Indian Institute of Engineering Science and

Technology, Shibpur

Department of Physics

Practical Report

PH6272: Special Laboratory for Nuclear and Particle Physics

Submitted by:

Aprameyan Veeraraghavan (2023PHM017)

Mansi (2023PHM005)
Varsha Kumari (2023PHM008)
Rishabh Rajesh Nagda (2023PHM021)
Shibshankar Chakraborthy (2023PHM010)

Guided by:

Dr. Abijit Bisoi

2025
Contents

1 Detection of gamma radiation of known sources using Sodium Iodide

detector and single channel analyzer (SCA) 3
1.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Detection of gamma radiation of known sources using Sodium Iodide

detector and multichannel analyzer (MCA) 10
2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Energy Calliberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Effect of radiation shielding on the previous experiment . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Detection of Gamma Radiation and Analysis of Angular Correlation 21

3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
22
3.3.1 N a Source: Coincidence Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
22
3.3.2 Na Source: Singles Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 Expected Trends in Coincidence and Singles Mode . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.2 Observed Trends and Deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.3 Possible Causes of the Non-Uniform Trend in Singles Mode . . . . 25

4 Coincidence study of a mixed source of Co60 and Ba133 using CeBr3

detectors 27
4.1 Objective: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1
 4.3.1 Angular distribution plots gated at 135° for various transitions. . 31
4.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Identification of elements and determination of their relative amount

present in a given sample using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) technique 33
5.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Principle of the X-ray fluorescence process: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Experimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4.1 Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2
Experiment 1

Detection of gamma radiation of known

sources using Sodium Iodide detector
and single channel analyzer (SCA)

1.1 Objective
To find the energy resolution of the detector as a function of gamma energy.

1.2 Theory
Gamma-ray detection using scintillation detectors like sodium iodide (NaI) relies on the
scintillation phenomenon, which involves the conversion of gamma-ray energy into visible
light. Here are the key principles behind gamma-ray detection using NaI scintillation
detectors:

Scintillation Material: Sodium iodide (NaI) is a commonly used scintillation ma-

terial for gamma ray detection. NaI crystals are doped with small amounts of thallium
(Tl) to enhance their scintillation efficiency. When gamma rays interact with the NaI
crystal, they deposit energy in the material, causing the atoms to become excited.

Excitation and De-Excitation: The energy deposited by gamma rays excites the
atoms in the NaI crystal to higher energy levels. As these excited atoms return to their
ground state, they emit photons of visible light in a process known as scintillation. The
intensity of the scintillation light is proportional to the energy deposited by the gamma
rays in the crystal.

3
 Photon Detection: The scintillation light produced in the NaI crystal needs to be
detected and converted into an electrical signal for further analysis. This is achieved using
photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) or other light-sensitive detectors coupled to the crystal.
PMTs are particularly suited for this purpose due to their high sensitivity and ability to
amplify weak light signals.

Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs): Photomultiplier tubes are vacuum tubes that

contain a photosensitive cathode, a series of dynodes, and an anode. When a photon
strikes the cathode, it releases photoelectrons, which are accelerated towards the dynodes
by an electric field. Each dynode is at a higher potential than the previous one, causing
electron multiplication through secondary emission. This cascade amplification process
results in a significant increase in the number of electrons, leading to an electrical pulse
at the anode. The photoelectrons are ejected from the photocathode into the vacuum
with energy of ≈ 1eV and are accelerated by a voltage of a few hundred volts toward
the dynode through a focusing electrode. So, the accelerated electron has energy of a
few hundred electron volts upon arrival at the 1st dynode. This deposition of kinetic
energy can result in the re-emission of secondary electrons. It typically takes 2-3 eV to
excite an electron in the dynode, so 100 V can theoretically create ≈ 30 electrons. Also,
electrons must be near the surface to be emitted, otherwise they lose too much energy
through collisions and are unable to overcome the potential barrier at the surface. Now,
the secondary electrons from the first dynode are accelerated by the electric field toward
a second dynode, where they create secondary electrons, and so on. In each step there
is a certain amount of multiplication for each of the incident electrons called the overall
multiplication factor defined by

Number of secondary electron transmitted

d= (1.1)
primary incident electron
The overall gain for the PM tube = a × dN where N is the number of multiplication
stages, a is the fraction of electrons collected by the multiplier structure, and d is the
multiplication factor for a single electrode. For typical tubes d is around 5 and a ap-
proaches unity. 10 stages of multiplication result in an overall tube gain of 510 . Large
value of d is required for reducing statistical fluctuations. Of course, we have to adjust
the gain according to the strength of the radioactive source.

4
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of a scintillation detector comprising a scintillation ma-
terial coupled to a photomultiplier tube.

Details of the sources

Co60 : The most probable decay chain of Co60 is first decaying to an excited state of
N i60 by beta emission and then to the ground state of N i60 by emitting two subsequent
gamma ray photons of energies 1173.2 KeV and 1332.5 KeV. The half-life of Co60 is 5.272
years. Now our source is shielded source that absorbs all the beta rays, so we can detect
only the gamma rays.

Cs 137 The most probable decay chain of Cs137 is first decaying to an excited state
of Ba137 by beta emission and then decaying to the ground state of Ba137 by a gamma
emission of energy 662 KeV. The half-life of Cs137 is about 30 years.

Experimental Procedure
We are taking the data in Threshold mode and Window mode. In both the cases
the signal just after emerging from the PMT is amplified by a preamplifier and then the
passing through a cable the signal is amplified to a sufficient value in the nuclear spec-
trometer and then it is displayed. The requirement of the preamplifier is very important
as it amplifies the signal at its initial stage so that throughout its long journey through
the cable the Signal to Noise Ratio(SNR)is maintained at a sufficient value.

Threshold mode

In the threshold mode we have basically given a lower threshold voltage beyond which
every signal generating a voltage upto 10 volt (upper limit of the counter) is recorded
and we have shifted the threshold voltage in steps of 0.2 volt upto the region where there
are almost no counts. In this method the valley of decreasing counts that is generated
holds a special importance as it allows us to identify the photopeak region. Actually,

5
when measurements done in threshold mode, in the photopeak region there is a sudden
drop of the counts. The reason is that when we shift the lower threshold obviously the
total counts beyond the instantaneous value will gradually decrease as we are rejecting
all the signal generating a voltage less than that value. But in the photopeak region most
of the counts come under this so that as we move through the photopeak region the rate
of decrement increases. This allows us to identify the photopeak region as that will be
needed in the window mode.

Window mode

Window mode: In the window mode we basically construct a gate of voltage. Every
signal generating a voltage within that gate is allowed to be considered. This gate is
constructed by setting the baseline voltage to an initial value denoting the lower end of
the gate and then setting the window to a certain defining the length of the gate. Now
the window is kept fixed and the baseline is shifted in steps(step length is equal to the
value of the window) to record the data accordingly. So here we are taking the data in
slices to see the number of counts in each slice as this is needed to construct the whole
energy spectrum. We have set the window value to 0.2 volt up to the end of the Compton
region and shifted the baseline in steps of 0.2 volt. For the photopeak region we have set
the window value to 0.02 volt and shifted the baseline in steps of 0.02 volt. This is done
because our region of interest is only the photopeak region, so that we need to record
with a higher precision. After the end of photopeak region we have sufficient data to
construct the whole spectrum.

6
Experimental Results
60
Co results

60
Figure 1.2: Spectrum of Co in Threshold mode tube.

60
Figure 1.3: Spectrum of Co in Window mode tube.

7
137
Cs results

137
Figure 1.4: Spectrum of Cs in Threshold mode tube.

137
Figure 1.5: Spectrum of Cs in Window mode tube.

• The FWHM of peak is 0.28 ± 0.01

• The centroid of peak is 2.64 ± 0.01

• The energy resolution for this energy is then 0.106 ± 0.004

8
 137
Figure 1.6: Gaussion fit of photo peak of Cs

1.3 Discussion and Conclusion

The photopeaks in the energy spectrum for the co60 source are little bit overlapped with
each other and this is due to the poor energy resolution of the NaI detector.

9
Experiment 2

Detection of gamma radiation of known

sources using Sodium Iodide detector
and multichannel analyzer (MCA)

Objective
1. To find the energy resolution of the detector as a function of gamma energy.

2. To find the efficiency of the detector as a function of energy.

3. To plot the energy calibration of the detector and hence to find the energies of an
unknown source.

2.1 Theory

Resolution and efficiency of the detector:

The detailed theory about the resolution and efficiency has been discussed in our previous
experiment and so we are specifying the formulas only here.

FWHM of distribution
Resolution = × 100%
Centroid of distribution

number of pulse recorded

Absolute Efficiency, ϵabs =
number of radiation quanta emitted by source

Intrinsic efficiency, ϵint = Absolute effieciency × Solid angle

4π
The relation between the absolute and intrinsic efficiency is ϵi nt = ϵa bs × Ω

10
Energy calibration

In the multichannel analyser each channel corresponds to some energy and we need to
calibrate the channel v/s energy with some known sources so that we can determine
the energy of any unknown radiation. We can do this by plotting the centroids of the
photopeaks of the energy spectrums of the known source v/s the corresponding energies
of the sources. The expected nature is linear. This linearity is the identity of a detector
for energy measurements. So, by analysing the channel of occurrence of any radiation we
can determine the energy of the unknown radiation.
60 137 22
Details of the source :- we have used the same sources here i.e., Co, Cs, Na

2.1.1 Energy Calliberation

Channel no Energy (keV)

207 662
360 1173
408 1332

Table 2.1

The energy calibration of the detector is shown in Fig 2.1 below. The data for cali-
bration is shown in Table 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1: Energy Calibration of detector

11
2.2 Experimental Results
60
Co

Real time = 600 second, High voltage = 750 volts

The spectrum obtained is shown in Figure 2.2
The first photo peak is at channel no. 360.1 and the corresponding energy is 1173
keV.
The first photo peak is at channel no.408.9 and the corresponding energy is 1332
keV.

60
Figure 2.2: Energy spectrum of Co

137
Cs

Real time = 600 s ,High voltage = 750 volts

The spectrum obtained is shown in Figure ?? below.
The first photo peak is at channel no. 207.56 and the corresponding energy is 662 KeV.

As can be seen the slope of this linear fit is 3.28283 ± 0.08 and the intercept is
−24.73258 ± 29.0

22
Na

Real time =600 sec

High voltage = 750 volts
The spectrum obtained is shown in Fig 2.4 below.

12
 137
Figure 2.3: Energy spectrum of Cs

The annihilation peak is at channel no.165.2and the corresponding energy is 511

keV.
The photo peak is at channel no. 404 and the corresponding energy is 1274.

Figure 2.4: Energy Spectrum of N a22

13
 137
For Cs
It has one gamma of energy 662 KeV
Half-life is 30 years.
Activity on July, 2011 is 108 kBq = 108000 Bq.
Present activity is 79030.
Counts for 600 seconds is 47418000, which is the theoretical value. Now, the relative
yield for this gamma is 85.1%. So, the actual counts should be 40349244
Now, our experimental counts are 53001 ± 906.4.
So, the absolute efficiency for energy 662 KeV is

1534576 ± 906
= 0.013 ± 0.000014 = (1.3 ± 0.0014)%
40349244
Now, the radius of the detector is d = 1 ± 0.039 inch, and the distance from the source
is a = 1 ± 0.039 inch.
So, the solid angle subtended by the detector at the source is
 
d
Ω = 2π × 1 − √ = 2.098 ± 0.1435
d + a2
2

So, the intrinsic efficiency is

0.013 ± 0.000014 × 2.098 ± 0.1435 = 0.027 ± 0.0021 = (2.7 ± 0.21)%

The FWHM of the photo peak is 20.03 ± 0.2705 and the centroid is 207.56 ± 0.0908.
So, the resolution for this energy is

20.03 ± 0.2705
= 0.090 ± 0.00068 = (9.0 ± 0.068)%
207.56 ± 0.0908

14
 60
For Co
It has two gammas of energies 1173 KeV and 1332 KeV.
Half-life is 5.27 years.
Activity on July 2011 is 121 kBq
Present activity is 20237 Bq.
Counts for 600 seconds is 12142200 , which is the theoretical value. Now, the relative
yield for the 1173 KeV gamma is 99.85% and that for 1332 KeV gamma is 99.9826%. So,
the actual counts should be 12123600 and 12139800 for 1173 KeV and 1332 KeV
gamma, respectively.
Now, our experimental counts are 86009 ± 1180 and 70392 for 1173 KeV and 1332
KeV, respectively.
So, the absolute efficiency for energy 1173 KeV is

86009 ± 1180
= 0.00709 ± 0.0000629 = (0.709 ± 0.00629)%
12123600
And that for energy 1332 KeV is

70392 ± 598.2
= 0.005798 ± 0.0000469 = (0.5798 ± 0.00469)%
12139800
Now, the radius of the detector is d = 2.5 ± 0.01 inch, and the distance from the
source is a = 1 ± 0.039 inch.
So, the solid angle subtended by the detector at the source is
 
d
Ω = 2π × 1 − √ = 2.098 ± 0.1435
d2 + a2
So, the intrinsic efficiency for 1173 KeV gamma is

0.0.709 ± 0.0000629 × 2.098 ± 0.01435 = (1.48 ± 0.088)%

And that for 1332 KeV gamma is

0.005798 ± 0.0000469 × 2.098 ± 0.1435 = 0.014 ± 0.000719 = (1.4 ± 0.0719)%

The FWHM of the photo peak of 1173 KeV is 29.2 and the centroid is 360.
So, the resolution for this energy is

29.2 ± 0.80
= 0.081 ± 0.0014 = 8.1 ± 0.14)%
360 ± 0.20
The FWHM of the photo peak of 1332 KeV is 28.87 ± 0.91 and the centroid is 408.9 ±
0.16.

15
 So, the resolution for this energy is

28.87 ± 0.91
= 0.07 ± 0.001 = (7.0 ± 0.1)%
408.9 ± 0.16

22
For Na
It has two gammas of energies 511 KeV and 1274 KeV.
Half-life is 2.6 years.
Activity on July, 2011 is 7 kBq = 7000 Bq.
Present activity is 183.1 Bq.
Counts for 1200 seconds is 219720, which is the theoretical value. Now, the relative
yield for the 511 KeV gamma is 179.91% and that for 1274 KeV gamma is 99.94%. So,
the actual counts should be 395499 and 219726 for 511 KeV and 1274 KeV gamma,
respectively.
Now, our experimental counts are 130748 ± 830 and 21428 ± 367 for 511 KeV and
1274 KeV, respectively.
So, the absolute efficiency for energy 511 KeV is

130748 ± 830
= 0.3305 ± 0.001 = (33.05 ± 0.1)%
395499
And that for energy 1274 KeV is

21428 ± 367
= 0.0975 ± 0.0009 = (9.7 ± 0.09)%
219726
Now, the radius of the detector is d = 1 ± 0.039 inch, and the distance from the source
is a = 1 ± 0.039 inch.
So, the solid angle subtended by the detector at the source is
 
d
Ω = 2π × 1 − √ = 2.09 ± 0.1435
d 2 + a2
So, the intrinsic efficiency for 511 KeV gamma is

0.3305 ± 0.001 × 2.09 ± 0.1435 = 0.6909 ± 0.0448 = (69.09 ± 4.80)%

And that for 1274 KeV gamma is

0.0975 ± 0.0009 × 2.09 ± 0.1435 = 0.203 ± 0.0133 = (20.38 ± 1.33)%

Now, the FWHM of the photopeak of 511 KeV is 17.31, and the centroid is 165.2.
So, the resolution for this energy is

16
 17.31 ± 0.25
= 0.104 ± 0.0008 = (10.4 ± 0.08)%
165.26 ± 0.09
The FWHM of the photopeak of 1274 KeV is 28.81 ± 0.97, and the centroid is 404 ±
0.19.
So, the resolution for this energy is

28.81 ± 0.97
= 0.071 ± 0.0012 = (7.1 ± 0.12)%
404 ± 0.19
The calibration of resolution vs energy is shown in Fig 2.8.
The calibration of intrinsic efficiency vs energy is shown in Fig 2.6.

Figure 2.5: Resolution Vs Energy Graph

Figure 2.6: Intrinsic efficiency vs Energy

17
 Figure 2.7: Intrinsic efficiency vs Energy (Modified)

2.3 Discussion and Conclusion

Energy (keV) Intrinsic efficiency (%)

662 2.7 ± 0.21
1172 1.4 ± 0.088
1332 1.2 ± 0.0719
511 69.1 ± 4.80
1274 20.3 ± 1.33

Table 2.2

1. The nature of the resolution calibration is quite linear as expected.

2. The efficiency should also decrease gradually with increasing energy. But as we see
137 22
from the above table, the efficiencies of Cs (662) and Na (511) are not close
to each other, whereas their energies are close to each other. Also, the efficiency
for the 1274 keV gamma is higher than that of 1173 keV gamma, which is quite
absurd.

3. Now, from the formula of intrinsic efficiency, it depends on the solid angle and
absolute efficiency. Our solid angle is fixed for the detector, so our absolute efficiency
should change. And in absolute efficiency, our experimental count does not change,
so our theoretical counts should change.

18
 4. Now, if we estimate the activity of 22 Na from the intrinsic efficiency vs energy graph,
we find that for energy 1274 keV, the intrinsic efficiency should be 0.013, and the
theoretical counts should be 3445016, which is 99.94% of actual counts. Our actual
counts are 3447084 , and the present activity should be 106 kBq.

22
5. Considering this activity of Na, the theoretical counts for the 511 keV gammas
should be 6170280. The experimental counts are 130748. So, the absolute efficiency
should be 0.0211, and the intrinsic efficiency should be 0.04426 .

6. We have used these values to plot the efficiency of the detector, which is shown in
Fig 2.7.

7. We see that the nature of this curve is quite better than the previous one.

2.4 Effect of radiation shielding on the previous ex-

periment
We have repeated the previous experiment with cubical lead shield for the monochromatic
source Cs137 and Background radiation.

Figure 2.8: Comparision of background, with shielding and without shielding

19
 Figure 2.9: Comparision of spectrum, with shielding and without shielding

From overlapping of two spectrum we found that the count with shielding is compar-
atively less than the count without shielding. The shielding placed around a detector
to reduce background from cosmic rays or terrestrial radiation may itself introduce a
significant background from its inherent low-level radioactivity. Some additional inter-
fering radiation can be observed as a result of the interaction of primary gamma rays
from the source with shielding materials. This interaction results into peaks of Compton
backscattering, x-rays(pair production).

20
Experiment 3

Detection of Gamma Radiation and

Analysis of Angular Correlation

3.1 Objectives
• To study the angular correlation of gamma rays emitted from 22
Na source in coin-
cidence mode.

3.2 Theory
In singles mode, each detector records gamma events independently, without requiring
22
time correlation. For the Na source, both the 511 keV annihilation photons and the
1274 keV de-excitation photon are detected. However, unlike coincidence mode, the
setup does not distinguish whether the detected photons are part of a correlated pair or
background radiation.
As a result, the angular distribution of counts is expected to be relatively uniform.
Deviations from this uniformity can arise due to variations in detector alignment, source-
detector distance, or environmental scattering. While singles mode lacks directional sen-
sitivity, it provides a complete picture of the total gamma yield.
22
For the Na source, an annihilation peak at 511 KeV and a photopeak at 1274 KeV
exist. In coincidence measurements, the 511 KeV gamma is selected since each annihi-
lation event produces two photons in opposite directions. By applying the coincidence
window, one detector is fixed to detect one of the 511 KeV gammas, while the other
detector is rotated to detect the other 511 KeV gamma. This setup allows for the study
of angular correlation between the two gamma rays.

21
3.3 Experimental Data
22
3.3.1 N a Source: Coincidence Mode
The energy spectra for five different angles in coincidence mode are shown in Figures
below

22
Figure 3.1: 22
Na spectrum at 90° in coinci- Figure 3.2: Na spectrum at 135° in coin-
dence mode cidence mode

22
Figure 3.3: 22
Na spectrum at 180° in coin- Figure 3.4: Na spectrum at 225° in coin-
cidence mode cidence mode

22
 22
Figure 3.5: Na spectrum at 270° in coin-
cidence mode

22
3.3.2 Na Source: Singles Mode
The energy spectra for five different angles in singles mode are shown in Figures below.

22
22
Figure 3.7: Na spectrum at 135° in Sin-
Figure 3.6: Na spectrum at 90° in Singles
gles mode
mode

23
 22
Figure 3.8: 22
Na spectrum at 180° in Sin- Figure 3.9: Na spectrum at 225° in Sin-
gles mode gles mode

22
Figure 3.10: Na spectrum at
270° in Singles mode

The photopeak counts for the 1332 KeV peak were recorded for different angles in
both coincidence and singles mode.

Table 3.1: Photopeak Counts for 1332 KeV Peak in Coincidence and Singles Mode

Angle (degrees) Coincidence Mode Counts Singles Mode Counts

90 65 4136
135 59 3344
180 8533 5036
225 87 4397
270 37 4602

24
Figure 3.11: Angular distribu- Figure 3.12: Angular distribu-
tion of Singles Modes tion of correlation mode

3.4 Discussion

3.4.1 Expected Trends in Coincidence and Singles Mode

In coincidence mode, where only time-correlated gamma pairs were detected, we expected
a clear peak at 180°, since the two 511 keV annihilation photons should be emitted exactly
opposite to each other. In singles mode, where all detected gamma rays were recorded
without time filtering, the counts were expected to be uniform across different angles, as
the detectors should register gamma rays from all directions equally.

3.4.2 Observed Trends and Deviations

In coincidence mode, the peak at 180° was clearly visible, confirming that the annihilation
gamma rays are indeed emitted in opposite directions. In singles mode, however, instead
of a smooth uniform trend, the graph showed irregular fluctuations across different angles.

3.4.3 Possible Causes of the Non-Uniform Trend in Singles Mode

Variation in Source-Detector Distance: Since the setup was adjusted manually for
each angle, the distance between the source and detector may not have been exactly the
same each time. Small variations in distance would change the solid angle subtended by
the detector, slightly affecting the count rates.
Detector Alignment Issues: If the detector position was not perfectly aligned
after each movement, it could have affected the effective detection area, introducing
inconsistencies in recorded counts.
Statistical Fluctuations: Data was collected at only five angles (90°, 135°, 180°,
225°, 270°), which might not be enough to completely smooth out random variations

25
in gamma detection. A larger number of data points could have helped in identifying
whether the fluctuations were due to statistical noise or a systematic effect.
Background Radiation and Scattering Effects: In singles mode, the detector
does not filter out uncorrelated gamma rays, meaning it also records background radia-
tion. Some photons might have undergone Compton scattering off nearby objects, leading
to unexpected variations in the recorded counts at different angles.

26
Experiment 4

Coincidence study of a mixed source

of Co60 and Ba133 using CeBr3 detec-
tors

4.1 Objective:
(i) To calibrate the setup using known sources.

(ii) To study the coincidence spectra of the mixed source.

4.2 Theory
We have actually used two sources Co60 and Ba133 which we have attached with each
other to analyze their superposed spectra using coincidence technique. This technique
allows us to detect each gamma having a time correlation with one or many other gammas.
When gamma transitions take place, there may be correlated or uncorrelated gammas
in the decay scheme. If we take the data in coincidence mode then it will allow us to
eliminate all the uncorrelated gammas in the decay scheme of the sources.

Figure 4.1: Level Scheme of Co60

27
 Figure 4.2: Decay Scheme of Ba133

4.3 Experimental Data

The channel energy calibration is done first.

Figure 4.3: Channel-Energy calibration

28
 Figure 4.4: All projected spectrum of the mixed source

We have used ingasort to find the coincidence relationship for each gamma. (i) 1332
KeV is in coincidence with 1173 KeV. (ii) 1173 KeV is in coincidence with 1132 Kev.
Reason In the source we have Co60 which undergoes a beta decay and Ni60 is pro-
duced in an excited state which de-excites to the ground state via a two-step gamma
emission; first 1173 Kev gamma is emitted and then 1332 KeV is emitted consecutively,
which are correlated in time with each other. Since this is the most probable decay
mechanism, we have detected this one in our system.
(iii) 81 KeV is in coincidence with 53 KeV, 302.8 KeV, 79 KeV, 276.4 KeV, 356 KeV
(iv) 353 KeV is in coincidence with 53 KeV, 81 KeV. (v) 356 KeV is in coincidence with
81 KeV.
(vi) 276 KeV is in coincidence with 81 KeV.
(vii) 302 KeV is in coincidence with 81 KeV, 53 KeV.

Reason In the source we have Ba133 which undergoes electron capture and forms
Cs133. If it is produced in 1/2+ state then it will emit 53 KeV gamma which will be
correlated with 302 KeV and 81 KeV in a decay chain which is quite close to our detection.
In another decay chain we have 53 KeV, 223 KeV, 80 KeV, 81 KeV correlated gammas.
As well as the 1/2+ state also can decay through 276 KeV and then 81 KeV in a decay
chain which is exact to our observation. In another decay chain the 1/2+ state can also
decay through 356 KeV and 81 KeV correlated gammas which is also exact with the
observation. Also, if the Ba133 decays to 3/2+ state of Cs133 then it can decay through
223 KeV and 161 KeV correlated gammas.
Also, we have noticed that there are two more gammas of energy 1117 keV and 934
keV which are in coincidence with 211 keV gamma. Actually, the Compton edge of 1173

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 (a) 1173 gated at 90

(b) 1173 gated at 180

Figure 4.5: Angular distribution plots of 1173 keV transition gated at 90° and 180°.

30
keV and 1332 keV gammas of Co60 occur at 958 keV and 1118 keV and the scattered
photons are detected at the backscatter peak at energies 209 keV and 214 keV. Our
detector detects these two gammas as one peak at 211 keV and since the backscatter
peak and the Compton edge are timely correlated, we got 1117 keV and 934 keV in
coincidence with the 211 keV peak.

4.3.1 Angular distribution plots gated at 135° for various tran-

sitions.

Figure 4.6: 81 gated at 135

Figure 4.7: 276 gated at 135

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 Figure 4.8: 302 gated at 135

Figure 4.9: 356 gated at 135

4.4 Discussion
There are actually 79 keV and 80 keV photopeaks in the level scheme which are not
resolvable due to the poor energy resolution of our detector.
In the singles mode we have observed that there is another peak at 383 keV which is
absent in coincidence mode. Actually, this is a photopeak of Ba133 which is a purely
uncorrelated gamma. that’s why we don’t get it in the coincidence mode.

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Experiment 5

Identification of elements and deter-

mination of their relative amount present
in a given sample using X-Ray Fluo-
rescence (XRF) technique

5.1 Objectives
• To calibrate the XRF setup using known targets.

• To identify the elements present in an unknown target and determine their relative
amount.

5.2 Theory
X-rays can be produced by a radioactive source, an X-ray tube and by synchrotron
radiation. In the present experiment, we use an X-ray tube. A typical X-ray tube is
equipped with a heating filament as a cathode. Due to Joules heating by the electrical
current through the filament electrons are emitted and become accelerated in a high
electric field towards an anode. X-rays are produced in the target. There are two types
of X-rays.

1. Continuous X-rays:- The broad-wavelength band of radiation is called continuum

also known as Bremsstrahlung. It arises due to deceleration of the accelerated
electrons within the target material due to their interaction with electrons and
nucleus in the target element.

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 2. Characteristic X-ray:- Characteristic X- rays are produced when high energy
electrons knock out the inner shell electrons from the atoms of the target material
and to fill that vacancy electrons from higher shells jumps to the vacant states and
emits a photon whose energy is equal to the energy gap between the two levels.

Figure 5.1: Production of characteristic

and continuous X-rays

5.3 Principle of the X-ray fluorescence process:

If the primary energy of X-rays is equal to or is larger than the binding energy of an
inner shell electron it is likely that electrons will be ejected and consequently vacancies
are created. The hole state has certain life time and becomes refilled again. The transition
of the excited atom into a state with lower energy occurs via two competitive processes,
the above mentioned photoelectric and Auger effects. In the photoelectric effect, the
recombination is accompanied by a transfer of electrons from the outer shells with energy
Em into the inner shells with energy En filling the vacancies. This process induces
the emission of a characteristic X-ray (fluorescence) photon with energy h = Em En.
Therefore the energy of these secondary X-rays is the difference between the binding
energies of the corresponding shells. The excited atom can also recombine by emission of
Auger electrons, instead of characteristic X-rays, via the Auger effect. The probability
that characteristic X-rays will be emitted - and not an Auger electron- varies from one
element to another and is described as the fluorescence yield. For elements of low atomic
numbers, the Auger effect dominates, whereas emission of characteristic X-rays is more
likely for heavy elements. Each element has its unique characteristic energy spectrum
(Fluorescence spectrum) composed by the allowed transitions of the specific atom in

34
the result of X-ray excitation. XRF technique consists on the study of the produced
characteristic spectrum.

Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram of

production of experimental setup.

5.4 Experimental data

For energy Calibration we used Ag and Cu

(a) Characteristic X-ray spec- (b) Characteristic X-ray spec-

trum of silver trum of copper

Figure 5.3: Comparison of characteristic X-ray spectra for silver and copper.

Figure 5.4: Calibration of en-

ergy

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5.4.1 Analysis Results
Sample 2

Channel Energy Exp. Energy Theo. Element X-ray Line Abundance

175 1756.07 1739 Si ka1 16.00

305 3014.29 2957 Ar ka1 0.06
735 7206 7179 Tm ka1 1.08
834 8171 8189 Er Lb2 36.81
957 9364 9251 Ga Ka2 27.98
987 9656 9572 Zn Kb1 10.42
1116 10922 10982 Ge Kb1 3.18
2265 22104 22162 Ag Ka1 0.88
656 6533 6403 Fe Ka1 1.41

Table 5.1: Summarized data for Sample 2

Sample 304

Channel Energy Exp. Energy Theo. Element X-ray Line Abundance (Total)

554 5540 5427.29 V Kb1 25.91

606 5946 5946.7 Cr Kb1 3.43
655 6423.29 6403 Fe Ka1 66.83
721 7074.4 7057.9 Fe Kb1
766 7513.78 7478 Ni Ka1 3.81
836 8190.61 8264 Ni Kb1

Table 5.2: Summarized data for Sample 304

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 Sample 393

Channel Energy Exp. Energy Theo. Element X-ray Line Abundance (Total)

243 2413.72 2464 S Kb1 0.47

824 8069.35 8047 Cu Ka1 60
912 8934.35 8905 Cu Kb1
885 8663.97 8638 Zn Ka1 37.2
981 9604.08 9572 Zn Kb1
1081 10577.69 10543.7 As Ka1 0.2
1293 12639.8 12495 Se Kb1 1.7

Table 5.3: Summarized data for Sample 393

Sample 1909

Channel Energy Exp. Energy Theo. Element X-ray Line Abundance (Total)

190 1507.8 1557 Al Kb1 37

654 6420 6403 Fe Ka1 0.9
823 8067.49 8047 Cu Ka1 9
884 8657.93 8638 Zn Ka1 51
980 9589.86 9572 Zn Kb1

Table 5.4: Summarized data for Sample 1909

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 (a) Sample 2 (b) Sample 304

(c) Sample 393 (d) Sample 1909

Figure 5.5: Characteristic X-ray spectra of various samples.

5.5 Results and discussion

• Sample 2: Predominantly Erbium (Er, 36.81%) and Gallium (Ga, 27.98%) with
significant Silicon (Si, 16.00%) and traces of Zinc (Zn), Germanium (Ge), Iron
(Fe), Thulium (Tm), Argon (Ar), and Silver (Ag). Likely an Erbium-doped
Gallium-based compound, such as Erbium Gallium Garnet (Er3 Ga5 O12 )
or an Er-doped photonic material.

• Sample 304:Predominantly Iron (Fe, 66.8%) and Vanadium (V, 25.9%) with traces
of Cr and Ni. Likely a Vanadium microalloyed steel or tool steel.

• Sample 393: High Copper (Cu, 60%), significant Zinc (Zn, 37%). Identified as a
Brass alloy, consistent with commercial alpha brasses.

• Sample 1909: Zinc (Zn, 51%), Aluminum (Al, 37%), and Copper (Cu, 9%).
Matches the profile of a Zamak or high-Al ZA alloy used in die-casting.

38