Feedback

Feedback in electric circuit:

Feedback in electric circuits refers to the process of returning a portion of the output signal to the
input to control or modify the circuit's behavior. It is widely used in amplifiers, oscillators, and
control systems to improve stability, gain accuracy, and frequency response.
Types of Feedback in Electric Circuits
1. Positive Feedback
o The feedback signal reinforces the input signal, increasing amplification.
o Can lead to instability and oscillations (used in oscillators, Schmitt triggers).
o Example: Op-amp-based oscillators (Wien bridge, phase-shift oscillators).
2. Negative Feedback
o The feedback signal opposes the input signal, reducing overall gain but improving
stability, bandwidth, and distortion.
o Used in amplifiers (e.g., audio amplifiers, operational amplifiers).
o Example: Non-inverting/inverting op-amp configurations with feedback resistors.
Effects of Negative Feedback
Reduces gain (but makes it more predictable).
Increases bandwidth (extends frequency response).
Reduces noise and distortion.
Improves input/output impedance (depending on feedback type).
Feedback Topologies
Type Output Sampling Feedback Mixing Application
Voltage Series Voltage (shunt) Series (with input) Non-inverting op-amp
Voltage Shunt Voltage (shunt) Shunt (parallel) Inverting op-amp
Current Series Current (series) Series (with input) Transistor CE amplifier
Current Shunt Current (series) Shunt (parallel) Feedback in BJT amplifiers

Key Formulas
• Closed-loop gain (Af) with feedback:
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
where:

o 𝐴 = Open-loop gain
o 𝛽 = Feedback factor (fraction of output fed back)
 • Feedback factor (𝛽) depends on the feedback network (e.g., resistor divider in op-amps).
Applications
• Amplifiers (improved linearity, reduced distortion).
• Oscillators (uses positive feedback to sustain oscillations).
• Control systems (stabilizes output).

Feedback Principles in Electrical Circuits:

Feedback is a fundamental concept used to control and improve the performance of electronic
systems. It involves taking a portion of the output signal and feeding it back to the input to
influence the circuit's behavior. Below are the core principles of feedback in electric circuits:
1. Basic Feedback System Structure
A feedback system consists of:
• Forward Path (Amplifier, A) – Processes the input signal.
• Feedback Network (β) – Samples the output and returns a fraction (β) back to the input.
• Mixing (Summing) Junction – Combines input and feedback signals.
General Feedback Block Diagram:
Input (Xᵢ) → [Σ] → [A] → Output (Xₒ)
↑ ↓
└──[β]──┘

• Closed-loop gain (Aₙ) is given by:

𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
1
o If Aβ >> 1, then 𝐴𝑓 ≈ 𝛽 (independent of open-loop gain).

2. Key Principles of Feedback

A. Negative vs. Positive Feedback
Parameter Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
Effect on Gain Reduces gain Increases gain
Stability Improves stability Can cause instability (oscillations)
Noise & Distortion Reduces Increases
Bandwidth Increases Decreases
Applications Amplifiers, control systems Oscillators, Schmitt triggers

B. Effects of Negative Feedback

1. Gain Desensitivity – Makes gain less dependent on internal parameters.
2. Bandwidth Extension – Higher cutoff frequencies due to gain reduction.
 3. Noise Reduction – Minimizes unwanted signal distortions.
4. Improved Linearity – Reduces harmonic distortion.
5. Input/Output Impedance Control – Depends on feedback topology.
3. Feedback Topologies
Four possible configurations based on how feedback is applied:

Topology Sampling (Output) Mixing (Input) Example

Voltage Series Voltage (shunt) Series Non-inverting op-amp
Voltage Shunt Voltage (shunt) Shunt (parallel) Inverting op-amp
Current Series Current (series) Series Transistor CE amplifier
Current Shunt Current (series) Shunt (parallel) BJT amplifiers

Impedance Effects:
• Voltage Feedback → Decreases output impedance.
• Current Feedback → Increases output impedance.
• Series Feedback → Increases input impedance.
• Shunt Feedback → Decreases input impedance.
4. Stability & Oscillations
• Barkhausen Criterion (for oscillations):
∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣= 1 and ∠𝐴𝛽 = 0∘ (360∘ )
• Phase Margin & Gain Margin – Used to assess stability in feedback amplifiers.
• Nyquist & Bode Plots – Tools to analyze stability.
5. Practical Applications
• Amplifiers (Op-amps, audio amplifiers).
• Oscillators (Wien bridge, LC oscillators).
• Control Systems (PID controllers, motor speed regulation).

Characteristics of Feedback in Electrical Circuits:

Feedback significantly impacts the performance of electronic systems. Below are the key
characteristics, categorized into advantages and effects based on whether the feedback is
negative or positive.
1. General Characteristics of Feedback
A. Gain Control
• Negative Feedback: Reduces overall gain but makes it more stable and predictable.
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 = (where 𝐴𝛽 is the loop gain)
1 + 𝐴𝛽
1
o If 𝐴𝛽 ≫ 1, 𝐴𝑓 ≈ 𝛽 (independent of open-loop gain).
 • Positive Feedback: Increases gain but can lead to instability (used in oscillators).
B. Bandwidth Extension
• Negative feedback increases bandwidth (due to gain-bandwidth trade-off).
• Example: An op-amp with open-loop bandwidth 𝑓𝑂𝐿 and closed-loop bandwidth 𝑓𝐶𝐿 :
𝑓𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓𝑂𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)
C. Noise and Distortion Reduction
• Negative feedback rejects noise and nonlinearities by averaging errors.
• Positive feedback amplifies noise and distortion (used in regenerative circuits).
D. Input & Output Impedance Modification
Effect on Input
Feedback Type Impedance Effect on Output Impedance
Series Feedback ↑ Increases Depends on sampling
(Voltage/Current)
Shunt Feedback ↓ Decreases Depends on sampling
(Voltage/Current)
Voltage Feedback (Shunt - ↓ Decreases (stiff voltage
sampling) source)
Current Feedback (Series - ↑ Increases (stiff current
sampling) source)

2. Negative Feedback Characteristics

Advantages:
Stabilizes Gain – Less dependent on temperature, component variations.
Reduces Nonlinear Distortion – Suppresses harmonic generation.
Improves Frequency Response – Wider bandwidth.
Lowers Sensitivity to Parameter Variations – More robust circuit operation.
Disadvantages:
Reduces Overall Gain – Requires higher initial amplification.
May Introduce Stability Issues (if phase shifts cause unintended positive feedback).
3. Positive Feedback Characteristics
Advantages:
Increases Gain – Useful in oscillators and comparators.
Creates Bistable Behavior – Used in Schmitt triggers and memory circuits.
Disadvantages:
Causes Instability – Can lead to unwanted oscillations.
Increases Noise & Distortion – Not suitable for linear amplifiers.
4. Summary Table: Key Characteristics
Parameter Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
Gain Decreases Increases
Bandwidth Increases Decreases
Noise & Distortion Reduces Amplifies
Stability Improves May cause oscillations
Input/Output Impedance Modifies based on topology Modifies based on topology

5. Practical Implications
• Negative Feedback → Used in amplifiers, control systems, and filters for stability.
• Positive Feedback → Used in oscillators, Schmitt triggers, and switching circuits.

Current and Voltage Feedback in Electronic Circuits:

Feedback in amplifiers can be classified based on how the output is sampled (voltage or
current) and how it is mixed with the input (series or shunt). The two main types are:
1. Voltage Feedback (VF)
2. Current Feedback (CF)
Each has distinct characteristics, advantages, and applications.
1. Voltage Feedback (VF)
Definition:
• The feedback signal is derived from the output voltage.
• Used in traditional operational amplifiers (Op-Amps).
Characteristics:
Sampling: Shunt (parallel) connection at the output → senses voltage.
Mixing: Can be series (voltage mixing) or shunt (current mixing).
Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW): Constant → Higher gain reduces bandwidth.
Stability: Requires compensation to avoid oscillations.
Input/Output Impedance:
• Series mixing → Increases input impedance.
• Shunt mixing → Decreases input impedance.
• Voltage sampling → Decreases output impedance.
Advantages:
Low output impedance (good for driving loads).
Well-suited for precision amplifiers, filters, and integrators.
Disadvantages:
Limited slew rate (slower response to fast signals).
Fixed gain-bandwidth product (trade-off between gain and bandwidth).
Example Circuits:
• Non-inverting Op-Amp (Voltage Series Feedback)
• Inverting Op-Amp (Voltage Shunt Feedback)
2. Current Feedback (CF)
Definition:
• The feedback signal is derived from the output current.
• Used in high-speed amplifiers and wideband circuits.
Characteristics:
Sampling: Series connection at the output → senses current.
Mixing: Typically shunt (current mixing).
Gain-Bandwidth Relationship:
• Bandwidth is independent of gain (unlike VF).
• Higher slew rate → better for fast signals.
Stability: Less prone to oscillations (no dominant pole compensation needed).
Input/Output Impedance:
• Shunt mixing → Low input impedance.
• Current sampling → High output impedance.
Advantages:
Wide bandwidth even at high gains (ideal for high-frequency applications).
High slew rate (fast signal response).
Better for RF, video, and pulse amplifiers.
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to feedback resistor selection (must be carefully chosen).
Not ideal for precision DC applications (higher offset errors).
Example Circuits:
• Current-Feedback Op-Amps (CFB Op-Amps)
• Transimpedance Amplifiers (Photodiode amplifiers)
3. Key Differences Between Voltage and Current Feedback
Parameter Voltage Feedback (VF) Current Feedback (CF)
Sampled Signal Voltage Current
Bandwidth Decreases with gain (GBW constant) Nearly constant with gain
Slew Rate Limited (slower) Very high (faster response)
Stability Needs compensation More inherently stable
Input Impedance High (series mixing) Low (shunt mixing)
Output Impedance Low (voltage sampling) High (current sampling)
Best For Precision amplifiers, filters High-speed, RF, video amps

4. Practical Applications
Voltage Feedback (VF) Uses:
• Audio amplifiers
• Active filters
• Instrumentation amplifiers
Current Feedback (CF) Uses:
• High-speed data acquisition
• Video signal processing
• RF amplifiers
5. Which One to Choose?
• Use Voltage Feedback (VF) if:
o You need high precision, low noise, and good DC performance.
o Example: Sensor signal conditioning.
• Use Current Feedback (CF) if:
o You need high speed, wide bandwidth, and fast transient response.
o Example: High-frequency signal amplification.

Effect of Feedback on Input and Output Impedance:

Feedback significantly alters the input impedance (Zᵢ) and output impedance (Zₒ) of an
amplifier. The change depends on:
1. Type of feedback (voltage/current) → Determines whether Zₒ increases or decreases.
2. Mixing method (series/shunt) → Determines whether Zᵢ increases or decreases.
1. Effect on Input Impedance (Zᵢ)
A. Series Feedback (Voltage or Current)
• Increases input impedance because feedback opposes the input signal, reducing the
effective input current.
• Formula:
𝑍𝑖𝑓 = 𝑍𝑖 (1 + 𝐴𝛽) (for series feedback)
where:
o 𝑍𝑖𝑓 = Input impedance with feedback
o 𝑍𝑖 = Original input impedance
o 𝐴𝛽 = Loop gain
Examples:
• Non-inverting op-amp (Voltage Series Feedback) → High Zᵢ.
• Emitter follower (Current Series Feedback) → High Zᵢ.
B. Shunt Feedback (Voltage or Current)
• Decreases input impedance because feedback current "shunts" the input.
• Formula:
𝑍𝑖
𝑍𝑖𝑓 = (for shunt feedback)
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Examples:
• Inverting op-amp (Voltage Shunt Feedback) → Low Zᵢ.
• Common-emitter amplifier with shunt feedback → Low Zᵢ.
2. Effect on Output Impedance (Zₒ)
A. Voltage Feedback (Shunt Sampling at Output)
• Decreases output impedance because feedback tries to maintain a constant output
voltage.
• Formula:
𝑍𝑜
𝑍𝑜𝑓 = (for voltage feedback)
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Examples:
• Non-inverting op-amp (Voltage Series Feedback) → Low Zₒ.
• Emitter follower (Voltage Feedback) → Very low Zₒ.
B. Current Feedback (Series Sampling at Output)
• Increases output impedance because feedback tries to maintain a constant output
current.
• Formula:
𝑍𝑜𝑓 = 𝑍𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝛽) (for current feedback)
Examples:
• Common-emitter amplifier with emitter resistor (Current Series Feedback) → High
Zₒ.
• Current-feedback op-amp (CFB) → Higher Zₒ than VFB.
3. Summary Table
Feedback Type Input Impedance (Zᵢ) Output Impedance (Zₒ)
Series Feedback ↑ Increases Depends on sampling
Shunt Feedback ↓ Decreases Depends on sampling
Voltage Feedback – ↓ Decreases
Current Feedback – ↑ Increases

4. Practical Implications
• High Zᵢ (Series Feedback) → Good for voltage amplifiers (minimal loading effect).
• Low Zₒ (Voltage Feedback) → Good for driving low-impedance loads (e.g., speakers).
• Low Zᵢ (Shunt Feedback) → Used in current amplifiers and transimpedance circuits.
• High Zₒ (Current Feedback) → Used in current sources and cascode amplifiers.

Effect of Feedback on Gain, Bandwidth, Distortion, and Stability:

Feedback plays a crucial role in amplifier performance by modifying gain, bandwidth,
distortion, and stability. Below is a detailed breakdown of how feedback influences these
parameters.
1. Effect on Gain
Closed-Loop Gain (A_f)
The gain of an amplifier with feedback (closed-loop gain) is given by:
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
• A = Open-loop gain (without feedback)
• β = Feedback factor (fraction of output fed back)
Key Points:
Negative Feedback (1 + Aβ > 1):
• Reduces gain but makes it more stable and predictable.
1
• If Aβ >> 1, 𝐴𝑓 ≈ 𝛽 (independent of A).

Positive Feedback (1 + Aβ < 1):

• Increases gain but risks instability (used in oscillators).
2. Effect on Bandwidth
Gain-Bandwidth Trade-off
Negative feedback increases bandwidth at the cost of reduced gain.
Formula:
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊𝑂𝐿 × (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

• BW_f = Closed-loop bandwidth (with feedback)

• BW_OL = Open-loop bandwidth (without feedback)
Example (Op-Amp):
• An op-amp with:
o Open-loop gain (A) = 100,000
o Open-loop bandwidth (BW_OL) = 10 Hz
o Feedback factor (β) = 0.01 (for a closed-loop gain of ~100)
• New bandwidth:
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 10 × (1 + 100,000 × 0.01) = 10 × 1001 ≈ 10,000 Hz
Key Points:
Negative feedback extends bandwidth.
Current Feedback Amplifiers (CFA) maintain near-constant bandwidth even at high gains
(unlike Voltage Feedback Amplifiers).
3. Effect on Distortion & Noise
Reduction in Nonlinear Distortion
Negative feedback reduces harmonic distortion by suppressing nonlinearities.
Formula (Distortion Reduction Factor):
𝐷
𝐷𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
• D_f = Distortion with feedback
• D = Original distortion
Key Points:
Negative feedback linearizes the amplifier.
Noise and interference are also reduced.
4. Effect on Stability
Stability Criteria (Barkhausen for Oscillators)
• A system is stable if the loop gain (Aβ) satisfies:
∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣< 1 when phase shift = 180∘
• If |Aβ| ≥ 1 at 180°, the system oscillates.
Stabilization Techniques
1. Dominant Pole Compensation (Op-amps)
o Adds a low-frequency pole to ensure stability.
2. Phase-Lag/Lead Compensation
o Adjusts phase margin to prevent oscillations.
3. Nyquist & Bode Plot Analysis
o Ensures sufficient gain and phase margins.
Key Points:
Negative feedback improves stability (reduces sensitivity to variations).
Excessive feedback can cause instability (if phase shifts accumulate).
5. Summary Table
Parameter Without Feedback With Negative Feedback With Positive Feedback
Gain (A) High, Unstable Reduced, Stable Increased, Unstable
Bandwidth (BW) Limited Extended Reduced
Distortion (D) High Reduced Increased
Stability Poor Improved Risk of Oscillations

6. Practical Implications
• Negative Feedback:
o Used in audio amplifiers, control systems, and sensors for stability and
linearity.
• Positive Feedback:
o Used in oscillators, Schmitt triggers, and regenerative circuits.