Oxford Resources for IB

Environmental Systems and Societies –

2024 Edition
Answers
Topic 1—Foundation
1.1 Perspectives

Page 4 Case study 1: Harambe the gorilla

1. Answers will vary depending on student's view of:
 the value of animal vs human life.
 the rescue of the child vs duty of care for the captured gorilla.
 any other points.
2. Possible answers include:
For:
 The shooting protected the child's life and stopped any injuries.
 A fast decision was needed, so no time for debate/discussion.
 It was not the fault of the child to fall in, or was the fence not high enough?
 The child’s parents might sue the zoo if it did not act.
 Any other points.
Against:
 An assumption was made that a human child’s life takes priority over an
animal’s.
 It was not clear that Harambe was going to harm the child.
 No harm was caused before Harambe was shot.
 The child’s parents were at fault. They should have stopped him from
getting in.
 Any other points.
3. Possible answers include:
 It is hard to know as the zookeeper had to carry out orders.
 The zookeeper probably had a bond with Harambe if he had cared for him.
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  Any other points.
4. Possible answers include:
 The child’s parents were in the wrong to not look after the child well
enough.
 Animal life is as valid as human life.
 Any other points.
5. Possible answers include:
 They were probably working in a zoo because they care for animals/ want
to protect them/ view all life as important and not for exploitation.
 They were probably just doing it as a job.
 Any other points.

Page 6 Activity 1
1–5 Answers will vary.

Page 6 Activity 2
1–6 Answers will vary.

Page 7 Activity 3
1–5 Answers will vary.

Page 10 Activity 4
Answers will vary.

Page 11 Activity 5
1–2 Answers will vary.

Pages 12–13 Case study 2: Oil company advertising

1. Answers will vary depending on student's view of:
 what "away" means: the pollution may be away from you but it cannot be
away from the Earth.
 any other points.
2. Yes, to a certain extent. Carbon dioxide is used by green plants to produce
glucose in photosynthesis, so the statement is true in that sense. But the
concept is tricky because the slogan is implying that all greenhouse gases
can be absorbed by plants, which is not true.

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 3. Yes, it is true but not all concrete has sulfur added. Any other points.
4. Possible answers may agree or disagree with the statement depending on the
EVS that the student is developing.
5. Answers will vary depending on student's view of:
 the awareness level of today's consumers
 advertising standards today
 any other points
6. Answers will vary.
7. Answers will vary depending on student's view of:
 how serious the issue of greenwashing is.
 factors influencing their purchase decisions.
 any other points.
8. Answers will vary.
9. Possible answers may consider the cultural and geographical background of
[Link], and also its status as a charity NGO.
10. Answers will vary.
11. Answers will vary.
12. BP are aiming to reduce to "net zero" the average carbon intensity of
sold energy products by 2050 or sooner.
13. Possible answers include:
 Yes, because BP now also invests in green energy production, e.g.
Lightsource BP is developing solar farms.
 No, because BP’s business is still focused on oil. We all still use oil.
 Any other points.
14. Possible answers include:
 increased public pressure
 more obvious climate change impacts
 any other points
15. Answers will vary.
16. Possible answers include:
For:
 undeserved/unexpected profits due to the price of fuel increasing, so tax
should be imposed
 any other points
Against:
 not the role of government to impose ad hoc taxes
 companies need income for research
 any other points
17. Possible answers include:
 how companies are increasing investment in renewable energy
 how fossil fuel use is being phased out
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  any other points

Pages 13–14 Case study 3: Some major environmental disasters

1. Possible answers include:
 human errors
 slow recognition of an issue
 slow actions to remedy the disaster
 companies not always accountable to victims
 any other points
2. a. Possible answers include:
 Certain media reports of nuclear accidents, e.g. Chernobyl, Fukushima,
tend to be more emotive.
 Reason shows nuclear accidents are rare and it is mostly a safe form of
energy production.
 Any other points.
b. Possible answers include:
For:
 cheap energy
 no carbon emissions once running
 global and national need for more and more energy
 any other points
Against
 safety issues with regards to meltdowns and waste disposal
 mining
 high-cost of reactors
 hot waste water altering aquatic environment
 any other points
c. Answers will vary. The technology is not yet viable but it may work in the
future.
3. a. Possible answers include:
Exxon Valdez oil spill
Short-term:
 1,300 miles of coastline affected
 habitats destroyed
 wildlife lost, e.g. 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, hundreds of seals,
bald eagles, 22 orcas killed
 slow clean-up response from Exxon
 any other points
Long-term:
 loss of habitat in a formerly pristine environment
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 
legislation (Oil Pollution Act, 1990, USA)

climate change has confused some of the effects, as seas have become
warmer, ice has receded and populations have declined
 oil on Prince William Sound despite six months of clean-up
 herring fishery closed
 any other points
Deepwater Horizon
Short-term:
 210 million gallons of oil released from deep sea well into ocean, then
onto wetlands and beaches
 Gulf of Mexico: fisheries closed, tourism reduced, seafood industry
declined
 burning floating oil increased air pollution
 chemical dispersants adversely affected ecosystems: over 100,000
seabirds and 160,000 juvenile sea turtles killed; dolphins declined by
50%; 4 to 8 billion adult oysters lost; corals smothered
 any other points
Long-term:
 residual oil on seafloor
 other impacts still being assessed
 any other points
b. Exxon eventually paid over USD 2 billion in punitive damages to federal
and state governments, plaintiffs and in lawsuits. The captain of the ship
was acquitted on a charge of overseeing a vessel while intoxicated but he
was fined USD 50,000.
BP and operators paid USD 20.8 billion in compensation in 2016, which was
the largest settlement in US history. The US Restore Act in 2012 allocated
the settlement. A criminal case followed in 2012 and BP had to pay a USD
4 billion penalty. Much of the settlement went to restoring the ecosystems.
c. The only way to prevent oil spills is to stop drilling for oil. Lessons learned
and legislation / tighter control should reduce the risk of spills so that
catastrophic events as these less likely.
4. Figures vary but the World Health Organization (WHO) assesses that there are
7 million human premature deaths due to air pollution annually worldwide. Air
pollution is not evenly distributed. Large conurbations and industrial areas
have more, and prevailing winds move the pollution to other areas, so often
inequities mean some areas suffer more than others.
5. The class discussion may raise different views depending on the EVSs of
students but also show how complex the issue is.
Ecocentric arguments may argue for renewable energy and reducing/stopping
the use of fossil fuel. Technocentric arguments may argue that carbon can be
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 captured, and we should use fossil fuels as they are efficient. Anthropocentric
arguments will argue that humans need energy, so they should use all
available sources.

Pages 15 Check your understanding

1. Answers will vary.
2. Answers will vary.
3. Possible answers include:
 no attempt to curb use of energy
 use energy-saving technology
 any other points
4. Possible answers include:
 reduce use of energy
 cycling rather than driving
 any other points

1.2 Systems

Page 18 Activity 7
The table gives suggestions of inputs, flows, stores, flows and outputs for each system, but is not
exhaustive.
inputs flow store flow outputs
candle heat of flame melting, wax melting, carbon dioxide,
melting wax/ burning, hydrocarbons convection heat, light, soot
oxygen from the combustion
air
green sunlight, heat, respiration, glucose, respiration, glucose, oxygen,
plant oxygen, carbon photosynthesis, cellulose, wood, photosynthesis, water vapour,
dioxide, water, growth, cell lignin, leaves, growth, cell carbon dioxide,
minerals division roots division, cell leaf litter,
senescence, organic matter
decomposition
pond water, minerals, run-off, water, evaporation, water, minerals,
organisms, precipitation, organisms, heat, transpiration, organisms,
organic matter, immigration (in- gases, sediment, run-off, organic matter,
inorganic matter migration) organic matter seepage, inorganic matter
decomposition,
emigration (out-
migration)

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 you food, water, intake of oxygen energy, sugars, output of carbon dioxide,
oxygen, in respiration, carbohydrate, carbon dioxide undigested
minerals, breathing, fats, proteins, in respiration, waste matter,
vitamins homeostatic minerals, egestion, urine, heat,
processes, vitamins, heat, excretion, sound waves,
digestion memories secretion, sweat
growth
your people, energy, education, buildings, education heat, people
school food equipment,
library, food,
knowledge
green sunlight, heat, respiration, glucose, respiration, glucose, oxygen,
plant oxygen, carbon photosynthesis, cellulose, wood, photosynthesis, water vapour,
dioxide, water, growth, cell lignin, leaves, growth, cell carbon dioxide,
minerals division roots division, cell leaf litter,
senescence, organic matter
decomposition

Pages 18–19 Activity 8

Answers will vary depending on student experience and where they live but suggestions are given here:
1. Storages: plants, herbivores, carnivores, detritus, decomposers and
detritivores, nutrient pool.
2. Flows (processes): light input, consumption, death, waste, recycling,
respiration, food input, heat output, wind and water removal.
3. Oak tree, grasses, birch trees, any other deciduous tree or shrub.
4. Rabbits, squirrel, any seed-eating birds, deer, moose.
5. Fox, mountain lion, wolf, coyote.
6. Animal migration, water, windblown soil, light, gases.
7. Sunlight, seeds transported in by animals / birds / wind, carnivores bring in
their prey.
8. Heat energy.
9. Respiration.
10. Animals, waste, nutrients.

Page 20 Activity 9
Transformations: 1, 2, 3, 6
Transfers: 4, 5, 7

Page 22 Case study 4: Biosphere 2

1. Biosphere 1 is the Earth and it is a catchy name.
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 2. It exchanges energy but not matter with the external environment.
3. No, because inhabitants moved in, oxygen levels fell and had to be
augmented, they opened windows and doors, natural gas source for energy
production is not clear.
4. Unstable.
5. How difficult it is to create and maintain a stable closed system; humans do
unpredictable things; complex system not understood fully.
6. Not a great deal except how difficult it can be if we do not understand what
processes are involved. (But rewilding projects also show the great ability to
regenerate once humans stop degrading an ecosystem.)

Page 25 Data-based questions: Predator–prey interactions and negative feedback

1. About 8–10 years.
2. About the same.
3. When there are many hares, they are the primary food of the lynx. Lynx
numbers rise but more lynx equals more predation so hare numbers fall. This
is followed by fall in lynx numbers, less predation, more hares and the cycle
continues.
4. Each lynx needs to eat more than one hare to survive and many hares escape
or are eaten by other predators or die through disease.
5. Other predators replaced the lynx and the cycles continued.

Page 26 Activity 10
positive feedback: 2, 3, 5
negative feedback: 1, 4, 6, 7
The diagrams show a positive feedback loop for question 3 and a negative feedback loop for question 4.

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Page 27 Activity 11
DaisyWorld simulation. This could be an assignment or class activity. Answers will vary.

Page 31 Check your understanding

1. For the answer, please refer to p. 17.
2. For the answer, please refer to p. 18.
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 3. Answers will vary but for possible ideas, please refer to p. 17.
4. For the answer, please refer to p. 23.
5. Answers will vary but for possible ideas, please refer to p. 28.
6. For the answer, please refer to pp. 30–31.
7. Answers will vary but for possible ideas, please refer to p. 30.
8. For the answer, please refer to p. 29.

1.3 Sustainability

Page 34 Activity 12
1. In Venn diagrams circles that overlap have something in common. Those that
don't overlap do not share traits. Social and economic sustainability share the
economic-social traits of business ethics, fair trade and workers’ rights.
Economic and environmental sustainability share the environmental-
economic traits of energy efficiency and subsidies for the use of natural
resources. Social and environmental sustainability share the social-
environmental traits of environmental justice, natural resources stewardship,
locally and globally.
2. Yes, as culture determines how we treat the environment. A culture that sees
infinite resources available on Earth or encourages inequity or social injustice
cannot be sustainable. Is culture a separate circle or part of social
sustainability? Students answers will vary depending on their view on whether
culture can be added or not. For example, it could be added as a fourth circle
with the idea that sustainable development can only be achieved when all
four spheres overlap:

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 3. The concentric circle model in Figure 2 shows that the economy and society
are constrained by the environment. The Venn diagram in Figure 1 has them
interlinking and all three (or four) are required for sustainability. If we use the
concentric circle model, possibly, the economy is where decisions are made
yet the environment and society are where the effect of economic decisions
are felt. (For example, fossil fuel exploitation or any other example.) In the
Venn diagram model, all have to be balanced and decisions weighed with
respect to all circles.
4. No model is perfect; models are only a simplified representation of reality.
Possible answers to evaluate the models include:
Strengths:
 can be used to demonstrate how being sustainable depends on the three
types interacting
 useful in educating people
 useful in business planning
 any other points
Weaknesses:
 are very simplified
 may assume equal weighting to the three areas in the Venn diagram
model or a hierarchy in the concentric model
 do not really address the central issue of how to become more sustainable
 any other points

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Page 36 Activity 13
Answers will vary.

Page 36 Activity 14
1. Answers will vary. Possible answers on the Brundtland Report may include:
 defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs”
 developed guiding principles for sustainable development
 stated that critical global environmental problems were primarily the result
of the enormous poverty of the south and the non-sustainable patterns of
consumption and production in the north
 called for a strategy that united development and the environment
 any other points
2. Gro Harlem Brundtland, former prime minister of Norway; born in 1939.
3. The three pillars of sustainability are:
 environmental—commitment to protect the environment (measure carbon
footprints, CSER—Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility as
examples).
 social—social aspect of equity and equality and respect for individual
rights.
 economic—economic aspect to improve living standards and use assets
wisely.
4. Yes, some. It led to:
 the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and international agreements made on
climate change, forests and biodiversity—27 principles agreed.
 the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention on
Climate Change, Principles of Forest Management, the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, and Agenda 21, which required countries
to draw up a national strategy of sustainable development.
 the establishment of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development.
5. Most documents were not binding but 154 countries signed UNFCCC which,
upon ratification, committed signatories' governments to reduce atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases with the goal of "preventing dangerous
anthropogenic interference with Earth's climate system". 175 countries
signed the Rio declaration but it was formally not binding.
6. It is still relevant today; concepts of the report are still used and urgency for
action has increased.

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Page 40 Activity 15
Answers will vary according to the examples chosen and choice of presentation (e.g. poster, slideshow).
There are many examples in which indigenous peoples have been excluded, penalized or physically
removed from their homelands, throughout history and across the world. Climate change, population
increase, pollution and inequality of health care, education or wealth exacerbate issues. HL students
might look at the law and environmental justice here.

Page 41 Activity 16
1. Answers will vary.
2. Variation among classmates for EF could be due to:
 more travel.
 more air travel.
 greater energy/food/goods consumption in the home.
 lifestyle choices.
 any other points.
3. Suitable graphs are a histogram (quantitative data) or a bar chart (categorical
data). For a large class, grouping results could be used. Data should be
anonymized if needed.
4. Answers will vary. Possible answers include:
 fly less
 turn down heating
 turn off AC
 use energy-efficient appliances
 travel less
 fewer overseas breaks
 walk or cycle or use public transport—don't drive
 use an EV (electric vehicle) instead of an ICE (internal combustion engine)
 any other points
5. Answers will vary according to research undertaken. EF per capita in various
countries can be researched online.
6. Possible strengths include:
 easy to use
 estimates provide a rough guide to an EF
 allows for a visual result
 any other points
Possible weaknesses include:
 inaccurate
 estimates depend on what the input is
 but some factors may be missed
 any other points

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Pages 43–44 Data-based questions
1. a. Biocapacity is the capacity of a biologically productive area to generate a
supply of renewable resources and to absorb its waste; therefore, biocapacity
falling means there is less productivity and/or lower ability for an area to
absorb waste. This may be due to factors such as soil degradation, ocean
warming or acidification, pollution. Global EF per capita remains about the
same because we are not reducing consumption overall; also because, as
people in lower-income countries become richer, they tend to consume more.
b. Net productivity varies over the Earth (see topic 2 for more on this) but for
here, it is fairly obvious that resources are not evenly spread around the
Earth; for example: sunlight and heat nearer the equator, less at poles; low
amounts of precipitation can limit plant growth; fossil fuels are not found
everywhere; deep oceans are dark and mostly cold so low productivity. There
are many more reasons.
c. Higher-income countries have tended to exploit natural resources more in
their own country and in countries of other nations and to use these for their
own consumption. Often lower-income countries do not have the
infrastructure or funds to exploit their natural resources or export raw
materials for processing elsewhere. Consumption may depend on personal
EVSs. There are many more reasons.
d. To increase their carrying capacity, countries import goods or food or
water, export waste, or both.
e. Carbon footprint has increased from 1 hectare per person in 1961 to just
over 1.5 in 2022. The rate of increase has not been steady with a slight dip in
1980 to 2000.
f. More people use more fossil fuels, travel more, consume more or have
become more wealthy.
2. a. The regions include: most of Africa (except north coast countries and South
Africa, Namibia, Botswana), Madagascar, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Myanmar, Cambodia and the Philippines.
b. For North America and Australia, the reasons include high consumption of
energy per person, high level of imports of goods and foodstuffs and high
living standards. For Mongolia, the reasons include a large amount of coal
mined and burned for industry and household use and high numbers of
grazing livestock as nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism practised.
c. EF is very high in most of Europe and Russia. In Europe, as for North
America, this is due to high energy use—often gas or oil, many imports, high
living standards. Russia is a big producer and exporter of fossil fuels.
d. It may be difficult to collect the data for the WWF report or countries such
as Greenland and Iceland were unable to provide it. Iceland imports a great

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 deal and has high carbon dioxide levels at present; Greenland is very sparsely
populated but most land is an uninhabitable ice sheet; there is high use of
fossil fuels for heating and industry though, and high imports.
e. This is Eritrea, which is one of the least developed countries; it has a one-
party state, and may not collect or distribute the information.

Pages 44–45 Activity 17

1. Answers will vary depending on the year. It may be difficult to find these key
indicators but this could be done as a class activity.
2. Answers will vary. Other indicators could be any of the other planetary
boundaries e.g. soil degradation levels, air pollution, climate change
indicators, wildfire, flood or other extreme weather events incidences.
3. Answers will vary.

Page 50 Activity 18
1. In 2009, these planetary boundaries were crossed: biosphere integrity,
biogeochemical flows in orange zone, land-system change and climate
change in yellow.
2. Differences between the 2009 and 2022 models are:
 There were five boundaries crossed in 2022 compared with four in 2009,
and all have worsened (by 2023 six boundaries were crossed, as
freshwater change was added).
 They have quantified novel entities which are substances created and
introduced into the environment by humans e.g. plastics or microplastics,
chemicals e.g. synthetic organics, radioactive materials, nanomaterials,
GM organisms, and these have exceeded greatly their safe planetary
boundary.
 Land-system change has also been exceeded; this is when humans modify
the natural environment e.g. urban expansion or forest destruction,
cropland increase or abandonment to a point when the system can no
longer self-regulate.
3. Answers will vary depending on when the activity is attempted.
4. Answers will vary. Students should read the information and discuss the
current model.

Page 52 Activity 19
1. The five principles are: purpose, networks, governance, ownership and
finance.

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 2. The following points may be used to describe a 21st century economist:
 uses the doughnut model of economics
 rather than a self-contained market, thinks along the lines of an embedded
economy
 sees and thinks of humans as social beings who are adaptable
 uses (complex) systems to their advantage
 is distributive in terms of design
 thinks about regeneration as part of the design process
 takes an agnostic not addicted approach to growth
3. a. Answers will vary according to which three of the larger shortfalls student’s
choose. Possible answers include:
 peace and justice—e.g. ongoing conflicts around the world
 gender equality—e.g. child labour, child marriage, economic inequality,
discrimination, medical care
 health—e.g. life expectancy varies with access to care due to education,
socio-economic factors, geography, ethnicity
 any other points
b. Possible benefits are:
 includes social and ecological elements
 applies at small and large scales
 aids sustainability actions
 well-publicized so known by many
 visual representations are helpful
 change of mindset in economic thinking
 any other points
Possible disadvantages are:
 complex and maybe confusing model
 lots of information
 need to explain and expand the terms
 no specific policies or ideas on what needs to be done
 is merely a “current state” model not a proposal for future action
 any other points
4. a. The datasets used are: Felix Surjadjaja, 23 August 2022; for the former
boundary, the data is extracted from World Bank and Unicef API, with some
transformation on some of their metrics. The latter is extracted it from the
scientific journal article by Fanning and team. The reference is Fanning, A.L.,
O’Neill, D.W., Hickel, J., and Roux, N. (2021). The social shortfall and
ecological overshoot of nations. Nature Sustainability in press.
b–c. Answers will vary depending on the four countries selected. Reasons for
differences should include factors such as the country’s level of development,
size, presence of natural resources, imports.
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Pages 54–55 Check your understanding
1. For the answer, please refer to p. 35.
2. For the answer, please refer to p. 35.
3. For the answer, please refer to pp. 40–41.
4. For the answer, please refer to p. 41.
5. For the answer, please refer to p. 36.
6. For the answer, please refer to p. 38.
7. Answers will vary depending on student’s research, but for one possible idea,
see pp. 38–39.
8. For the answer, please refer to p. 46.

1.4 Practical work: Questionnaires and surveys

Page 67 Activity 20
1. Possible answers include three of the following:
 biodiversity
 ocean acidification
 carbon dioxide levels in atmosphere
 sea level rise
 pollution levels
 any other points
2. Possible answers include two of the following:
 reduce energy use
 fly less
 drive less
 eat less red meat
 any other points
3. Greater use of renewable energy sources; and carbon capture and storage.
4. More fossil fuel reservoirs found and exploited; and increased overfishing of
oceans.

Exam-style questions
1. Possible answers include:
 understanding concepts and terminology—environmental value systems;
ecocentric/anthropocentric/technocentric; sustainability; sustainable
development; environmental indicators; ecological footprint; natural capital

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 and income; aquatic and terrestrial food production; soil; biodiversity;
eutrophication
 breadth in addressing and linking inclusion of both aquatic and terrestrial
systems; variety of systems in different climates; variety of factors
affecting sustainability (subtopic 5.2)
 examples of food production systems in terrestrial systems and aquatic
systems
 balanced analysis includes ecocentric, anthropocentric and technocentric
solutions and a mix of terrestrial and aquatic systems; and evaluation of
their relative impact on sustainability
 a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis and examples given e.g.
an ecocentric approach to food production may be the most sustainable
with minimal input of pesticides, fertilizers and small-scale production but
the addition of some low-technological solutions such as monitoring of
climate and drip irrigation with an anthropocentric addition of setting limits
to the use of pesticides and fertilizers and incentives to reduce climate
change will be the most successful approach
 any other points
2. Possible answers include:
 understanding concepts and terminology of mitigation, adaptation,
ecocentric/technocentric values, causes and impacts of global warming,
strategies for reducing causes/managing impacts, carbon sinks, etc.
 breadth in addressing and linking a wide range of relevant strategies with
mitigation or adaptation and with ecocentric values e.g. restraint/low
consumption, changed lifestyles, sustainability, low technology,
decentralization, and technocentric values e.g. maximizing growth,
unlimited exploitation, resolving issues through technology and scientific
expertise
 examples of mitigation improving energy efficiency/consumption, alternative
energies, reduction of emissions, e.g. catalytic converters, geoengineering,
fertilizing oceans, afforestation/forest protection, UNREDD, carbon capture
and storage, nutrifying oceans, and adaptation flood defence,
desalinization, vaccination, crop choice
 balanced analysis of the extent to which mitigation strategies are genuinely
ecocentric and adaptation strategies are technocentric including
counterarguments (may include reference to anthropocentric nature of
some strategies)
 a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis and examples given e.g.
“although, in general terms, ecocentric values favour a preventative
approach and living within the sustainable limits rather than adapting to
human impacts, some mitigation strategies involve a heavy use of large-
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 scale technology, acceptable to technocentrics, but to which ecocentrics
are generally opposed”
 any other points
3. Possible answers include:
 understanding concepts and terminology of negative and positive feedback,
steady-state and dynamic equilibria, tipping points, resilience,
sustainability, colonization, pioneer communities, succession, biodiversity,
variety of nutrient and energy pathways, human threats e.g. climate
change, eutrophication, deforestation, land degradation, marine pollution,
toxic pollution of lakes
 breadth in addressing and linking negative feedback with stability, steady state,
resilience in natural systems mitigating adverse impacts; and positive
feedback with dynamic equilibria, growth, succession in restoration as well
as amplifying/exacerbating human disturbance and destabilization of
systems, etc.
 examples of organisms, feeding and non-feeding relationships, abiotic and
biotic interactions generating negative feedback loops in natural systems
and positive feedback promoting population growth, succession (i.e. earlier
successional stages modifying environment to allow more and more
colonization of later stages), and human impacts leading to positive
feedback through e.g. agriculture, unsustainable exploitation,
overharvesting, eutrophication, global warming
 balanced analysis of the extent to which feedback mechanisms maintain
stability and promote restoration in the face of human impact with counter
examples of positive feedback leading to greater destabilization, or to a
new equilibrium (past a tipping point), etc.
 a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis and examples given e.g.
“generally, negative feedback is significant in maintaining stability, while
positive feedback promotes restoration of plant communities. However,
human impacts frequently drive systems beyond their tipping point, and
then positive feedback drives the system even further from its naturally
stable equilibrium”
 any other points
4. a. i. Possible transfers include:
 advection
 precipitation
 snowmelt run-off
 surface run-off
 infiltration
 percolation
 groundwater flow
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  plant uptake
 any other points
Possible transformations include:
 evaporation
 condensation
 sublimation
 snowmelt
 transpiration
 any other points
ii. Possible answers include:
 reduction in biomass storage due to deforestation
 reduction of groundwater storage due to impermeable surfaces or urban
withdrawal
 increase in lake/river/ocean storage due to deforestation or increase of
impermeable surfaces
 less snow due to urban heat island effects
 increased sediment or pollution in lakes/rivers/oceans/groundwater due
to construction or industrialized activities
 any other points
Note that students will only gain credit for flows identified in the diagram.
b. Alternative 1:
Named measure [1 max]: biochemical oxygen demand
Methodology [2 max]:
 measure the initial dissolved oxygen (DO)
 keep a sample in the dark for five days and measure DO again
 take the difference of the two measurements
Alternative 2:
Named measure [1 max]: biotic index/indicator species
Methodology [2 max]:
 sample the macroinvertebrates in the stream or lake
 through kick sampling or dragging feet along the bottom
 identify species present
 identify indicator species or tolerance levels
5. Possible answers include:
 positive feedback loops (destabilizing) amplify changes in an ecosystem
 feedback refers to the return of part of the output from a system as input
so as to affect succeeding outputs
 this drives the system towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is
adopted
 this new equilibrium may be an alternative stable state or involve collapse
of the original system
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  for example, increased global temperatures are melting permafrost,
leading to the release of methane…
 ...which is a greenhouse gas and leads to further increases in global
temperatures
 any other points
Note that students would also gain full marks for a diagram or well-developed example of positive
feedback.
6. Possible answers include:
 understanding concepts and terminology of ecological footprint; EVS; carrying
capacity; sustainability; population growth
 breadth in addressing and linking climate change; population growth;
sustainability; food production methods; water resource management;
SDW management; resource management; consumption rates; living
standards; land use; environmental degradation
 examples of different strategies or perspectives to reduce the EF of a society
 balanced analysis discussing how the ecocentric, anthropocentric and
technocentric EVSs would approach the reduction of a society’s EF using a
range of resource use and management and addressing a range of factors
or variables influencing EF
 a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis and examples given e.g.
“ideologically, an ecocentric value system may be most successful in
reducing ecological footprints but in practice there needs to be the
legislative aspect of anthropocentrism and the technological innovation of
technocentrism to be really effective”
 any other points
7. Possible answers include:
 understanding concepts and terminology of availability and distribution of water;
water security; climate change; water pollution; sustainable management
of freshwater resources; reservoirs; desalination; artificial recharge; water
conservation; environmental value systems; increasing demand for water;
water scarcity; etc:
 breadth in addressing and linking a range of environmental value systems to
specific management strategies and general approaches that improve or
hinder widespread access to freshwater in a range of geographical
locations differing in freshwater availability or quality and societies of
different economic development
 examples could include a range of strategies and human management
activities or approaches linked to specific value systems that impact water
accessibility

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 balanced analysis of the extent to which different management strategies or
political decisions or legislation and agreements, linked to a range of
environmental value systems, influence, both positively and negatively,
the global accessibility of freshwater
 a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis and examples given e.g. “I
believe that all environmental value systems have something to offer when
considering access to freshwater, however an anthropocentric value
system may be most successful as it will implement strategies that include
the best of both extremes of technological scale and personal lifestyles”
 any other points
8. a. Possible answers include:
 natural capital refers to natural resources that can supply a natural
income of goods or services
 natural income is the yield or growth obtained from natural resources or
capital
 to be sustainable, natural capital must be used at rate slower than its
replenishment / within maximum sustainable yield / that fulfils current
needs without compromising future availability
 if more than the natural income is extracted, then the use is
unsustainable
 exploitation of natural capital may also be unsustainable due to
processes of extraction/transport/processing / environment should be in
same condition as at outset to be sustainable
 altering human behaviour/values/choices through
policies/legislations/campaigns so that unsustainable exploitation of
natural capital is reduced
 non-renewable natural capital is either irreplaceable or can only be
replaced over geological timescales / non-renewable natural capital can
never be used sustainably
 any other points
b. Possible answers include:
 environmental indicators (EIs) may involve measures of biodiversity/
pollution/population/climate/emissions/resource consumption
 EIs are tools for measuring progress towards sustainability/supporting
policy evaluation/informing the public/comparing nations
 EIs involve the setting of measurable goals from established baseline
measurements
 EIs can be used at a range of scales from local to global
 after some time, measures can be reassessed and compared to the
baselines/domestic objectives/international agreements (e.g.
Kyoto/Montreal Protocol)
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 
environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are EIs that measure a wide
profile of indicators usually before and after some development
 ecological footprints (EFs) are EIs that focus on rates of consumption
compared to rates of natural income
 if a population’s EF is greater than the area available this indicates
unsustainability
 the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment used indicators to give a
scientific appraisal of the condition/trends in the world’s ecosystems
and services
 certain species can be used as indicators of pollution
 some indicator species are particularly sensitive to pollution so a low
abundance may suggest heavy pollution or a high abundance may
suggest a clean environment (e.g. lichens)
 loss of these sensitive species may be an effective indicator for
appealing to the public
 some indicator species are particularly resistant to pollution so a high
abundance or dominance of these species may suggest high pollution
(e.g. tubifex worms/coliform bacteria)
 any other points
9. a. Possible answers [2 max] include:
 condensation
 evaporation
 freezing
 melting
 O3 →O2 +O
 Cl+ O3 → ClO+O2
 S O3+ H 2 O → H 2 SO 4
 N Ox + H 2 O → HN O3
 any other points
Students would gain credit for any valid chemical changes identified by formulae or words (e.g.
decomposition of ozone).
b. Possible answers [2 max] include:
 radiation of sunlight/solar energy/heat/light towards Earth
 radiation of heat/IR away from Earth
 reflection of light/heat towards space from Earth/clouds
 scattering of light/heat from particulate matter
 movement of (sensible) heat polewards by wind currents/tricellular
winds/Hadley cell/hurricanes/tropical cyclones
 movement of latent heat in water vapour by winds
 any other points
10. Possible answers include:
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  cultural—some cultures place a high value on nature and thus have a more
ecocentric EVS
 religious—some religions deify certain organisms/landscapes and thus
have a more ecocentric EVS
 economic—some would argue that more economically wealthy societies
tend towards a more technocentric/anthropocentric EVS
 socio-political—some would argue that a society with a strong social
political movement would tend towards a more anthropocentric EVS
 experience/history—societies that have experienced anthropogenic
disasters may become more prone to adopt ecocentric value systems
 any other points
11. Possible answers include:
 negative feedback loops occur when the output of a process inhibits or
reverses the same process…
 …thus inhibiting change/deviation / maintaining a system in
equilibrium/one stable state
 positive feedback loops occur when the output of a process accelerates
that same process
 …thus amplifying changes/deviations / driving system away from its
equilibrium/stable state
 excessive change/deviation may drive system beyond its tipping point…
 …when it will adopt a new equilibrium/alternate stable state
 any other points
Note that students will gain credit for any of the above in the form of an annotated diagram or
named example.
12. Possible answers include:
 increase in international tourists generates more wealth for developing
tourist industry
 more developed industry/better accommodation attracts more visitors
 any other points
13. Possible answers include:
For example: Rachel Carson—Author of Silent Spring (1962)
 Silent Spring documented/highlighted the problems caused by the
widespread use of synthetic pesticides
 focus was placed on the activities of chemical companies
 explained impact of use of insecticides/pesticides on birds of prey
 led to widespread awareness among (American) public of environmental
issues/bioaccumulation/biomagnification
 was a focal point for the social/environmental movements of the 1960s
 inspired many other environmentalists
 led to ban on DDT for agricultural uses
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  inspired the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency
 any other points
For example: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of 2011
 a natural disaster/earthquake/tsunami led to the biggest nuclear disaster
since Chernobyl at Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant
 estimates vary about the number of people affected by the disaster/no
direct deaths initially/over 600 deaths by workers/thousands with
increased risk of cancers
 as the disaster was able to happen in a “developed” country like Japan,
many societies concluded that nuclear power could not be “safe”
 this has led to increased public pressure to phase out nuclear power
generation – e.g. Germany sped up plans to close nuclear reactors/over 90
% of Italy voted against government plans to expand nuclear
power/Switzerland also decided to phase out nuclear power
 any other points

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