Detailed Note on Program Instructions Execution
Introduction
Program instruction execution is the process by which a computer follows a sequence of
instructions to perform specific tasks. This execution occurs in the CPU (Central Processing
Unit) and follows a structured cycle known as the Instruction Cycle or Fetch-Decode-Execute
Cycle. The entire process is governed by the von Neumann architecture, which is the foundation
of most modern computers.
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1. Components Involved in Execution
Before diving into execution, it’s essential to understand the key components that play a role:
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Control Unit (CU): Directs operations, fetches instructions, and interprets them.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
Registers: Small storage locations for temporary data and instructions.
Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the next instruction’s memory address.
Instruction Register (IR): Stores the current instruction being executed.
2. Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory)
Stores program instructions and data.
Uses addresses to locate and retrieve instructions.
3. Buses
Address Bus: Carries addresses of instructions and data.
Data Bus: Transfers actual data between memory and CPU.
Control Bus: Sends control signals to coordinate operations.
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2. Instruction Cycle (Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle)
Every instruction undergoes a systematic execution cycle consisting of three major steps: Fetch,
Decode, and Execute.
Step 1: Fetch
The CPU fetches the next instruction from memory using the Program Counter (PC), which
holds the memory address of the instruction.
The address is sent via the Address Bus to memory.
The instruction is retrieved and sent to the CPU via the Data Bus.
The instruction is stored in the Instruction Register (IR).
The Program Counter (PC) is incremented to point to the next instruction.
Step 2: Decode
The Control Unit (CU) interprets the instruction stored in the Instruction Register (IR).
The instruction is broken down into:
Opcode (Operation Code): Specifies what operation to perform (e.g., ADD, MOV).
Operands: Specify data or memory addresses needed for execution.
The CPU identifies the required resources (registers, memory locations) for execution.
Step 3: Execute
The CPU carries out the instruction as per the decoded details.
If it involves:
Arithmetic/Logic operations, the ALU processes it.
Memory operations, data is loaded or stored.
I/O operations, interaction occurs with peripherals.
The status flags may be updated based on the execution results.
The cycle repeats for the next instruction.
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3. Types of Instructions
There are different categories of instructions based on their function:
1. Data Transfer Instructions
Move data between memory and registers.
Examples: MOV, LOAD, STORE.
2. Arithmetic Instructions
Perform mathematical operations.
Examples: ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV.
3. Logical Instructions
Perform bitwise logical operations.
Examples: AND, OR, XOR, NOT.
4. Control Flow Instructions
Alter the normal execution sequence.
Examples: JMP, CALL, RET, IF, LOOP.
5. Input/Output Instructions
Handle communication with external devices.
Examples: IN, OUT.
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4. Execution in Different Architectures
a) Von Neumann Architecture
Uses a single memory for both instructions and data.
Instructions are fetched sequentially unless control instructions (e.g., JMP) alter the flow.
b) Harvard Architecture
Separates instruction and data memory.
Enables simultaneous fetching of instructions and execution of data operations, improving
speed.
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5. Pipelining in Instruction Execution
To optimize execution speed, modern CPUs use pipelining, where different stages of multiple
instructions overlap.
Example of a 5-stage pipeline:
1. Fetch (F) – Fetches instruction.
2. Decode (D) – Decodes the fetched instruction.
3. Execute (E) – Performs the required operation.
4. Memory Access (M) – Reads/Writes data (if needed).
5. Write Back (WB) – Stores results in registers.
This significantly enhances performance by allowing multiple instructions to be processed
simultaneously.
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6. Interrupts and Exception Handling
During execution, the CPU may face interrupts or exceptions that temporarily pause execution:
Hardware Interrupts: Triggered by external devices (e.g., keyboard input, hardware failures).
Software Interrupts: Generated by software requests (e.g., system calls).
Exceptions: Errors like divide-by-zero or invalid memory access.
When an interrupt occurs:
The CPU saves its current state.
It processes the interrupt using an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
Once handled, the CPU resumes normal execution.
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7. Conclusion
The execution of program instructions follows a structured and optimized approach, ensuring
that computers process tasks efficiently. The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle is the core of this
execution process, enhanced by architectures like pipelining and interrupt handling.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for software development, computer engineering, and
system optimization.
