Fluid mechanics 1

1.0 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS AND FLUID STATICS

1.1 Definitions
1.1.1 Fluid
A fluid is a material substance that can flow. A fluid cannot sustain a shearing stress when at
rest. i.e. they lack the ability of solids to offer permanent resistance to a deforming force. Indeed,
it is the inability of fluids at rest to resist shearing stresses that gives them their characteristic
ability to flow, i.e. change shape. Fluids flow under the action of forces, deforming continuously
for as long as the force is applied.

Types of fluids
Fluids are classified as either liquids or gases.
i. A liquid is a substance that under suitable conditions of temperature will in time deform
to take up the shape of any container into which it is placed. A liquid is relatively
incompressible, and if all pressure, except its own vapor pressure is removed, the
cohesion between the molecules holds them together so that the liquid does not expand
indefinitely. Therefore, a liquid may form a free surface.
i. A gas is a substance that will deform and expand to occupy the entire volume of any
container in which it is placed without developing a free surface. Unlike liquids, gases are
highly compressible.

1.1.2 Fluid mechanics

Mechanics is the science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the influence
of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics, while the
branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.
Fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at
the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at
rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.

Fluid mechanics may be divided into three branches:

i. Fluid statics: this is the study of the mechanics of fluids at rest.
ii. Fluid dynamics: this is concerned with the relations between velocities and accelerations
of fluid flow and the forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

Other terms encountered under fluid mechanics include:

iii. Hydrodynamics - This deals primarily with the flow of fluids for which there is virtually
no density changes, e.g. the flow of liquid or gas at low speeds. Hydraulics (study of
liquid flows in pipes or open channels) falls within this category.
iv. Gas dynamics – this deal with fluids that undergo significant density changes, e.g. high
speed flows of gas through a nozzle.
 v. Aerodynamics - this deals with the flow of air past aircraft or rockets, whether low-speed
(incompressible) or high-speed (compressible).

1.1.4 Fluid as a continuum

Fluids are composed of molecules in constant motions. In most engineering applications the
average or macroscopic effects of a large number of molecules is considered. We thus do not
concern about the behavior of individual molecules. The fluid is treated as an infinitely divisible
substance, a continuum at which the properties of the fluid are considered as a continuous
(smooth) function of the space variables and time.

1.2 Properties of fluids

1.2.1 Pressure

Recall that stress is defined as force per unit area. The normal component of the force
acting on a surface per unit area is called the normal stress, and the tangential component of
force acting on a surface per unit area is called shear stress (Fig. 1–3). In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called pressure. The supporting walls of a fluid eliminate shear stress, and thus a
fluid at rest is at a state of zero shear stress. When the walls are removed or a liquid container is
tilted, a shear develops and the liquid splashes or moves to attain a horizontal free surface.

It is convenient to describe the forces acting on a fluid by specifying the pressure p, which is
defined as the magnitude of the normal force per unit surface area. In a fluid at rest, no
tangential stresses can exist, and the only forces between adjacent surfaces are pressure forces
normal to the surfaces.

Pressure at a point

Proof
Consider the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a triangular prism surrounding a
point in the fluid as shown in the figure below, a relationship can be established between the
pressures Px in the x direction, in the Py direction and Ps normal to any plane inclined at any
angle 𝜃 to the horizontal at this point.
X direction
Force due to Px

𝐹 𝑃 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐸 𝑃𝛿 𝛿
Component of the force due to Ps in the X direction

𝛿
𝑃 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑃𝛿 𝛿 𝑃𝛿 𝛿
𝛿
Since the fluid is at rest, for equilibrium;

∑𝐹 0 𝑃𝛿 𝛿 𝑃𝛿 𝛿 0 𝑃 𝑃

Y direction

Force due to Py

𝐹 𝑃 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 𝑃𝛿 𝛿
Component of the force due to Ps in the y direction

𝛿
𝑃 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃𝛿 𝛿 𝑃𝛿 𝛿
𝛿
Weight due to gravity = weight of the element = -specific weight * Volume

1
𝜌𝑔 ∗ 𝛿𝑥𝛿 𝛿𝑧
2
For equilibrium

𝐹 0
 1
𝑃𝛿 𝛿 𝑃𝛿 𝛿 𝜌𝑔 ∗ 𝛿𝑥𝛿 𝛿𝑧 0
2
Since 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿 , 𝛿𝑧 are all very small quantities, 𝛿𝑥𝛿 𝛿𝑧 is negligible in comparison with the other
two terms.
Therefore;

𝑃 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 (x)
Equation (x), therefore, indicates that the pressure at any given point in a fluid at rest is the
same in every direction. This is known as Pascal’s law and applies to a fluid at rest.

Variation of pressure with depth

Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect
of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an increase in pressure
To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a cylindrical element in the
figure below, inclined at an angle θ to the vertical, length 𝛿s, cross-sectional area A, in a static
fluid of mass density ρ. The pressure at the end with height z1 is p1 and at the end with height z2
= z1 + 𝛿z, is p1 + 𝛿p.
The forces acting on the element are:

 p1A; acting at right-angles to the end of the face at z1

 (p1 + 𝛿p)A; acting at right angles to the end of the face at z1 + 𝛿z

 mg ; the weight of the element acting vertically down through the centroid of the
element, G (= mass density x volume x gravity = 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝛿𝑠)
For equilibrium;
 𝐹 𝑚𝑎 0: 𝑃 𝐴 – 𝑃 𝛿𝑃 𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝛿𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
𝛿𝑃
𝛿𝑃 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝛿𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝛿𝑠
In differential form,

𝑑𝑃
𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑠
If 𝜃 90 , i.e. cylindrical element were horizontal, then,

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
0
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Confirming that pressure change on any horizontal plane is zero, i.e. points that lie at the same
horizontal level in a continuous fluid at equilibrium have equal pressures.
If 𝜃 0, i.e. cylindrical element were vertical, then

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑝
𝜌𝑔,
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧
Confirming that pressure increases with depth (or decreases with height).
This is the hydrostatic law of pressure

1.2.2 Density

The density of a substance is that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance. It
can be expressed in different ways

Mass density
This, also simply called density and denoted. Density is defined as mass per unit volume.

𝑚
𝜌 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑣

Density depends on temperature and pressure. The mass density of water at 40C is 1000 kg/m3.

Relative density / specific gravity

Relative density is defined as the ratio of the mass density of a substance to some standard mass
density. For solids and liquids, the standard mass density chosen is the maximum density of
water (which occurs at 4 °C at atmospheric pressure):
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 𝜎
𝜌

Specific weight
Specific weight w is defined as the weight per unit volume. The specific weight will vary from
point to point, according to the local value of gravitational acceleration g.
Weight per unit volume = Mass per unit volume × g
𝑤 𝜌𝑔 𝑁/𝑚
Specific volume
In addition to these measures of density, the quantity specific volume is sometimes used, being
defined as the reciprocal of mass density, i.e. it is used to mean volume per unit mass.

Example

1. Given that the density of air at 100 kPa and 25°C is 1.17kg/m3 , determine the specific
gravity, and the mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are 4 m*5 m * 6 m.

2. Convert a pressure head of 4.6 m of water to metres of oil of specific gravity 0.75
3. Find the pressure at the bottom of a tank containing glycerine under pressure as shown in
the figure below. Take specific weight of glycerine as 12.34 kN/m

1.2.3 Surface tension

A molecule within the body of the liquid is, on average, attracted equally in all directions by the
other molecules surrounding it. However, at the surface between liquid and air, or the interface
between one substance and another, the upward and downward attractions are unbalanced, the
surface molecules being pulled inward towards the bulk of the liquid. This effect causes the
liquid surface to behave as if it were an elastic membrane under tension.
Fig: Attractive forces acting on a liquid molecule at the surface and deep inside the liquid.

The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension σs and is usually expressed
in the unit N/m.

Surface tension increases the pressure inside a small droplet of liquid. To determine a relation
between this inside pressure, and the surface tension, consider a spherical droplet of diameter d

Force due to surface tension 𝐹 𝜎 𝜋𝑑

Force due to internal pressure 𝐹 𝑃

For equilibrium
𝟒𝛔𝐬
𝐹 𝐹 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐏
𝐝

Examples

1. Air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water to form a stream of bubbles.
If the bubbles are intended to have a diameter of 2 mm, calculate by how much the pressure of
the air at the nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water. Assume that 𝜎 72.7 ∗
2
10 𝑁/𝑚 (ans, 145.4 N/m )
 2. A small drop of water is in contact with air and has a diameter of 0.05 mm. If the
pressure within the droplet is 565 Pa greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the
surface tension? (ans, 7.06 x 10-3 N/m)

3. A spherical soap bubble has an inside radius R, a film thickness t, and a surface tension
σS. Derive a formula for the pressure within the bubble relative to the outside atmospheric
pressure. What is the value of this pressure for a bubble of 4 mm radius? Assume σS is
the same as for pure water at room temperature, i.e., 0.073 N/m. (73 N/m2)

1.2.4 Capillarity

This is due to both cohesion and adhesion. When cohesion has less effect than adhesion, the
liquid will wet a solid surface with which it is in contact and rise at the point of contact. If
cohesion predominates, the liquid surface will be depressed at the point of contact. For example,
capillarity makes water rise much higher than mercury, in a glass tube.

Fig: the capillary fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass tube.

Magnitude of capillary rise (H)

From fig: 111 atmospheric pressure is the same inside and outside the tube, and, therefore, the
only force opposing this upward pull is the weight of the vertical-sided column of liquid of
height .

Fig: The forces acting on a liquid column that has risen in a tube due to the capillary effect.
 Upward pull due to surface tension = upward component of surface tension * perimeter of
the tube
𝜎 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜋𝑑
Weight of the raised column
𝜋
𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑣 𝜌𝑔 𝑑 𝐻
4
Equate upward pull to weight of the column, therefore

𝟒𝛔𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
Capillary rise 𝐇
𝛒𝐠𝐝
Note that for tube diameters larger than 12 mm, capillary effects are virtually negligible.
In a clean glass tube, θ = 00 for water and 1400 for mercury.

1.2.5 Viscosity
Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to motion. It is a measure of the fluid’s resistance to
shear or angular deformation.
Viscosity of fluid decreases when its temperature increases. Consider the fluid element shown
below under the action of shearing force F

Fig: deformation caused by shearing forces

When a shearing force F is applied tangentially, the material which originally occupied ABCD
will deform to A’B’C’D’. In case of fluid, deformation will happen continuously causing the
fluid to flow.
Shear stress 𝜏

Deformation caused by shear stress is called shear strain

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∅
Shear strain rate
If the particle at a point E (which is at a height y above point D in the figure) moves under the
shear stress and takes time t to cover distance x, for small deformations, the shear strain is
expressed thus,

𝑥
∅
𝑦
∅
Shear strain rate
Where u is the velocity of the particle at E
Experimentally, shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain;

𝑢 𝑢
𝜏 ∝ ∅ 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 ∝ 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑦 𝑦
The term u/y is the change in velocity with y or the velocity gradient. In differential form;
𝜕𝑢
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑦
-1
can also be termed as shear rate 𝛾 (units, s )

𝜕𝑢
𝜏 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝛾
𝜕𝑦
𝜇 Is the constant of proportionality known as the viscosity or dynamic viscosity
Equation xxxx is known as Newton’s law of viscosity

𝒅𝒖 𝝏𝒖
Note: In pipe problems,
𝒅𝒓 𝝏𝒚

Fluids obeying this law, i.e. those that have a constant 𝜇, are called Newtonian fluids, e.g. water;
while fluids in which 𝜇 is not constant are non-Newtonian, e.g. milk. A fluid is said to be ideal
if it is frictionless or inviscid (𝜇 = 0) - but this does not occur in practice.
In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density appears frequently.
This is defined as the kinematic viscosity, ν, (units, m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001
m2/s)
𝜇
𝜈
𝜌
Examples

1. The viscosity of water at 200C is given as 0.01008 poise. Compute

a. The dynamic viscosity in Pa.s
b. The value of the kinematic viscosity in m2/s, if the relative density at 200C is
0.998

Dynamic viscosity (μ);

μ= 0.01008 poise x 0.1 = 1.008 x 10-3 Ns/m2

Kinematic viscosity

𝜇 1.008 10
𝜈 1.01 10 𝑚 /𝑠
𝜌 0.998 1000

2. Consider the flow of a fluid with viscosity μ through a circular pipe. The velocity profile in the
pipe is given as u(r) = umax (1 - r n/Rn), where umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs
at the centerline; r is the radial distance from the centerline; and u(r) is the flow velocity at any
position r.
Develop a relation for the drag force exerted on the pipe wall by the fluid in the flow direction
per unit length of the pipe.

Assignment
1. A thin 20-cm * 20-cm flat plate is pulled at 1 m/s horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick
oil layer sandwiched between two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a
constant velocity of 0.3 m/s, as shown in the figure below. The dynamic viscosity of oil is
0.027 Pa.s. Assuming the velocity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot the velocity
profile and find the location where the oil velocity is zero and (b) determine the force that
needs to be applied on the plate to maintain this motion.

2. Write short notes on Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.

1.3 Pressure measurements

1.3.1 Definitions
 Atmospheric pressure: The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere, many miles high. The
pressure due to this atmosphere at the surface of the earth depends upon the head of air
above the surface. Atmospheric pressure at sea-level is about 101.325 kN/m2, equivalent
to a head of 10.35 m of water or 760 mm of mercury
 Vacuum: A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space, in which the pressure is
absolute zero.
 Gauge pressure: This is the intensity of pressure measured above or below atmospheric
pressure.
 Absolute pressure: This is the intensity of pressure measured above absolute zero
(absolute zero of pressure occurs in a perfect vacuum).

1.3.2 The barometer and atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure
is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
In its simplest form, it consists of a glass tube about 1-m long that is closed at one end, and
Torricellian vacuum, forms at the top of the tube.

Pressure at A equals that at B (atmospheric) because the two points are at the same level, and
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑣 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Under normal circumstances of temperature, Pv is too small compared to PA such that it can be
neglected. Therefore,
𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Where ρ = density of mercury and h is the rise in the tube. At sea-level, h = 760 mm of mercury.
A mercury barometer is thus used to measure atmospheric pressure. Mercury is employed
because its density is sufficiently high for a fairly short column to be obtained.
1.3.3 Measurement of gauge pressure

Piezometer

This is a simple device for measuring moderate pressures of liquids. It consists of a tube in which
the liquid can freely rise. The height of the liquid in the tube will give the value of pressure head
directly
As the top of the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is gauge pressure

Figure 1.11: Piezometer

Simple manometer

The principle employed here is the same as that of a piezometer. While a piezometer cannot
measure pressure in gases, a manometer can be used to measure the pressure of either liquids or
gases.
The manometric liquid Q is immiscible with the fluid R.
The mass density of Q is ρman and that of R is ρ.
If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is a point at the same level in the
right-hand limb, pressure pB at B = pressure pC at C.
For the left limb;
𝑃 𝑃 𝜌𝑔ℎ
For the right limb;
𝑃 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝐷 0 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
Equating PB to PC (pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a fluid);

𝑃 𝑃𝐶; 𝑃 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝜌 𝑔ℎ

𝑃 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Example
1. A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Fig. 1.12 is used to measure the gauge pressure
of a fluid R of density ρ = 800 kg/m3. If the density of the manometric liquid Q is 13.6 x 103
kg/m3, what will be the gauge pressure at A if;
a. h1 = 0.5 m and D is 0.9 m above BC?
b. h1 = 0.1 m and D is 0.2 m below BC?
Solution

a. (Ans: 116:15 kPa.)

b. (Ans: -27.47 kPa)

2. A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity
of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown below. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank (Ans:100.6 kPa)
Solution

Measurement of differential pressure (pressure difference)

1. Differential U-tube manometer
The pressure difference between two points in a fluid can be measured either by
(a) Measuring the pressure at each point separately and subtracting, or
(b) Using a differential pressure gauge or manometer which directly measures the difference in
pressure.
 Figure 1.12: Differential U-tube manometer

The pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs must be the same, since the fluid in the
bottom of the U-tube is at rest.

Example

A differential U-tube manometer, as in Fig. 1.12, is used to measure the pressure difference
between two points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρ = 103 kg/m3. The density
of the manometric liquid Q is 13.6 x 103 kg/m3, and point B is 0.3 m higher than point A.
Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7 m.

Solution

Inverted differential U-tube manometer

This is used to measure pressure differences in liquids. The top of the U-tube is filled with a
fluid, which is less dense than that in which pressure is to be determined.
Figure 1.16:
Figure 1.16: Inverted differential U-tube manometer

Since the fluid at the top is at rest, pressures at level XX will be the same in both limbs.

For the left limb:

𝑃𝑋𝑋 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑎 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝑥

For the right limb:

𝑃𝑋𝑋 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔 𝑏 ℎ 𝑦

Equating (x) and (y),

𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑎 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝐵 𝜌𝑔 𝑏 ℎ
𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜌𝑔 𝑏 𝑎 𝜌 𝜌 𝑔ℎ

If A and B are at the same level,

𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜌 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
Example

An inverted U-tube manometer of the type shown in Fig. 1.16 is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points A and B in an inclined pipeline through which water is flowing.
The difference of level, h = 0.3 m, a = 0.25 m and b = 0.15 m.
Calculate the pressure difference, PB - PA if the top of the manometer is filled with: (a) air (b)
oil of relative density 0.8

Solution

(a)

Since 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜌 ≅0

(b) ANS: -392.4 N/m2

PROBLEMS

1. In the figure below, fluid R is water and fluid Q is mercury. If the specific weight of
mercury is 13.6 times that of water and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kN/m2, what is
the absolute pressure at A when h1 = 15 cm and h2 = 30 cm?
[59.8 kN/m2]
2. The U-tube differential manometer in the figure below, measures the pressure difference
between two points A and B in a liquid of density𝜌 . The U-tube contains mercury of
density𝜌 . Calculate the difference of pressure if a = 1.5 m, b = 0.75 m and h = 0.5 m
given that the liquid at A and B is water and 𝜌 13.6 𝜌 .
2
[54.4 kN/m ]
1.4 Hydrostatic thrust on submerged surfaces

The figure below shows a plane surface of arbitrary shape, wholly submerged in a liquid in
equilibrium. Let the liquid be of density 𝜌. The plane makes an angle θ with the free surface
(horizontal).

Figure: Hydrostatic thrust on a submerged plane

Every element of the area of the plane, e.g.𝛿𝐴, is subjected to a force due to the pressure of the
liquid. At any element of area 𝛿𝐴, at a depth h below the free surface, the gauge pressure is
𝑃 𝜌𝑔ℎ and the corresponding force is

Total force on the upper side of the plane is therefore

But 𝑦𝛿𝐴 is the first moment of area of the plane surface about the x-axis and may be
represented by 𝐴𝑦 (A being the total area of the surface in consideration).
Therefore,

But 𝜌𝑔ℎ is the pressure at the centroid of the plane surface hence the statement,
The total force (or thrust) exerted on it by the static fluid is given by the product of area of
the surface and the pressure at the centroid of the surface.

Centre of pressure for the plane surface

Besides knowing the magnitude of the total force F, we need to know the position of its line of
action. The total force is perpendicular to the plane and the point at which its line of action meets
the plane is known as the centre of pressure (or centre of thrust).

We'll determine this point by use of the principle of moments about the axis O - x, in three steps:

1. From 𝛿𝐹 𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃𝛿𝐴

Moment of this force about 0-x,
Total moment

𝑀 ρgy sin θ δA X
2. Let the pressure center be at (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ), the Moment of the force F about 0-x, is

𝑀 𝐹𝑦 ′ 𝑌
3. Moment of resultant force F about any axis must be the same as the sum of the moments
of individual forces (of each element) about the same axis.
𝑋 𝑌
Therefore;

𝐹𝑦 ′ ρgy sin θ δA
BUT 𝐹 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴𝑦

Therefore;

Therefore,

From observation the centre of pressure will always be below the centroid G except when the
surface is horizontal
In Terms of vertical depth:

And therefore;

This equation is especially useful when 𝜃 90 , i.e. when the plane is submerged vertically.
1.4 Buoyancy and Floatation
1.4.1 Buoyancy and Archimedes principle

A fluid will exert a resultant upward force on any-body which is wholly or partly immersed in it.
The tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid due to an upward force opposite
to an action of gravity is known as buoyancy and the force tending to lift up the body is known
as the buoyant force, force of buoyancy or upthrust, and always acts vertically upwards.

A body, whether partly or wholly submerged in a fluid will experience an up thrust buoyant
force, FB) equal to the weight of fluid it displaces. This is Archimedes' principle. The
buoyancy acts through the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid, i.e., it acts through the
centre of gravity of the displaced volume of fluid. This centroid is referred to as the centre of
buoyancy.

Consider a plate submerged in a fluid as shown below;

Pressure at the top surface = 𝜌 𝑔𝑠

Pressure at the bottom = 𝜌 𝑔 𝑠 ℎ
Hydrostatic force at the top = 𝜌 𝑔𝑠𝐴
Hydrostatic force at the bottom = 𝜌 𝑔 𝑠 ℎ 𝐴

Resultant force

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝜌 𝑔 𝑠 ℎ 𝐴 𝜌 𝑔𝑠𝐴 𝜌 𝑔ℎ𝐴 𝜌 𝑔𝑉
Where V sis the volume of the submerged body.
𝜌 𝑔𝑉 is the weight of the submerged body

This is the Archimedes’ principle expressed mathematically.

Problems

1.4.2 Types of Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

The equilibrium of floating bodies is of the following types:

1. Stable equilibrium, 2. Unstable equilibrium and 3. Neutral equilibrium.

a. Stable Equilibrium

When a body is given a small angular displacement (i.e. tilted slightly), by some external force, and then
it returns back to its original position due to the internal forces (the weight and the upthrust), such an
equilibrium is called stable equilibrium.

i. Unstable Equilibrium

If the body does not return to its original position from the slightly displaced angular position and heels
farther away, when given a small angular displacement, such equilibrium is called an unstable
equilibrium.

i. Neutral Equilibrium

If a body, when given a small angular displacement, occupies a new position and remains at rest in this
new position, it is said to possess a neutral equilibrium
 2 FLUID DYNAMICS
Fluid dynamics deals with fluids in motion, i.e. fluid flow, which is made up of a large number
of individual fluid particles moving in the general direction of flow.
There is no shear force in a fluid at rest but when in motion, shear forces can be set up due to
viscosity and turbulence which oppose motion, producing frictional effects.
Many problems can be solved at least partially, by assuming an ideal frictionless (inviscid) fluid
but where viscosity plays a major part, this assumption is untenable and simplification is often
obtained by assuming the flow does not change with time (steady flow is assumed).

Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints

Equations of fluids in motion can be expressed in either of the two ways; Lagrangian or Eulerian

Lagrangian
This approach considers an individual fluid particle for all time. For that reason, the position of a
specific particle is tracked as time passes.

The position vector of each particle 𝑋 ⃗ , 𝑋 ⃗, , and the velocity vectors 𝑉⃗ , 𝑉 ⃗, ,as
functions of time can be tracked.

Assuming a Cartesian co-ordinate system, the position vector may be expressed,

……………………………………………………………… (1)
Eulerian

In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain or control
volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out. We do not need to keep track of the
position and velocity of a mass of fluid particles of fixed identity. Instead, we define field
variables, functions of space and time, within the control volume. For example, the pressure
field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady three-dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian
coordinates,

Pressure field
𝑃 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡

Velocity field
V = V (x,y,z,t)

Acceleration field
a = a (x,y,z,t)

The velocity field of the equation above can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z),
(i , j, k) as;

Definitions

Pathlines, streamlines and streamtubes

A fluid consists of a large number of individual particles moving in the general direction of flow
but usually not parallel to each other. The velocity of any particle is a vector quantity having
magnitude and direction which vary from moment to moment.
The path followed by a particle is called a pathline. At any given instant of time, the positions of
successive particles can be joined up by a curve, which is tangential to the direction of motion
(and velocity) of the particle at that instant.
A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction (velocity is a
vector, and it has a magnitude and a direction).

Stream-line
If a series of streamlines are drawn through every point on the perimeter of a small area of the
stream cross-section, they will form a stream-tube (fig below).
 Stream-tube

Real and ideal fluids

When a real fluid flows past a boundary, the fluid immediately in contact with the boundary will
have the same velocity as the boundary. When the boundary is stationary, the fluid in contact
with the boundary will also be stationary. The velocity of successive layers of the fluid will
increase as we move away from the boundary until a point will be reached beyond which the
velocity will approximate to the free stream velocity, and the drag exerted by the boundary will
have no effect.
The part of the flow adjoining the boundary in which change of velocity occurs is known as the
boundary layer. In this region, shear stresses are developed between the layers of fluid moving
with different velocities. The shear forces are developed as a result of viscosity and the
interchange of momentum due to turbulence. Outside the boundary layer, in a real fluid, the
effect of the shear stresses due to the boundary can be ignored and the fluid can be treated as if it
were an ideal fluid. But even in cases where the effects of viscosity and turbulence cannot be
neglected, it is often convenient to carry out the mathematical analysis assuming an ideal fluid
and correction factors can be employed to bring the results into agreement with the behavior of a
real fluid.
In general all fluid flow occurs in three dimensions, so that velocity, pressure and other flow
parameters vary with reference to three orthogonal axes. In some problems however, the major
changes occur in two directions or even in only one direction.
If the flow parameters, for example, pressure and velocity, describing the flow at any given
instant, varies only along the direction of flow, the flow is described as one dimensional.

Steady and unsteady flow

Steady flow is one in which the flow parameters such as velocity, pressure and cross-section of
the stream do not change with time. They are the same at all instants of time. Flow in which the
flow parameters change with time is called unsteady flow.
 Figure: Velocity profiles for one-dimensional flow

Uniform and non-uniform flow

Flow is described as uniform at a particular instant if the flow parameters e.g. velocity and cross-
section of the stream remain constant at every point along the flow over a specified region.
If the flow parameters change from point to point, the flow is said to be non-uniform.

Laminar and turbulent flow in channels

In pips and open-channel, flow can be laminar, transitional, or turbulent, depending on the value
of the Reynolds number, Re. For the pipe flow Re is expressed as;

Laminar and turbulent flow

Osborne Reynolds experimental apparatus shown in the figure below is used to demonstrate
laminar and turbulent flows.
A fine nozzle connected to a small reservoir of liquid dye discharge a colored filament into the
inlet of the glass tube. The flow rate in the glass pipe is controlled by a valve.
By observing the behavior of the stream of dye, the flow can be classified according to the
velocity of flow into:

Laminar flow
This kind of flow occurs at very low velocities.
The particles of the fluid move in an orderly manner and retain the same relative positions in
successive cross-sections.

Transition flow
The flow that occur in the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.

Turbulent flow
This kind of flow occurs at high velocities. The fluid particles move in a disorderly manner. A
single particle follows an erratic path involving movements in three dimensions.

Continuity of flow

Matter is neither created nor destroyed. This is the principle of conservation of mass and is the
basis for the derivation of the continuity equation for fluid flow.
Considering any fixed region in the flow (Fig. below) constituting a control volume,

For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant and the relation
reduces to
Mass of fluid entering per unit time = Mass of fluid leaving per unit time.

Applying this principle to steady flow in a stream-tube (Fig. below) having a cross-sectional area
small enough for the velocity to be considered as constant over any given cross-section, for the
region between sections 1 and 2, since there can be no flow through the walls of a streamtube,

Mass entering per unit time at section 1 = Mass leaving per unit time at section 2

Suppose that at section 1 the area of the stream-tube is A1, the velocity of the fluid u1 and its
density ρ1, while at section 2 the corresponding values are δA2, u2 and ρ2; then

Mass entering per unit time at 1 = ρ1δA1u1,

Mass leaving per unit time at 2 = ρ2δA2u2.

Then, for steady flow,

ρ1δA1u1 = ρ2δA2u2 = 𝑚 = Constant

This is the equation of continuity for the flow of a compressible fluid through a streamtube, u1
and u2 being the mean velocities, and cross-sectional areas δA1 and δA2.

𝑚 is the mass flow rate

If the fluid is considered incompressible,

ρ1 =ρ2 = ρ, then,

A1 u 1 = A2 u 2 = Q

Where A1 and A2 are the total cross-sectional areas and A is the mass rate of flow
Q is the volume flow rate (𝑚 /𝑠)

The continuity equation can also be applied to determine the relation between the flows into and
out of a junction.
Consider a branched pipe as shown below;
 Figure: A branched pipe
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Example
Problems
EULER’S AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATIONS

Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline

Consider a short section of a streamtube having a cross-sectional area small enough for the
velocity to be considered constant over the cross-section. AB and CD are two cross-sections
separated by a short distance s.
At AB the area is A, velocity v, pressure p and elevation z, while at CD the corresponding values
are A , v + v, p + p and z +  z.
The weight of the element mg will act vertically downward at an angle  to the centreline.

The forces acting on the fluid in the direction of floe are:

1. Force due to pressure P acting in the flow direction = pA

2. Force due to pressure p + p opposing motion = (p + p)A
3. Force due to the weight of the element, producing a component opposing motion =
mgcos

Let  be the angle between the direction along which the fluid flows, and the line of action of the
weight of the element.
𝐹𝑅 𝐴𝛿𝑝 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝛿𝑧 .……………………….………...………………………….(X)

The resultant force in eqn (X) can also be derived from the newton’s second law of motion;

Applying Newton’s second law from equations

𝐹𝑅 𝑚𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎

𝐹𝑅 𝜌𝐴𝛿𝑠 𝜌𝐴𝑢 𝛿𝑢 …………………………………………… (Y)

Equating eqns X and Y and dividing through by 𝜌𝐴𝛿𝑠

𝜌𝐴𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝐴𝛿𝑝 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝛿𝑧

𝜌𝐴𝛿𝑠 𝜌𝐴𝛿𝑠

𝛿𝑢 1 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑧
𝑢 –𝑔 𝑜𝑟
𝛿𝑠  𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠

1 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑢
𝑔 𝑢 0
 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠

or, in the limit as s 0,

1 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑢
𝑔 𝑢 0………………………………………………………………………….. 𝑍
 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
This is known as Euler’s equation, giving, in differential form, the relationship between pressure
p, velocity v, density  and elevation z along a streamline for steady flow.
 Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation
For an incompressible fluid, for which  is constant, integration of equation (Z) along the
streamline, with respect to s, gives;

𝑝 𝑢
𝑔𝑧 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 2
The terms represent energy per unit mass. Dividing by g,
𝑧 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (The terms represents energy per unit weight)


The equation above is known as Bernoulli’s equation and states the relationship between
pressure, velocity and elevation for steady flow of a frictionless fluid of constant density. It can
be written in terms of energy per unit volume;


𝑝 𝑔𝑧 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Example
Energy approach to Bernoulli’s equation (steady flow energy equation)
 Application of Bernoulli’s equation

1. The venturi-meter
Example
Problem

1.

2. Water is flowing through a Venturi meter whose diameter is 7 cm at the entrance part and
4 cm at the throat. The pressure is measured to be 430 kPa at the entrance and 120 kPa at
the throat. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the flow rate of water. Answer: 0.538
m3/s

3. The flow nozzle

Figure 2.13: The flow-nozzle

4. The orifice meter

An orifice plate inserted in a pipeline produces the same effect as a venturi-meter. The orifice
plate has an opening in it that is smaller than the internal diameter of the pipeline.
This arrangement is cheap compared to the cost of a venture-meter, but there are substantial
energy losses because of the abrupt expansion after the plate. Just like in a venturi-meter, the
theoretical discharge, Q, can be calculated from the equation
Assignment

1. An orifice meter consists of a 100 mm diameter orifice in a 250 mm diameter pipe, and
has a coefficient of discharge of 0.65. The pipe conveys oil of specific gravity 0.9 and the
pressure difference between the two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a mercury
manometer, the leads to the manometer being filled with oil. If the difference in mercury
levels in the gauge is 760 mm, calculate the rate of flow of oil in the pipeline. [0.075
m3/s]
2. With the aid of a sketch, explain what a rotameter is.

Pitot tube
A point in a fluid stream where velocity is reduced to zero is called a stagnation point, and a non-
rotating obstacle in the path of a flowing stream produces a stagnation point on its upstream
surface, e.g., point B in the fig below;

On either side of the central streamline AB, the flow is deflected round the object but along AB,
the velocity decreases until it is zero at point B. From Bernoulli's equation,

For a horizontal application, zA = zB and at point B, uB = 0. Therefore,

𝑃 𝑈 𝑃
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Or
𝜌𝑈
𝑃 𝑃 ………………………………………………………..𝑋
2

Pressure pB is called the stagnation pressure of the central streamline AB and is made up of the
static pressure pA and the dynamic pressure

Revisiting Bernoulli's equation, we may write,

In other words, Bernoulli's equation is a statement that the total pressure remains constant along
a streamline.

The Pitot tube shown above [named after H. de Pitot (1695 - 1771)], applies the principle of
stagnation. It is a right-angled glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to be neglected, that
is inserted into the flow. The Pitot tube measures the stagnation pressure.
A piezometer tube is also connected to measure the static pressure.

The velocity of flow is determined from Eq. (X), by measuring the difference between the static
pressure pA and the stagnation pressure pB, i.e.,

This velocity is the theoretical velocity and the actual velocity can then be determined
by incorporating the co-efficient of the Pitot tube, Cv, therefore,

Piezometer tubes as shown in the fig above are suitably replaced by connections to a differential
manometer. Frequently, the tubes recording the static and dynamic pressures are conveniently
combined into one instrument known as a Pitot-static tube
Problems

1. A submarine, submerged in sea-water of density 1026 kg/m3, travels at 16 km/hr.

Calculate the pressure at the front stagnation point situated 15 m below the surface. [161.1 kPa
gauge]
2. A piezo-meter and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as shown in the fig
below, to measure static and stagnation pressures. For the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.

Solution

3. A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a 3-cm diameter horizontal water pipe, and
the height of the water columns are measured to be 20 cm in the piezometer and 35 cm in
the Pitot tube (both measured from the top surface of the pipe). Determine the velocity at
the center of the pipe.
Solution
Momentum Equations
When a fluid flows over/on a solid body, it exert force on it. For example: force exerted on a solid
surface by a jet of fluid impinging on it, aerodynamic forces (lift and drag) on aircraft wing, the
force on a pipe-bend by fluid flowing within it, etc. These forces are hydrodynamic forces (due to a
moving fluid) and are associated with a change in momentum.

The magnitude of the hydrodynamic forces on the body due to a moving fluid is deter-mined
by Newton’s second law of motion ”the net force acting on a body in any direction is equal to
the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction”;

F = ma (2)

The law usually need to be expressed in a form particularly suited to steady flow of a fluid.

3.1 Linear momentum equations for steady flows

Consider a steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a control volume (stream tube) as
shown in the figure below:

where A is cross sectional area, u is velocity and ρ is density and subscript 1 and 2
represent conditions at entry and exit, respectively. In a short interval δt, a volume of the
fluid moves from the inlet a distance uδt.
The mass of fluid entering the control volume in time δt is
M ass entering control volume = volume × density = ρ1 A1 u1 δt (3)

Hence the momentum entering the control volume is given by

Similarly, the momentum leaving the stream tube is given by
M omentum leaving control volume = ρ2 A2 u2 u2 δt (5)
The force exerted by the fluid is calculated using Newton’s 2nd law;
Force = Rate of change of momentum
M omentum entering control volume = mass × velocity = ρ1 A1 u1 u1 δt (4)
1
 ρ2 A2 u2 u2 δt − ρ1 A1 u1 u1 δt
F = (6)
δt
For a steady flow, continuity requires that

Q = A1 u1 = A2 u2 (7)

and for a constant density, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ, then Eq. 6 reduces to

F = Qρ(u2 − u1 ) (8)

Note: F is the total force that result from the force acting on the surface of the body, FR ,
pressure force, Fp , and body forces, FB , ie

F = FR + Fp + FB (9)

We are interested in the force acting on the surface of the body, FR .

3.2 Angular momentum equations for steady flows

Consider a steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a control volume (stream tube) as
shown in the figure below:

The inlet velocity vector, u1 , makes an angle θ1 , with the x-axis, while at the outlet velocity
u2 , make and angle θ2 to the x-axis. Therefore, the forces are resolved in the directions of
the co-ordinate axes.
Force in x direction, Fx is given as

Fx = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction

Fx = ṁ(u2x − u1x ) (10)

Fx = Qρ(u2 cos θ2 − u1 cos θ1 ) (11)

Force in y direction, Fy is given as

2
 Fy = Rate of change of momentum in y-direction

Fy = ṁ(u2y − u1y ) (12)

Fy = Qρ(u2 sin θ2 − u1 sin θ1 ) (13)

Similar to linear momentum equations, Fx and Fy are the total force given by Eq 9 for x and
y direction respectively. The resultant force, Fresultant is given as
q
Fresultant = Fx2 + Fy2 (14)

The angle, α at which this force act is given as

 
−1 Fy
α = T an (15)
Fx

Note: The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is
opposite to F. So the reaction force, R, is given as

R = −FR (16)

3.3 Application of Momentum Equations

Typical application of momentum equations are

1. Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend.

2. Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe.

3. Impact of a jet on a plane surface.

4. Force due to flow round a curve vane.

3
3.3.1 Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend

Consider a horizontal pipe with a constant cross section, which bend through an angle of θ
as shown below:

Since the fluid in the pipe is changing direction, a force will act on the bend. Therefore,
determination of this is necessary in order to determine the force in which the support must
withstand.
Analysis

1. Calculation of total force

Force in x-direction is

FT x = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) (17)

Force in y-direction is

FT y = Qρ(u2y − u1y ) = Qρ(u2 sin θ − 0) = Qρu2 sin θ (18)

2. Calculation of pressure force

Fp = Pressure force at 1 - Pressure force at 2

Pressure force in x-direction is

Fpx = p1 A1 cos 0 − p2 A2 cos θ = p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ (19)

Pressure force in y-direction is

Fpy = 0 − p2 A2 sin θ = −p2 A2 sin θ (20)

3. Calculation of body forces. Body forces due to gravity are negligible, ie FB =0.

4
 4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq. 9

FT = FR + Fp + FB (21)

⇒ FR = FT − Fp

FRx = FT x − Fpx = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) − p1 A1 + p2 A2 cos θ (22)

FRy = FT y − Fpy = Qρu2 sin θ + p2 A2 sin θ (23)

The resultant force on the fluid is given by

q
2 2
FR = FRx + FRy (24)

The angle, α at which this force act is given as

 
−1 FRy
α = T an (25)
FRx

The force on the bend R is the same magnitude but opposite in direction.
Note: The flow is confined within a pipe, hence the static pressure vary from point to
point and forces due to the differences of static pressure must be taken into account.

Example 1
A 600 reducing pipe bend tapers from 800 mm diameter at inlet to 400 mm diameter at
outlet as shown in figure below. The pressure at inlet and outlet is 160 kPa and 146.5 kPa
respectively and the rate of flow of water through the bend is 0.675 m3 /s. Neglecting friction,
calculate the net resultant force exerted by the water on the bend.

5
3.3.2 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe

Because the fluid is contracted at the nozzle, forces are induced in the nozzle. Consider the
nozzle shown in the figure below

Analysis

1. Calculation of total force ( x-direction only)

FT x = Qρ(u2 − u1 ) (26)

Since Q = A1 u1 = A2 u2 (continuity equation), then Eq. 26 reduces to

 
2 1 1
FT x = Q ρ − (27)
A2 A1

2. Calculation of pressure force (x-direction only)

Fpx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 (28)

Assignment: show that

Q2 ρ
 
1 1
p1 = 2
− 2 (29)
2 A2 A 1

3. Calculation of body forces. Body forces due to gravity are negligible, ie FB =0.

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
9

⇒ FRx = FT x − Fpx

Q2 ρA1
   
2 1 1 1 1
FRx = Q ρ − − 2
− 2 (30)
A 2 A1 2 A2 A1

Example 2
The nozzle that eject water in the fire fighting equipment is shown below. The the rate of flow

6
of water through the nozzle is 0.25 m3 /s. Neglecting friction, calculate the net resultant force
that the fireman must withstand. Assume that the fireman is holding the nozzle horizontally.

3.3.3 A jet itting a at tationary plate at angle of 900

Consider the figure below

Analysis

1. Calculation of total force

FT = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = −Qρu1x (31)

At outlet the jets are parallel to the plate with no component in the x-direction, i.e,
u2x = 0. The system is symmetrical, hence the forces in y-direction is zero, Fy =0.

2. Pressure force is zero (the pressure at both the inlet and outlets are atmospheric).

3. Body forces is zero (act perpendicular).

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
9
⇒ FRx = FT x − Fpx − FBx
FRx = FT x = −Qρu1x (32)

7
3.3.4 Force due to flow round a curve vane

The forces due to fluid flowing over a curved vane is similar to that of fluid flowing on a
pipe-bend, but the pressures are atmospheric p1 = p2 = 0 and both the cross-section and
velocities remain constant. Consider a fluid flowing over a curve vane as shown below:

Analysis

1. Calculation of total force

Force in x-direction is

FT x = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) (37)

8
 But Au1 = Au2 , hence Eq. 37 can be written as

Q2 ρ
FT x = (cos θ − 1) (38)
A
Force in y-direction is
FT y = Qρ(u2y − u1y ) = Qρ(u2 sin θ − 0) = Qρu2 sin θ (39)
2. Pressure force is zero (the pressure at both the inlet and outlets are atmospheric).
3. Body forces is zero (act perpendicular).
4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR. It is calculated as
⇒ FR = FT − Fp
FRx = FT x and FRy = FT y (40)

The resultant force on the fluid is given by

q
2 2
FR = FRx + FRy (41)

The angle, α at which this force act is given as

 
−1 FRy
α = T an (42)
FRx

Example
1. A jet of water flows smoothly on to a stationary curved vane which turns it through 600. The
initial jet is 50 mm in diameter, and the velocity, which is uniform is 36 m/s. As a result
of friction, the velocity of water leaving the surface is 30 m/s. Neglecting gravity effects,
calculate the net resultant force on the vane.
2. Repeat example 1 and compute the components of forces developed as well as the resultant
force assuming no friction i.e. the initial jet velocity remains at 36 m/s.