Rutherford scattering

•In 1897 British physicist J.J. Thomson discovered the

electron, and went on to propose a "plum pudding"
model of the atom in which all of the
electrons were embedded in a spherical
positive charge the size of the atom.

“Plum
diameter

pudding”
atomic

+7 model of
the atom

•In the next slides we will disprove this model…

Rutherford scattering
•In 1911 British physicist Ernest
Rutherford conducted experiments on
the structure of the atom by sending
alpha particles through gold leaf.
•Gold leaf is like tin foil, but it can be
made much thinner so that the alpha
particles only travel through a thin layer
of atoms.
FYI
•An alpha () particle is a double-positively charged
particle emitted by radioactive materials such as
uranium.
 scintillation screen
Rutherford scattering
•Rutherford proposed that alpha particles would travel
more or less straight through the atom without
deflection if Thomson’s “plum pudding” model was
correct:





FYI
•Instead of observing minimal scattering as predicted
by the “plum pudding” model, Rutherford observed the
scattering as shown on the next slide:
Rutherford scattering
•Here we see that the deflections are much more
scattered...

nucleus The
Rutherford
atom Model
•Rutherford proposed that all of the positive charge of
the atom was located in the center, and he coined the
term nucleus for this location.
Rutherford scattering
expected
results

actual results

FYI
•IBO requires you to qualitatively understand the
Geiger-Marsden scattering experiment.
Rutherford scattering
•Only by
assuming a
concentration of
positive charge at
the center of the
atom, as opposed Geiger
to “spread out” as
in the plum
pudding model,
could Rutherford
and his team
explain the results Marsden
of the experiment.
Rutherford scattering
PRACTICE: In the Geiger-Marsden experiment 
particles are scattered by gold nuclei. The experimental
results indicate that most  particles are
A. Scattered only at small angles.
B. Scattered only at large angles.
C. Absorbed by the target.
D. Scattered back along the original path.
SOLUTION:
•Observing the image…
•Most  particles
scatter at small angles.
Rutherford scattering
PRACTICE: In 1913 Geiger and
Marsden fired alpha particles at
gold foil. The diagram shows two
such alpha particles () at A and
B and two gold nuclei within the
foil. Sketch in the likely paths for
each alpha particle within the box.
SOLUTION:
•Since  particles and nuclei are both (+) the 
particles will be repelled.
•From A the particle will scatter at a small angle.
Remember it is repulsed, not attracted.
•From B the particle will scatter at a large angle.
Describing the emission and absorption spectrum of
common gases
•When a gas in a tube is subjected to a voltage, the gas
ionizes, and emits light.
Describing the emission and absorption spectrum of
common gases
•We can analyze that light by looking
at it through a spectroscope.
•A spectroscope acts similar to a prism,
in that it separates the incident light into
its constituent wavelengths.
•For example, heated barium gas will produce an
emission spectrum that looks like this:

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

 / 10-9 m ( / nm)
•An emission spectrum is an elemental fingerprint.
 Describing the emission and absorption spectrum of
common gases
•Each element also has an absorption spectrum,
caused by cool gases between a source of light and the
scope. continuous
light spectrum
source
absorption
light cool spectrum
source gas X
emission
hot spectrum
compare…
gas X
Same fingerprint!
Transitions between energy levels

•In the late 1800s a

Swedish physicist by
the name of J.J.
Balmer observed the
spectrum of
hydrogen – the
simplest of all the
elements:
•His observations gave us clues as to the way the
negative charges were distributed about the nucleus.
Transitions between energy levels
•In reality, there are many additional natural groupings
for the hydrogen spectrum, two of which are shown
here:

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Lyman Balmer  / nm Paschen

Series Series Series
(UV) (Visible) (IR)
•These groupings led scientists to imagine that the
hydrogen’s single electron could occupy many different
energy levels, as shown in the next slide:
Transitions between energy levels
•The first 7 energy levels for hydrogen are shown here:
•The energy levels are
labeled from the lowest to
7
the highest as n = 1 to n = 7 6
45
in the picture. 3
2
•n is called the principal 1
quantum number and goes
all the way up to infinity ()!
•In its ground state or
unexcited state, hydrogen’s
single electron is in the 1st
energy level (n = 1):
Transitions between energy levels
•As we will see later, light energy is carried by a particle
called a photon.
•If a photon of just the right
7
energy strikes a hydrogen 6
45
atom, it is absorbed by the 3
2
atom and stored by virtue of
1
the electron jumping to a
new energy level:
•The electron jumped from
the n = 1 state to the n = 3
state.
•We say the atom is excited.
Transitions between energy levels
•When the atom de-excites the electron jumps back
down to a lower energy level.
•When it does, it emits a
7
photon of just the right energy 6
45
to account for the atom’s 3
2
energy loss during the
1
electron’s orbital drop.
•The electron jumped from the
n = 3 state to the n = 2 state.
•We say the atom is
de-excited, but not quite in its
ground state.
Transitions between energy levels
•The graphic shown here accounts for many of the
observed hydrogen emission spectra.
•The excitation
illustrated
looked like this:
•The de-
excitation
looked like
Infrared
this:
Visible

Ultraviolet
Transitions between energy levels
•The human eye is only sensitive to the Balmer
series of photon energies (or wavelengths):

Infrared

Visible

Ultraviolet
Transitions between energy levels
n= 0.00 eV
•The previous Second n=5 -0.544 eV
Excited n=4 -0.850 eV
energy level
State → n = 3 -1.51 eV
diagram was NOT
First Paschen Series (IR)
to scale. This one Excited → n = 2
[ HEAT ] -3.40 eV
is. Note that none State
Balmer Series (Visible)
of the energy
drops of the other Ground
series overlap State → n = 1 -13.6 eV
those of the Lyman Series (UV)
Balmer series, and thus we [ SUNBURN ]
cannot see any of them. FYI •Transition energy is
•But we can still sense measured in eV because of
them! the tiny amounts involved.
Transitions between energy levels
•Because of
wave-particle duality,
we have discovered that
light not only acts like a
wave, having a
wavelength  and a
frequency f, but it acts
like a particle (called a
photon) having an
energy E given by

E = hf Where h = 6.6310 -34 Js energy E of a photon

and is called Planck’s
constant. having frequency f
Transitions between energy levels
EXAMPLE:
An electron jumps from
energy level n = 3 to
energy level n = 2 in the
hydrogen atom.
(a) What series is this
de-excitation in?
SOLUTION:
•Find it on the diagram:
•This jump is contained
in the Balmer Series, and
produces a visible photon.
Transitions between energy levels
EXAMPLE:
An electron jumps from
energy level n = 3 to
energy level n = 2 in the
hydrogen atom.
(b) Find the atom’s change
in energy in eV and in J.
SOLUTION:
•E = Ef – E0
= -3.40 - -1.51 = -1.89 eV.
•E = (-1.89 eV)(1.6010-19 J / eV)
= -3.0210-19 J.
Transitions between energy levels
EXAMPLE:
An electron jumps from
energy level n = 3 to
energy level n = 2 in the
hydrogen atom.
(c) Find the energy (in J)
of the emitted photon.
SOLUTION:
•The hydrogen atom lost
3.0210-19 J of energy.
•From conservation of energy a photon was created
having E = 3.0210-19 J.
Transitions between energy levels
EXAMPLE:
An electron jumps from
energy level n = 3 to
energy level n = 2 in the
hydrogen atom.
(d) Find the frequency of
the emitted photon.
SOLUTION:
•From E = hf we have
3.0210-19 = (6.6310-34)f, or
FYI •When finding
f = 3.0210-19 / 6.6310-34 f, be sure E is in
f = 4.561014 Hz. Joules, not eV.
Transitions between energy levels
EXAMPLE:
An electron jumps from
energy level n = 3 to
energy level n = 2 in the
hydrogen atom.
(e) Find the wavelength
(in nm) of the emitted photon.
SOLUTION:
•From v = f where v = c
we have 3.00108 = (4.561014), or  = 6.5810-7 m.
•Then  = 6.5810-7 m
= 65810-9 m = 658 nm.
Energy lines and
spectra
Transition ∆𝑬 (eV) λ

4 -> 1
4 -> 3
3 -> 2
2 -> 1
3 -> 1
4 -> 2
Discrete energy and discrete energy levels
•Discrete means discontinuous, or separated.
PRACTICE: Which one of the following provides direct
evidence for the existence of discrete energy levels in
an atom?
A. The continuous spectrum of the light emitted by a
white hot metal.
B. The line emission spectrum of a gas at low pressure.
C. The emission of gamma radiation from radioactive
atoms.
D. The ionization of gas atoms when bombarded by
alpha particles.
SOLUTION:
•Just pay attention!