hybrid systems like Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) seek to strike a balance between
local accountability and proportionality, offering voters the best of both worlds.

Ultimately, the choice of electoral system shapes the dynamics of political competition, the
behavior of political parties, and the representation of diverse interests within society. As
such, the debate over electoral reform and the quest for more effective, inclusive, and
representative electoral systems will continue to be a central theme in the ongoing evolution
of democratic governance worldwide. Through careful consideration of the strengths and
weaknesses of different electoral systems, societies can strive to create electoral frameworks
that best reflect their values, aspirations, and commitment to democracy.