SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
By Group 2
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INTRODUCTION JAHNAVI SHARMA
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THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION WAS “THE MOMENT HUMANITY CHOSE REASON OVER
TRADITION, OBSERVATION OVER ASSUMPTION, AND DISCOVERY OVER DOGMA.”
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION WAS A PERIOD (C. 1440–1690) OF RADICAL CHANGE IN HUMAN
UNDERSTANDING OF THE NATURAL WORLD. A SHIFT FROM RELIANCE ON RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES AND
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHIES TO A NEW APPROACH BASED ON OBSERVATION, EXPERIMENTATION, AND
MATHEMATICS. THIS REVOLUTION LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR MODERN SCIENCE, TRANSFORMING FIELDS
SUCH AS ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE ULTIMATELY RESHAPING SOCIETY, INDUSTRY, AND
THOUGHT.
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OVERVIEW
JAHNAVI SHARMA
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KEY CHARACTERISTICS
EMPIRICISM & OBSERVATION: KNOWLEDGE SHOULD BE BASED ON OBSERVATION, EXPERIMENTATION, AND EVIDENCE.
MATHEMATICAL REASONING: SCIENCE BEGAN RELYING ON MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES RATHER THAN JUST PHILOSOPHICAL
SPECULATION.
MECHANISTIC VIEW OF NATURE: THE WORLD BEGAN TO BE SEEN AS A MACHINE GOVERNED BY NATURAL LAWS.
CHALLENGES TO CHURCH AUTHORITY: THE CATHOLIC CHURCH'S HOLD ON SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS WEAKENED AS SCHOLARS
DEVELOPED NEW THEORIES.
SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS: ESTABLISHMENT OF INSTITUTIONS LIKE THE ROYAL SOCIETY (1660) PROMOTED SCIENTIFIC
COLLABORATION.
IMPORTANT FIGURES:
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (1473–1543): PROPOSED THE HELIOCENTRIC (SUN-CENTERED) MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE.
GALILEO GALILEI (1564–1642): USED THE TELESCOPE TO PROVE HELIOCENTRISM AND STUDIED PLANETARY MOTION.
JOHANNES KEPLER (1571–1630): ESTABLISHED THE LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION.
ISAAC NEWTON (1643–1727): FORMULATED THE LAWS OF MOTION AND UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
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CAUSES
Presented by MAHAK MORYA
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Scientific Revolution resulted from:
:
Intellectual curiosity from the Renaissance
Humanism encourages critical thinking and direct observation.
Technological advancements (printing press, telescope, navigation tools)
The protestant reformation.
Weakening of religious control over science.
Age of exploration and reasoning [authority to experimentation]
The need for better tools for exploration and trade
Curiosity and the quest for knowledge.
Mathematical precision and experimental methods
Global knowledge exchange [trade and technological exchange ]
European competition for expansion led to advancement in scientific discovery
Scientific societies and patronage
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ASHQ KAITH
FIRST PHASE : THE RENAISSANCE 23/BAP/048
Historical Context :-
After Europe's population was wiped out by the Black Death, the Renaissance
came into being. This resulted in social and economic transformations. Old ways
were questioned, and new ideas were sought. Both cities and trade grew. Rich
families and merchants, such as the Medici in Florence, provided support to
intellectuals and artists.
What is Renaissance?
The Renaissance, a transformative period between the Middle Ages and
Modernity, meaning rebirth in French, was a time of significant cultural, artistic,
and intellectual growth. It began in Florence, Italy, in the 14th century. It
signaled a dramatic shift from the medieval era and a resurgence of interest in
the achievements of ancient Greece and Rome in terms of culture and thought.
It was characterized by developments in humanism, literature, architecture,
and the world economy. The Renaissance's emphasis on individualism,
humanism, and the search for knowledge outside of religious doctrine
established the groundwork for challenging conventional wisdom, which is
where the Enlightenment got its start.
How Renaissance eventually led to ASHQ KAITH
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Scientific Revolution?
As said by J. D. Bernal - “Scientific Revolution cannot be explained without
reference to the Renaissance”. By promoting creativity and curiosity, the
Renaissance set the stage for the Scientific Revolution. New modes of thinking
were sparked by the rediscovery of classical books that placed an emphasis on
observation, logic, and empirical data. A major component of the Renaissance,
humanism encouraged challenging conventional wisdom and investigating
human potential.
While artists like Leonardo da Vinci bridged the gap between art and science,
influencing disciplines like anatomy and engineering, and philosophers like
Francis Bacon and René Descartes formalized the scientific method, emphasizing
experimentation and systematic observation, technological innovations like the
printing press allowed knowledge to be widely disseminated.
Our knowledge of the universe was altered by astronomers like Copernicus and
Galileo who questioned conventional geocentric viewpoints. The Renaissance's
spirit of reason and inquiry produced the intellectual climate that led to the
Scientific Revolution's revolutionary discoveries.
It is chiefly through the ideas of the Renaissance, therefore, that we arrive at the
origins of the Scientific Revolution. 7
Chitranjali Damor
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Advancements in Natural Sciences and
Medicine
1) Empirical Approach: Shift from ancient texts to direct observation and experimentation.
2) Human Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius' De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543) corrected anatomical
errors.
3) Surgical Innovations: Ambroise Paré introduced improved surgical techniques and wound
treatments.
4) Botany & Medicine: Herbal studies advanced pharmacology, with detailed plant classifications.
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Key Figures & Contributions
Andreas Vesalius: Revolutionized human anatomy with
accurate dissections.
Paracelsus: Introduced chemical treatments, shaping modern
pharmacology.
William Harvey: Discovered blood circulation and the heart’s
role as a pump.
Impact: Laid the foundation for modern medicine through
scientific methods and anatomical discoveries. 9
ADVANCEMENT IN NAVIGATION
Breakthroughs in Maritime Exploration
Refinement of Cartography: Gerardus Mercator’s Mercator Projection (1569) revolutionized map-
making, allowing sailors to navigate more accurately. His maps depicted the Earth’s surface in a way
that preserved straight-line courses (rhumb lines).
Navigational Instruments:
Astrolabe & Cross-staff: Used to measure the altitude of celestial bodies for determining latitude.
Sextant (17th century): Provided more precise angular measurements for navigation.
Magnetic Compass (Improved): Allowed ships to maintain a fixed direction at sea.
Impact on European Expansion
These advancements enabled European nations, especially Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and England,
to undertake long-distance voyages, leading to colonization and global trade dominance.
Anderson (1961) highlights how scientific advancements, including navigation, contributed to
the economic and military power of early modern European states.
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Kanika Rana
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ADVANCEMENTS IN ASTRONOMY
Challenging the Traditional Cosmology
Copernican Revolution (1543): Nicolaus Copernicus, in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, proposed the heliocentric model,
contradicting the geocentric view of Ptolemy.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (1609-1619): Provided mathematical proof of elliptical orbits, refining celestial mechanics
and aiding navigation.
Galileo’s Telescope (1609): Observed Jupiter’s moons, proving celestial bodies were not immutable, as the Church had claimed.
Newtonian Physics and its Role in Navigation
Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica (1687):
Established universal gravitation, explaining planetary motion.
Introduced laws of motion, critical for calculating trajectories and improving navigation.
Relevance to Scientific Revolution & European Dominance
M.S. Anderson, in Europe in the Eighteenth Century, discusses how these advancements
not only transformed scientific thought but also enhanced European dominance in global exploration and
trade. Astronomy and navigation became interconnected, allowing European powers to project
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their influence across oceans, establishing trade empires and colonization efforts.
Kanika Rana
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THE SECOND PHASE OF SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION 1540 TO 1650
This period is called Counter Renaissance it includes the Counter-
Reformation, with the Baroque style.The establishment of the States
General of Holland in 1576 and the Commonwealth of England in 1649
took place.Baltic countries developed economically, where
Denmark,Sweden, Poland, and Russia in turn began to emerge as
independent powers
Agriculture was predominant occupation and woollen cloth-making
the major industry,Shipbuilding improved.
During this period cast iron appeared in Europe, in the Rhineland in
14th Ce. came the idea of pig iron.
From 1564 to 1634 the annual shipments of coal from Newcastle 12
rose fourteenfold to nearly half a million tons
In science the period includes the first exposition of the solar
system by Copernicus and closes with its firm establishment -
despite the condemnation of the Church-through the work of
Galileo.
It includes in its scope Gilbert's description in 1600 of the earth
as a mag-net and Harvey's discovery in 1628 of the circulation
of the blood. It witnesses the first use of the two great extenders
of visible Nature, the telescope and the microscope.
Cornelius Drebbel (1572-1634), built a sub-marine which he
showed in the Thames.
The first institute for teaching the new science in England was
Gresham College, established in 1579 by the will of Sir Thomas
Gresham (1519-79), 13
Third Phase of the
Scientific Revolution
BY GUNGUN
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Third Phase of the Scientific Revolution: Key Points
1. Systematization of Physics and Mathematics
Mathematically formalized scientific principles beyond earlier discoveries.
Newton’s calculus (alongside Leibniz) enabled precise measurements of motion and change.
Advances in celestial mechanics, e.g., Halley’s prediction of Halley’s Comet validated Newton’s gravitational
laws.
2. Expansion of Experimental Science
Full adoption of experimentation as a core scientific method.
Establishment of scientific societies (Royal Society, French Academy of Sciences) promoted collective research
and peer review.
Hooke and Leeuwenhoek advanced microscopy, discovering cells, bacteria, and blood circulation.
3. Advances in Chemistry and Material Sciences
Refinement of gas laws enhanced understanding of elements and chemical reactions.
Shift from qualitative to quantitative chemical experimentation.
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4. Institutionalization and Professionalization of Science
Scientific journals like Philosophical Transactions ensured systematic review and dissemination of
discoveries.
Universities integrated Newtonian physics, astronomy, and mathematics into curricula.
5. Applications in Technology and Engineering
Practical application of scientific theories in navigation, mechanics, and medicine.
Huygens' pendulum clock improved precision timekeeping.
Advancements in optics led to better telescopes and microscopes.
6. Scientific Thought and the Enlightenment
Science influenced political, philosophical, and social thought.
Thinkers like Locke, Voltaire, and Montesquieu promoted empiricism and rational governance.
The mechanistic worldview extended natural laws to human society.
Conclusion: From Discovery to Systemization and Application
Shift from radical discoveries to structured scientific development.
Institutionalized science and expanded real-world applications.
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L id th f d ti f th E li ht t d I d t i l R l ti
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An experiment to verify Newtonian gravitation
and the use of the Caculus in working out his
famous theory of universal gravitation.
Jet engine driven by a jet of stream and
illustrating Newton’s third law of motion.
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KHUSHI
Capitalism & The Birth Of Modern Science:- 23/BAP/112
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CONCLUSION
The Scientific Revolution in Europe marked a transformative era of intellectual progress,
challenging traditional beliefs and laying the foundation for modern science. Groundbreaking
discoveries in astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry revolutionized human
understanding. This period fostered rational thought, empirical inquiry, and technological
advancements, ultimately shaping the Enlightenment and the modern scientific method,
profoundly impacting society and civilization.
REFERENCES
Anderson, M.S. Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713-1783. New York:Longman
Burke, Peter. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. UK: Ashgate, 2009.
Davies, Norman, Europe: A History. New York: Harper Collins, 1998.
Bernal, J. D. Science in History, Volume 2: The Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. MIT
Press, 1971.
Henry, John. The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science. Palgrave
Macmillan, 2008.
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