Engineering Graphics

Giesecke Mitchell Spencer

Hill Dygdon Novak Loving
Eighth Edition
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
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ISBN 10: 1-292-02617-0

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02617-6

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 P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y

Table of Contents

1. The Graphic Language and Design

Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 1
2. Introduction to CAD
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 13
3. Instrumental Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 41
4. Geometric Constructions
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 87
5. Sketching and Shape Description
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 125
6. Multiview Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 155
7. Sectional Views
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 205
8. Auxiliary Views
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 235
9. Revolutions
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 261

I
 10. Manufacturing Design and Processes
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 277
11. Dimensioning
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 301
12. Tolerancing
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 339
13. Threads, Fasteners, and Springs
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 371
14. Design and Working Drawings
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 409
15. Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 493
16. Axonometric Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 507
17. Oblique Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 543
18. Perspective
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 563
19. Points, Lines, and Planes
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 589
20. Parallelism and Perpendicularity
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 623
21. Intersections
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 641
22. Developments
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 667

II
23. Line and Plane Tangencies
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 683
24. Cartography, Geology, and Spherical Geometry
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 697
25. Graphical Vector Analysis
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 715
Sheet Layouts
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 737
Decimal and Millimeter Equivalents; Symbols for Instructors Corrections
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 741
Color Plates
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 743
Index 751

III
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The Graphic Language and Design

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you A new machine, structure, or system must exist in the mind of the
should be able to: engineer or designer before it can become a reality. This original
1. Describe the role of the engineer on a concept or idea is usually placed on paper or as an image on a com-
design team. puter screen and communicated to others by way of the graphic lan-
2. List two types of drawings. guage in the form of freehand sketches. These first sketches are
3. Explain why standards are important. followed by other, more exact, sketches as the idea is developed
4. Draw examples of parallel and perspec- more fully.
tive projection. The engineer and drafter for the twenty-first century must
understand how to read and write in the graphic language. Every-
5. Define plane of projection and
projectors. one on the engineering and design team must be able to communi-
cate quickly and accurately in order to compete in the world
6. Identify uses of the graphic language.
market. Like carpenters learning to use the tools of their trade, engi-
7. Describe the differences between
neers, designers, and drafters must learn the tools of technical draw-
mechanical drawing and sketching.
ing. While CAD has replaced traditional drafting tools for many
design teams, the basic concepts of the graphic language remain the
same. Those students who can become proficient in graphic com-
munication will succeed and add value to the employer who hires
them.

From Chapter 1 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ INTRODUCTION oped more fully, these original sketches are followed

by other sketches, such as computation sketches.
The old saying that “necessity is the mother of inven- Engineers and designers must be able to create idea
tion” is still true, and a new machine, structure, system, sketches, calculate stresses, analyze motions, size parts,
or device is the result of that need. If the new object is specify materials and production methods, make design
really needed or desired, people will buy it or use it as layouts, and supervise the preparation of drawings and
long as they can afford it. specifications that will control the numerous details of
Before a new object of any kind goes into produc- product manufacture, assembly, and [Link] per-
tion, certain questions must be answered: What is the form or supervise these many tasks, engineers make liber-
potential market for this object? Can the object al use of freehand sketches. They must be able to record
(device or system) be sold at a price that people are and communicate ideas quickly to associate and support
willing to pay? If the potential market is large enough personnel. Both facility in freehand sketching and the
and the estimated selling price seems reasonable, then ability to work with computer-controlled drawing tech-
the inventor, designer, or company officials may niques require a thorough knowledge of the graphic lan-
choose to proceed with development, production, and guage. Engineers and designers who use a computer for
marketing plans for the new project. drawing and design work must be proficient in drafting,
A new machine, structure, or system, or even an designing, and conceptualizing.
improvement of an existing system, must exist in the Typical engineering and design departments are
mind of the inventor, engineer, or designer before it shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Such staffs include people
can become a reality. This original concept is usually who have considerable training and experience as well
placed on paper or as an image of a computer screen. It as recent graduates who are gaining experience. There
is then communicated to others by way of the graphic is much to be learned on the job, and inexperienced
language in the form of freehand idea sketches, or people must start at a low level and then advance to
design sketches (Fig. 1). As the idea is devel- more responsible positions as they gain experience.

■ FIGURE 1 ■ An Initial Idea Sketch. Courtesy of Ratio Design Lab, Inc.

2
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Egyptian Hieroglyphics.

From the beginning of time, artists have used draw-

ings to express aesthetic, philosophic, or other abstract
ideas. People learned by conversing with their elders
and by looking at sculptures, pictures, or drawings in
public places. Everybody could understand pictures,
and they were a principal source of information.
The other line along which drawing has developed
has been the technical. From the beginning of recorded
history, people have used drawings to represent the design
of objects to be built or constructed. No trace remains of
■ FIGURE 2 ■ Engineers Work to Have an In-Depth Understanding
these earliest drawings, but we know that drawings were
of a Product’s Design. Courtesy of AC Engineering, Inc.
used, for people could not have designed and built as they
1 ■ THE GRAPHIC LANGUAGE did without using fairly accurate drawings.

Although people around the world speak different lan-

guages, a universal graphic language has existed since 3 ■ EARLY TECHNICAL DRAWING
the earliest of times. The earliest forms of writing were Perhaps the earliest known technical drawing in exis-
through picture forms, such as the Egyptian hieroglyph- tence is the plan view for a design of a fortress drawn by
ics (Fig. 4). Later these forms were simplified and the Chaldean engineer Gudea and engraved on a stone
became the abstract symbols used in our writing today. tablet (Fig. 5). It is remarkable how similar this plan is
A drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing, to those made by modern architects, although it was
an idea, or a proposed design for later manufacture or “drawn” thousands of years before paper was invented.
construction. Drawings may take many forms, but the In museums we can see actual specimens of early
graphic method of representation is a basic natural form drawing instruments. Compasses were made of bronze
of communication of ideas that is universal and timeless. and were about the same size as those in current use.
As shown in Fig. 6, the old compass resembled the
2 ■ ARTISTIC AND TECHNICAL DRAWINGS dividers of today. Pens were cut from reeds.
Graphic representation has been developed along two The scriber-type compass gave way to the compass
distinct lines, according to purpose: (1) artistic and (2) with a graphite lead shortly after graphic pencils were
technical. developed. At Mount Vernon we can see the drawing
instruments used by the great civil engineer George
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Part of a Typical Engineering Design Department.
Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
Washington, bearing the date 1749. This set is very
similar to the conventional drawing instruments used

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Plan of a Fortress. This stone tablet is part of a

statue now in the Louvre, in Paris, and is classified in the earliest
period of Chaldean art, about 4000 B.C. From Transactions ASCE, May 1891.

3
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Roman Stylus, Pen, and Compass. From Historical

Note on Drawing Instruments, published by V & E Manufacturing Co.

today. It consists of a divider and compass with pencil science of cutting solid bodies, especially stone, into
and pen attachments plus a ruling pen with parallel desired shapes), architecture, and perspective, in which
blades similar to the modern pens (Fig. 7). many of the principles were used. It was while he was a
The theory of projections of objects on imaginary professor at the Polytechnic School in France near the
planes of projection apparently was not developed until close of the eighteenth century that Monge developed
the early part of the fifteenth century by the Italian the principles of projection that are now the basis of our
architects Alberti, Brunelleschi, and others. It is well technical drawing. [A view of a part for a design is tech-
known that Leonardo da Vinci used drawings to record nically known as a projection]. These principles of
and transmit to others his ideas and designs for descriptive geometry were soon recognized to be of such
mechanical constructions, and many of these drawings military importance that Monge was compelled to keep
are still in existence (Fig. 8). It is not clear whether his principles secret until 1795, after which they became
Leonardo ever made mechanical drawings showing an important part of technical education in France and
orthographic views as we now know them, but it is Germany and later in the United States. His book, La
probable that he did. Leonardo’s treatise on painting, Géométrie Descriptive, is still regarded as the first text to
published in 1651, is regarded as the first book ever expound the basic principles of projection drawing.
printed on the theory of projection drawing; however, Monge’s principles were brought to the United
its subject was perspective and not orthographic projec- States from France in 1816 by Claude Crozet, an alum-
tion. nus of the Polytechnic School and a professor at the
United States Military Academy at West Point. He
published the first text on the subject of descriptive
4 ■ EARLY DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY geometry in the English language in 1821. In the years
Descriptive geometry is the science of graphic represen- immediately following, these principles became a regu-
tation and solution of spatial problems. The beginnings lar part of early engineering curricula at Rensselaer
of descriptive geometry are associated with the prob- Polytechnic Institute, Harvard University,Yale Univer-
lems encountered in designs for building construction sity, and others. During the same period, the idea of
and military fortifications of France in the eighteenth manufacturing interchangeable parts in the early arms
century. Gaspard Monge (1746–1818) is considered the industries was being developed, and the principles of
“inventor” of descriptive geometry, although his efforts projection drawing were applied to these problems.
were preceded by publications on stereotomy (the art or

■ FIGURE 7 ■ George Washington’s Drawing

Instruments. From Historical Note on Drawing Instruments, published by
V & E Manufacturing Co.

4
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 8 ■ An Arsenal, by Leonardo da Vinci.

Courtesy of the Bettmann Archive.

5 ■ MODERN TECHNICAL DRAWING Up to about 1900, drawings everywhere were gener-

ally made in what is called first-angle projection, in which
Perhaps the first text on technical drawing in this coun- the top view was placed under the front view, the left-
try was Geometrical Drawing, published in 1849 by side view was placed at the right of the front view, and so
William Minifie, a high school teacher in Baltimore. In [Link] this time in the United States, after a considerable
1850 the Alteneder family organized the first drawing period of argument pro and con, practice gradually set-
instrument manufacturing company in the United States tled on the present third-angle projection, in which the
(Theo. Alteneder & Sons, Philadelphia). In 1876 the views are situated in what we regard as their more logi-
blueprint process was introduced at the Philadelphia cal or natural positions. Today, third-angle projection is
Centennial Exposition. Up to this time the graphic lan- standard in the United States, but first-angle projection
guage was more or less an art, characterized by fine-line is still used throughout much of the world.
drawings made to resemble copper-plate engraving, by During the early part of the twentieth century, many
the use of shade lines, and by the use of watercolor books were published in which the graphic language was
“washes.” These techniques became unnecessary after analyzed and explained in connection with its rapidly
the introduction of blueprinting, and drawings gradually changing engineering design and industrial applications.
were made less ornate to obtain the best results from Many of these writers were not satisfied with the term
this method of reproduction. This was the beginning of because they recognized that technical drawing was real-
modern technical drawing. The graphic language now ly a graphic language. Anthony’s An Introduction to the
became a relatively exact method of representation, and Graphic Language, French’s Engineering Drawing, and
the building of a working model as a regular preliminary Giesecke et al., Technical Drawing, were all written with
to construction became unnecessary. this point of view.

5
 The Graphic Language and Design

6 ■ DESIGN PROCESS grammar and the penmanship (see §1.9 for a definition
Design is the ability to combine ideas, scientific princi- of penmanship as it applies to technical drawing).
ples, resources, and often existing products into a solu-
tion for a problem. This ability to solve problems in 8 ■ DEFINITIONS
design is the result of an organized and orderly After this brief survey of the historical development of
approach to the problem known as the design process. the graphic language, and before we begin a serious study
The design process is not the haphazard operation of of theory and applications, a few terms need to be defined.
an inventor working in a garage or basement, although
it might well begin in that manner. Nearly all successful DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY This is the three-dimensional
companies support a well-organized design effort, and geometry forming the background for the practical
the vitality of the company depends to a large extent applications of the graphic language and through
on the planned output of its designers. which many of its problems may be solved graphically.
The design process leads to manufacturing, assem- INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING OR MECHANICAL DRAWING These
bly, marketing, service, and the many activities neces- terms properly apply only to a drawing made with
sary for a successful product, and it is composed of drawing instruments. The use of “mechanical drawing”
several phases. Although many industrial groups may to denote all industrial drawings is unfortunate not only
identify them in their own particular way, one proce- because such drawings are not always mechanically
dure for the design of a new or improved product fol- drawn, but also because that usage tends to belittle the
lows these five stages: broad scope of the graphic language by naming it
superficially for its principal mode of execution.
1. Problem identification;
2. Concepts and ideas; COMPUTER GRAPHICS This is the application of conven-
3. Compromise solutions; tional computer techniques (with the aid of one of many
4. Models and/or prototypes; graphic data processing systems available) to the analy-
sis, modification, and finalizing of a graphical solution.
5. Production and/or working drawings.
The use of computers to produce technical drawings is
Ideally, the design moves through these stages, but as called computer-aided design or computer-aided drafting
new information becomes available, it may be necessary (CAD) and also computer-aided design and drafting
to return to a previous stage and repeat a procedure. (CADD). (See Fig. 9.)
You can use CAD to create a useful database that
accurately describes the three-dimensional geometry of
7 ■ DRAFTING STANDARDS the machine part, structure, or system you are designing.
Modern technical drawing books tended to standardize This database can be used to perform analysis, directly
the characters of the graphic language, to eliminate its machine parts, or create illustrations for catalogs and
provincialisms and dialects, and to give industry, engi- service manuals.
neering, and science a uniform, effective graphic lan-
■ FIGURE 9 ■ A CAD Workstation. Courtesy of Digital Equipment
guage. Of prime importance in this movement in the
Corporation.
United States has been the work of the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) with the American
Society for Engineering Education, the Society of Auto-
motive Engineers, and the American Society of Mechan-
ical Engineers. As sponsors, they have prepared the
American National Standard Drafting Manual—Y14,
which is composed of a number of separate sections that
were published as approved standards as they were com-
pleted over a period of years.
These sections outline the most important idioms
and usages in a form that is acceptable to the majority.
They are considered the most authoritative guide to
uniform drafting practices in this country today. The
Y14 Standard gives the characters of the graphic lan-
guage, and it remains for the textbooks to explain the

6
 The Graphic Language and Design

Graphics
Spotlight From Art to Part
S INGLE DATABASE
You can use a single CAD database to design, document,
analyze, create prototypes, and directly manufacture fin-
ished parts for your design. The term art to part is some-
times used to describe a CAD database being utilized for
many or all of these purposes.

S KETCHING F REEDOM
Initial ideas for the design are frequently sketched freehand,
as shown in Fig. A. While generating ideas for the design, it
is important to be able to quickly generate creative ideas
without the confines of using the computer. Sketching is still
generally the best tool to help in this process.

I NTELLIGENT M ODELS
After generating the initial ideas, the best alternatives for (B)
the design are developed further. At this point, the engineer
may create rough 3D drawing geometry like you see in Fig.
B, perhaps using a parametric modeling software. O PTIMIZING THE D ESIGN
Parametric modeling uses variables to constrain the shape You can export the refined model directly into a Finite Ele-
of the geometry. Using parametric modeling the designer ment Analysis (FEA) program to perform structural, thermal,
roughly sketches initial shapes and applies drawing dimen- and modal analysis as shown in Fig. C. The parametric
sions and constraints to create models that have “intelli- model can easily be changed if the analysis shows that the
gence.” Later the designer can change the dimensions and initial design will not meet requirements. Simulation pro-
constraints as the design is refined so that new models do grams may even animate the performance and function of
not have to be created for each design change. Realistic the system before a prototype is ever constructed. The tol-
renderings of the model help you visualize the design. erances and fits between mating parts can be checked

(A) (C)

(continues on next page)

7
 The Graphic Language and Design

(D) (E)

within the parametric modeling and design software. Fig. D trolled machines which get their tool paths directly from
shows a shaded 3D model that closely resembles the final the 3D models.
part.
G ET N EW P RODUCTS TO M ARKET Q UICKLY
R APID P ROTOTYPING The necessary documentation for the design, manuals,
While refining the design ideas, engineers often work con- brochures, and other literature can be created directly from
currently with manufacturing to determine the best ways to the same geometr‘y used for design and manufacturing.
make and assemble the necessary parts. After several Shortened design cycle time, improved communication,
cycles of refining, analyzing, and synthesizing the best better opportunity to analyze and make design changes,
ideas, the final design is ready to go into production. Rapid are all advantages for companies using integrated CAD
prototyping systems allow parts to quickly be generated software for the design, documentation, and manufacture
directly from the 3D models for mockup and testing. Fig. E of their products.
shows the prototyped part. When the design is approved Photographic material reprinted with the permission from and under the
the finished parts can be created using numerical con- copyright of Autodesk, Inc.

ENGINEERING DRAWING AND ENGINEERING DRAFTING These TECHNICAL SKETCHING This is the freehand expression
are broad terms widely used to denote the graphic of the graphic language. Technical sketching is a valu-
language. However, since the graphic language is also able tool for engineers and others engaged in technical
used by a much larger group of people in diverse fields work because through it most technical ideas can be
who are concerned with technical work or industrial expressed quickly and effectively without the use of
production, these terms are not broad enough. special equipment.

TECHNICAL DRAWING This is a broad term that BLUEPRINT READING This is the term applied to the
adequately suggests the scope of the graphic language. “reading” of the language from drawings made by others.
It is rightly applied to any drawing used to express Actually, the blueprint process has now been replaced by
technical ideas. This term has been used by various other more efficient processes, but the term “blueprint
writers since Monge’s time at least and is still widely reading” has been accepted through usage to mean the
used, mostly in Europe. interpretation of all ideas expressed on technical
drawings, whether or not the drawings are blueprints.
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS OR ENGINEERING DESIGN GRAPHICS
These terms are generally applied to drawings for tech- 9 ■ WHAT ENGINEERING, SCIENCE, AND
nical use and have come to mean that part of technical TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS SHOULD KNOW
drawing that is concerned with the graphical representa- From the dawn of history, the development of technical
tion of designs and specifications for physical objects and knowledge has been accompanied, and to a large extent
data relationships as used in engineering and science. made possible, by a corresponding graphic language.

8
 The Graphic Language and Design

Today the intimate connection between engineering the principal values to be obtained from a study of the
and science and the universal graphic language is more graphic language. Persons of extraordinary creative
vital than ever before. Thus, training in the application ability possess the ability to visualize to an outstanding
of technical drawing is required in virtually every engi- degree. It is difficult to think of Edison, De Forest, or
neering school in the world. Einstein as being deficient in constructive imagination.
The old days of fine-line drawings and of shading
and “washes” are gone forever; artistic talent is no
10 ■ PROJECTIONS
longer a prerequisite to learning the fundamentals of
the graphic language. Instead, today’s graphics student Behind every drawing of an object is a space relation-
needs the same aptitudes, abilities, and computer skills ship involving four imaginary things:
that are needed in science and engineering courses.
1. The observer’s eye, or the station point;
The well-trained engineer, scientist, or technician
must be able to make and read correct graphical repre- 2. The object;
sentations of engineering structures, designs, and data 3. The plane of projection;
relationships. This means that the individual must 4. The projectors,also called visual rays or lines of sight.
understand the fundamental principles, or the
grammar, of the language and be able to execute the For example, in Fig. 10a the drawing efgh is the
work with reasonable skill (which is penmanship). projection, on the plane of projection A, of the square
Graphics students often try to excuse themselves for ABCD as viewed by an observer whose eye is at the
inferior results (usually caused by lack of application) by point O. The projection or drawing on the plane is pro-
arguing that after graduation they do not expect to do duced by the points at which the projectors pierce the
any drafting at all. Such students presumptuously expect, plane of projection (piercing points). In this case,where
immediately after graduation, to be accomplished engi- the observer is relatively close to the object and the
neers concerned with bigger things. They forget that first projectors form a “cone” of projectors, the resulting
assignments may involve working with drawings and pos- projection is known as a perspective.
sibly revising drawings, either on a board or on a comput- If the observer’s eye is imagined as infinitely distant
er, under the direction of an experienced engineer. from the object and the plane of projection, the projec-
Entering the engineering profession via graphics pro- tors will be parallel, as shown in Fig. 10b; hence, this
vides an excellent opportunity to learn about the product, type of projection is known as a parallel projection. If the
the company operations, and the supervision of others. projectors, in addition to being parallel to each other, are
Even a young engineer who has not been success- perpendicular (normal) to the plane of projection, the
ful in developing a skillful penmanship in the graphic
language will have use for its grammar, since the ability ■ FIGURE 10 ■ Projections.
to read a drawing will be of utmost importance. Fur-
thermore, the engineering student is apt to overlook
that, in practically all the subsequent courses taken in
college, technical drawings will be encountered in most
textbooks. The student is often called on by instructors h
g
to supplement calculations with mechanical drawings
e
or sketches. Thus, a mastery of a course in technical f
drawing utilizing both traditional methods and com-
puter systems (CAD) will aid materially, not only in
professional practice after graduation but more imme-
diately in other technical courses.
Besides the direct advantages of a serious study of
the graphic language, many students learn the meaning
of neatness, speed, and accuracy for the first time in a h
drawing course. These are basic and necessary habits g
for every successful engineer, scientist, and technician.
The ability to think in three dimensions is one of e
f
the most important requisites of successful scientists,
designers, and engineers. Learning to visualize objects
in space, to use the constructive imagination, is one of

9
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Classification of Projections.

result is an orthographic, or right-angle, projection. If tion—are further broken down into many subtypes, as
they are parallel to each other but oblique to the plane of shown in Fig. 11, and will be treated at length in the
projection, the result is an oblique projection. various chapters that follow.
These two main types of projection—perspective A classification of the main types of projection
or central projection, and parallel, or central, projec- according to their projectors is shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Classification by Projectors.

Distance from Observer

Classes of Projection to Plane of Projection Direction of Projectors
Perspective Finite Radiating from station point
Parallel Infinite Parallel to each other
Oblique Infinite Parallel to each other and oblique to plane of projection
Orthographic Infinite Perpendicular to plane of projection
Axonometric Infinite Perpendicular to plane of projection
Multiview Infinite Perpendicular to planes of projection

10
 The Graphic Language and Design

KEY WORDS
GRAPHIC LANGUAGE COMPUTER GRAPHICS DESIGN TEAM PROJECTION
TECHNICAL DRAWING PERSPECTIVE DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY PLANE OF PROJECTION
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS DESIGN PROCESS STANDARDS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ The members of the engineering design project team ■ Every technical drawing is based on standards that pre-
must be able to communicate among themselves and with scribe what each symbol, line, and arc means.
the rest of the project team in order to contribute to the ■ Computers running CAD software are the current tools
team’s success. used by drafters. However, the basic drawing principles
■ The graphic language is the universal language used by are the same ones used for hundreds of years.
every engineering team designing and developing prod- ■ Drawings are based on the projection of an image onto a
ucts throughout the world. plane of projection. There are two types of projection:
■ There are two basic types of drawings: artistic and technical. parallel and perspective.
■ Technical drawing is based on the universal principles of ■ Successful companies hire skilled people who can add
descriptive geometry, developed in the late eighteenth value to their design team. The proper use of equipment
century in France. and a thorough understanding of the graphic language
■ The design process is the ability to combine ideas, scien- are two essential skills employers require.
tific principles, resources, and existing products into a
solution for a problem. It consists of five specific stages.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the role of the engineer on the design team? 6. What is the most important new tool used by drafters?
2. What is the difference between mechanical drawing and 7. What is a plane of projection?
sketching? 8. What are projectors and how are they drawn?
3. Describe the main difference between parallel projec- 9. What is the design process?
tion and perspective projection.
10. What are the five phases of the design process?
4. When is sketching an appropriate form of graphic com-
munication?
5. Why are standards so important for members of the
engineering design team?

11
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to CAD

From Chapter 2 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to CAD

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The use of electronic computers today in nearly every phase of engi- After studying the material in this chapter, you
neering, science, business, and industry is well known. The comput- should be able to:
er has altered accounting and manufacturing procedures, as well as 1. List the basic components of a comput-
engineering concepts. The integration of computers into the manu- er-aided drawing workstation.
facturing process from design to prototyping, manufacture, and 2. Describe the relationship between com-
marketing, is changing the methods used in the education and train- puter-aided drawing (CAD) and comput-
ing of technicians, drafters, designers, and engineers. er-aided manufacturing (CAM).
Engineering, in particular, is a constantly changing field. As new 3. List the major parts of a computer and
theories and practices evolve, more powerful tools are developed describe their function.
and perfected to allow the engineer and designer to keep pace with 4. Describe the purpose of a computer
the expanding body of technical knowledge. The computer has operating system.
become an indispensable and effective tool for design and practical 5. List several input and output devices.
problem solving. New methods for analysis and design, the creation 6. Describe ways in which a computer
of technical drawings, and the solving of engineering problems, as stores information.
well as the development of new concepts in automation and robot-
7. Explain the differences between a bit
ics, are the result of the influence of the computer on current engi- and a byte.
neering and industrial practice.
8. Provide hints for selecting and using
CAD systems.
9. Understand issues that affect the choice
and the use of a CAD system.
10. Explain features common to most CAD
software.

14
 Introduction to CAD

1 ■ COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS comparable terms are used synonymously, and since
Computers are not new. Charles Babbage, an English industry and software creators are beginning to stan-
mathematician, developed the idea of a mechanical dardize, they will be referred to in this text simply as
digital computer in the 1830s, and many of the princi- CAD.
ples used in Babbage’s design (Fig. 1) are the basis of Other terms, such as computer-aided manufacturing
today’s computers. The computer has appeared in liter- (CAM), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and
ature and science fiction to be a mysterious, uncompro- computer-assisted engineering (CAE), are often used in
mising, often sinister, machine, but it is nothing more conjunction with the term “CAD.” The term “CAD/
than a tool. It is capable of data storage, basic logical CAM” refers to the integration of computers into the
functions, and mathematical calculations. Computer design and production process (see Fig. 2). The term
applications have expanded human capabilities to such “CAD/CAE/CAM/CIM” describes the use of comput-
an extent that virtually every type of business and ers in the total design and manufacturing process, from
industry utilizes a computer directly or indirectly. design to production, publishing of technical material,
Engineers and drafters have used computers for marketing, and cost accounting. The single concept that
many years to perform the mathematical calculations these terms refer to is the use of a computer and soft-
required in their work. Only recently, however, has the ware to aid the designer or drafter in the preparation
computer been accepted as a valuable tool in the prepa- and completion of a task.
ration of technical drawings. Traditionally, drawings Computer graphics is a very broad field. It covers
were made by using drafting instruments and applying the creation and manipulation of computer-generated
ink, or graphite, to paper or film. Revisions and repro- images and may include areas in photography, busi-
ductions of these drawings were time consuming and ness, cartography, animation, publication, as well as
often costly. Now the computer is used to produce, drafting and design.
revise, store, and transmit original [Link] method A complete computer system consists of hardware
of producing drawings is called computer-aided design and software. The various pieces of physical equipment
or computer-aided drafting (CAD) and computer-aided that comprise a computer system are known as hard-
design and drafting (CADD). Since these and other ware. The programs and instructions that permit the
computer system to operate are classified as software.
Computer programs are categorized as either appli-
■ FIGURE 1 ■ A Working Model of Charles Babbage’s “Difference cation programs or operating systems. Operating sys-
Engine” Originally Designed in 1833. From the New York Public Library Picture tems, such as DOS, Windows, and UNIX, are sets of
Collection. instructions that control the operation of the computer
and peripheral devices as well as the execution of spe-
cific programs. This type of program may also provide

■ FIGURE 2 ■ CAD/CAM-Driven Machine Tool Cutting. Courtesy of

David Sailors.

15
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 3 ■ AutoCAD is a Widely Used Drafting Application

Program. This material has been reprinted with the permission from and under the ■ FIGURE 4 ■ Advanced CAM Technology Used in High-

copyright of Autodesk, Inc. Resolution Color Picture Tube Production. Courtesy of Zenith Electronics
Corporation and Charlie Westerman.

support for activities and programs (such as input/output puter technology has been the development of the
[I/O] control, editing, storage assignment, data manage- integrated circuit (IC). The IC chip has replaced thou-
ment, and diagnostics), assign drives for I/O devices, and sands of components on the printed circuit (PC) board
provide support for standard system commands and net- and made possible the development of microprocessors.
[Link] programs are the link between spe- The microprocessor is the processing unit of a computer.
cific system use and its related tasks—design, drafting, The difference in size between a PC board with individ-
desktop publishing, etc.—and the general operating sys- ual components and an IC chip is shown in Fig. 5. The
tem program (Fig. 3). term “microminiaturization” is applied to advanced
integrated circuit chip technology. The evolution of IC
chip technology has led to the increased production of
2 ■ COMPUTER TYPES low-cost microcomputers. Microcomputers are largely
Computers may be classified as one of two distinct types: responsible for the increase in use of computer-aided
analog or [Link] analog computer measures continu- drafting systems in industry. Low-cost microcomputer
ously without steps, whereas the digital computer counts CAD systems can now be cost justified by industrial
by digits, going from one to two, three, and so on, in dis- users (Figs. 6a–b). With the recent release of the Intel®
tinct steps. An electric wall clock with minute and hour Pentium® 4 processor, CAD applications can run faster
hands and the radial speedometer on a car are examples and more efficiently than ever before. Laptop comput-
of analog devices. An abacus and a digital watch are ers make mobile reference to CAD files not only possi-
examples of digital devices. Digital computers are more ble, but commonplace (see Fig. 6b).
widely used than analog computers because they are Since CAD systems utilize digital computers, we
more flexible and can do a greater variety of jobs. will restrict our discussion of computer types to digital
Analog computers are generally used for mathe- computers.
matical problem solving. This type of computer, which
measures continuous physical properties, is often used to ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Size Comparison of a PC Board and an IC Chip.
monitor and control electronic, hydraulic, or mechanical HandmadePictures - Shutterstock.
equipment. Digital computers have extensive applica-
tions in business and finance, engineering, numerical con-
trol, and computer graphics (Fig. 4).
Both types of computers have undergone great
changes in appearance and in operation. Equipment
that once filled the greater part of a large room has now
been replaced by machines that occupy small desktop
areas. The single most important advancement in com-

16
 Introduction to CAD

(a) (b)

■ FIGURE 6 ■ (a) Computer with Intel® Pentium® Processor. Courtesy of Ryan McVay/PhotoDisc/Getty Images. (b) Laptop. Courtesy of EyeWire/Getty Images.

3 ■ COMPUTER-AIDED DRAFTING a 3D computer model (Fig. 7) could assist not only in

the manufacture of the part but also, along with its
The first demonstration of the computer as a design and three-dimensional database, in testing the design with
drafting tool was given at the Massachusetts Institute of finite element analysis programs (Fig. 8), in develop-
Technology in 1963 by Dr. Ivan Sutherland. His system, ing technical manuals and other documentation that
called “Sketchpad,” used a cathode ray tube and a light combine illustrations of the design with text from word
pen for graphic input to a computer. An earlier system, processing programs, and in marketing (for which the
called SAGE, was developed in the 1950s for the Air 3D solid models can be used with a rendering and ani-
Defense Command and used the light pen for data mation program). Increases in productivity and cost
input. The first commercial computer-aided drafting sys- effectiveness are two advantages constantly stressed by
tem was introduced in 1964 by International Business CAD advocates. In addition, CAD stations can be
Machines (IBM). linked either directly or through a local area network
Many changes have taken place since the introduc- (LAN) to the manufacturing or production equipment,
tion of the first CAD [Link] changes are due to the or they can be linked with numerical control (NC)
advent of the microprocessor, more sophisticated soft- equipment to program NC machines automatically in
ware (programs), and new industrial applications. In manufacturing operations or in robotics (Fig. 9).
most cases, the drafter/engineer can create, revise, The primary users of CAD are in mechanical engi-
obtain prints (hard copy), and store drawings with rela- neering and electronic design, civil engineering, and
tive ease, utilizing less space. CAD was originally used cartography. The design and layout of printed circuits
to aid in creating production drawings. The advent of are a principal application of CAD in the electronics
three-dimensional CAD software made it apparent that industry, which, prior to 1976, was the largest CAD

■ FIGURE 7 ■ A CAD Solid Model of the Ball Bracket from a ■ FIGURE 8 ■ An FEM Mesh Applied to the Solid Model of the
Trailor Hitch Assembly. From Machine Design: An Integrated Approach by Robert Ball Bracket. From Machine Design: An Integrated Approach by Robert Norton,
Norton, © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

17
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Computers Work with NC Machines in Modern

Industry. This is an Example of a Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Four-Axis Turning Center. David J. Green - industry - Alamy.
■ FIGURE 11 ■ A Powerful Computer Workstation. Courtesy of Sun
user. Mechanical engineering has since overtaken elec- Microsystems.
tronics and continues to expand its CAD applications
and use. Continued expansion in mechanical design ap- devices. For input devices, the system will have one or
plications is expected because the design, analysis, and more of the following: a keyboard, mouse, trackball, digi-
numerical control capabilities of CAD can be applied tizer/graphics tablet, and light pen. For output, the CAD
to a varied range of products and processes. Cartography, system will include devices such as plotters, printers, and
seismic data display, demographic analysis, urban plan- some type of monitor. The system must also have a data
ning, piping layouts, and especially architectural design storage device, such as a tape drive, a hard (fixed) or soft
also show growth in CAD use. A relatively new area (floppy) disk drive, or an optical disk drive. Finally, a
in computer graphics is image processing, which includes computer or central processing unit (CPU) is needed to
animation, 35-mm slide preparation, photocolor enhance- do all the numerical manipulations and to control all the
ment, and font and character generation (used in televi- other devices connected to the system.
sion broadcasting and the graphic arts industry). Frequently, some devices are combined. For example,
a terminal or workstation can contain the keyboard, mon-
4 ■ CAD SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS itor, disk drives, and a CPU all in the same cabinet. Such a
combined device is often called a workstation (Fig. 11).
All computer-aided drafting systems consist of similar
hardware components (Fig. 10), such as input devices, a 5 ■ CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
central processing unit, data storage devices, and output
The CPU (Fig. 12), or computer, receives all data and
manages, manipulates, and controls all functions of the
■ FIGURE 10 ■ Complete CAD Systems Need Input Devices,
CAD system. CAD systems use digital computers. All
Output Devices, Storage Devices, and a Central Processing Unit.
data must be converted into a binary form or code for
Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
the computer to understand and accept. This code is
called binary coded decimal instructions (BCDI). This
binary code uses a two-digit system, 1 and 0, to transmit
all data through the circuits. The number 1 is the “on”
signal; the 0 is the “off” signal. A bit is a binary digit. Bits
are grouped, or organized, into larger instructions. Word
length, which is expressed as bits, differs with various
computers. Often, computers are categorized by their
word length, such as 16-bit or 32-bit computers. The
number of bits in the word length indicates the process-
ing power of the computer (the larger the word length,
the greater the processing power).A sequential group of
adjacent bits in a computer is called a byte. The current
industry standard is that 8 bits equal 1 byte. A byte rep-

18
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Inside a CPU Box. Courtesy of Apple Computer.

resents a character that is operated on as a unit by the

CPU. The length of a word on a majority of computer
system is currently 4 bytes. This means that each word in
any of these storage systems occupies a 32-bit storage
location. The memory capacity of a computer is there- ■ FIGURE 13 ■ A Mother Board with 10 Bus Slots for Adding
fore expressed as a number of bytes rather than bits. Capabilities Such as Video Display Cards. Courtesy of International Business
Inside the CPU is the brain of the computer—the Machines.
microprocessor chip (Fig. 12). IBM-compatible com-
puters have used the 386, 486, Pentium (P5), P6, II, III, the computer is turned off, the ROM chips do not forget
and 4 chips. MacIntosh computers use the Motorola what is stored in them. The ROM chips contain basic
chips or PowerPC chip. Intel’s Pentium 4 processor operating system programs, like simple diagnostic pro-
along with Apple’s PowerPC G4 processor have kept grams that check the computer system to make sure all
pace with industries’ every expanding need for speed circuits and devices are operational when the computer
and memory. Silicon Graphics and Sun computers use is turned on. One type of ROM is called flash ROM,
their own chips. The job of the microprocessor is to and it can be reprogrammed. Normal ROM cannot be
execute the instructions of the software programs. reprogrammed.
The microprocessor chip’s speed is rated in mega- The motherboard contains slots for peripheral
hertz (MHz), and its power is rated in millions of instruc- devices. (See Fig. 13.) Internal modems, video display
tions per second (MIPS). It is the largest chip in the CPU cards, and network interface cards are typical cards
and is mounted on the main circuit board, called the that can be plugged into the motherboard. These cards
motherboard. Attached to the motherboard are all the talk to the microprocessor via an electrical pathway
devices inside the CPU: the memory chips, power supply, called the [Link] bus is like an expressway that allows
connection ports (where the external cables are attached), electrical information to be shared between all the
internal modems, video cards, network interface cards, devices connected to the motherboard. Just like an
sound cards, and special hard drive controller cards. expressway, computer busses have speed limits. They
Computer memory is stored on small circuit are rated in megahertz like the [Link] faster the bus,
boards called single inline memory modules (SIMMs). the more quickly information can be transported into
Most of the SIMMs are for the main memory, called the computer.
the random access memory (RAM). This memory is
temporary. When you turn off the computer, the infor-
mation in the memory is erased. The software pro-
6 ■ DISPLAY DEVICES
grams and user files are stored in RAM when the Another major reason for the rapid growth in CAD sys-
program is actively running. The more RAM in a com- tems is improvements in display devices. These display
puter, the more programs you can run at one time. If devices, commonly referred to as monitors (Fig. 14),
you do not have enough memory, you may have a hard utilize a wide variety of imaging principles. Each device
time running even one large program. has definite characteristics with regard to brightness,
There is also permanent memory on the mother- clarity, resolution, response time, and color. The purpose
board, which is called read only memory (ROM). When of any graphics display is to project an image on a screen.

19
 Introduction to CAD

Most CAD computers use a 17-inch or 21-inch dis-

play. These sizes are measured diagonally across the
front of the screen. The image on the monitor is gener-
ated by the video display card. These cards determine
the resolution of the display and the number of colors.
Standard video graphics array (VGA) resolution is
640 * 480 pixels. The more pixels per inch, the greater
the resolution and the easier it is to read details on the
monitor. Large-screen monitors can support up to 1920
pixels horizontally and 1440 pixels vertically.
Recently, many hardware manufacturers have
issued LCD (liquid crystal display) and flat plasma
displays. The clarity of the screen image on these flat
screen monitors and video display boards far exceeds
those of curved screen monitors and can be obtained in
larger sizes (starting from 15– and ranging up to 42– for
■ FIGURE 14 ■ 21– Monitor for CAD Hi-Res Images. Courtesy of NEC
Technologies, Inc.
some plasma monitors). LCD and plasma monitors
deliver unprecedented image performance to give
The image that is displayed may be alphanumeric (text CAD and graphic professionals not only comfort while
symbols, letters, and/or numerals) or graphical (pictorial working, but a much needed edge for their graphic pre-
symbols and/or lines). Users of interactive CAD systems sentations. (See Figure 15a and b.)
communicate directly or indirectly through graphics ter- In addition to resolution, video display cards can
minals. The information requested by the user may be generate a range of colors. Normal color density is 256
displayed as animated figures, graphs, color-coded dia- colors. Photographic quality requires a color density of
grams, or simply a series of lines. 16.7 million colors. When a monitor has a lot of pixels
Most interactive CAD systems use a raster scan and many colors on the screen, it takes a lot of pro-
monitor. Raster scan devices are similar to conventional cessing power and video memory to draw the image
television screens. These devices produce an image with on the monitor. The microprocessor chip of the CPU
a matrix of picture-element dots, called pixels, within a cannot handle this load so the video display card often
grid. Each pixel is either a light or dark image that provides its own processor, called a video accelerator,
appears on the screen as a dot. As in conventional tele- and its own memory. Professional CAD computers
vision, an electron beam is swept across the entire usually have a very fast video accelerator that pro-
screen, line by line, top to bottom. This process is called vides high resolution and a large number of colors.
raster scanning. A signal turns on or illuminates a pixel With a fast video accelerator, even the largest, high-
according to a pattern stored in memory. The screen is resolution monitor can redraw in the blink of an eye.
scanned around 60 times a second to update the image Slower video display cards can take up to a minute to
before the phosphor dims. redraw the screen. Most video display cards use a stan-

■ FIGURE 15 ■ (a) LCD Monitor. Courtesy of Siede Preis/PhotoDisc/Getty Images. (b) Flat Plasma Monitor. Courtesy of Ryan McVay/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

(a) (b)

20
 Introduction to CAD

dard 15-pin VGA connector. However, larger monitors board consists of alphanumeric character keys for key-
may require four separate cables. ing in letters, numbers, and common symbols, such as #,
Video monitors are rated by the speed with which &, and %; cursor control keys with words or arrows,
they can refresh the screen. There are two ratings: hor- printed on them, indicating directional movement of
izontal refresh rate and vertical refresh rate. The faster the screen cursor; and special function keys, which are
the refresh rate, the easier the monitor is on the eyes. used by some software programs for entering com-
For example, if you are using a monitor with only a 60- mands with a single keystroke. Many large mainframe-
Hz vertical refresh rate, you will begin to see a flicker based CAD systems have used a special function
on the screen after using it for several hours. Higher keypad, or menu pad, that allows access to a command
refresh rates reduce this annoying flicker. Quality with a single keystroke (Fig. 16). Single-stroke com-
large-screen monitors can cost as much as the CPU, but mand selection was considered so essential for cost
they are part of the user interface and can affect the effectiveness and ease of use that developers of mini-
long-term productivity of the operator. and microcomputer-based CAD systems included this
feature of single and double keystroke command
7 ■ INPUT DEVICES access into their programs utilizing the CTRL, ALT,
A CAD system may use one or a combination of input SHIFT, and function keys. Typically, a CAD system will
devices to create images on the display screen. Graphic use a keyboard for inputting commands and text, and
input devices may be grouped into three categories: another input device for cursor control.
(1) keyboard and touch sensitive, (2) time-dependent A popular input device in use with both large and
devices, and (3) coordinate-dependent devices. small CAD systems is a mouse (Fig. 17a–c). A mouse
The keyboard is the universal input device by may be of the mechanical type or the optical type. A
which data and commands are entered. A typical key- mechanical mouse uses a roller, or ball, on the underside

■ FIGURE 16 ■ An AutoCAD Menu Pad.

This material has been reprinted with the permission
from and under the copyright of Autodesk, Inc.

21
 Introduction to CAD

(a) Standard Mouse (b) Cordless Mouse (c) Microsoft IntelliEye

Optical Mouse

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Mice (a–c). Courtesy of Logitech, Inc. and Microsoft, Inc.

of the device to detect movement. An optical mouse

senses movement and position by bouncing a light off a
special reflective surface. These optical mice track most
reliably on a mousepad, but also can function on other
surfaces, with the exception of glass. Most mice will have
from one to three buttons on top of them to select posi-
tions or commands. Microsoft’s new IntelliEye optical
mouse comes with two extra [Link] advantages of a
mouse include ease of use, small required working area,
and relatively low cost. A mouse cannot, however, be ■ FIGURE 18 ■ Tablets with Picking Devices—Puck and
used to digitize existing drawings into a CAD format. Stylus—Wired and Wireless. Courtesy of CalComp Digitizer Division.
Digitizing tablets (Fig. 18) are another commonly
used input device. They can be used to create an original
Existing paper drawings can also be converted to
CAD drawing or to convert an existing pen or pencil and
CAD drawings using a scanner (Fig. 19) to read the
paper drawing into a CAD drawing. Digitizing tables
existing drawing. Scanners create raster or bitmapped
range in size from 80 * 110 to 360 * 480. Tablets larger
files, so the scanned images need to be converted to vec-
than 360 * 480, called digitizing tables, are used primar-
tor (line drawing) formats before they are useful for
ily for converting existing drawings to a CAD system for-
[Link] are a number of raster-to-vector conversion
mat. The resolution of digitizing tablets is important. This
programs on the market that help automate this process.
determines how small a movement the input device can
One of the oldest input devices used on CAD sys-
detect (usually expressed in thousandths of an inch) and
tems is the trackball (Fig. 20a). Trackballs were used on
depends on the number of wires per inch in the tablet’s
many large mainframe-based CAD systems and were
grid system. The working area on a tablet can have areas
that are used as menus to pick commands from the CAD
[Link] to the tablet will be either a puck or sty- ■ FIGURE 19 ■ Large Format Scanners for Capturing Documents
lus.A puck is a small, hand-held device with a clear plastic Electronically. Courtesy of CalComp Digitizer Division.
extension (or window containing crosshairs) that trans-
fers the location of the puck on the tablet-grid to the rela-
tive location on the screen. Single or multiple buttons on
top of the puck are used to select points and/or com-
mands. A stylus appears to be a ballpoint pen with an
electronic cable attached to [Link] tip of the stylus senses
the position on the tablet grid and relays these coordi-
nates to the computer. When the stylus is moved across
the tablet, the screen cursor moves correspondingly
across the screen. The stylus also contains a pressure-
sensitive tip that enables the user to select points or com-
mands by pressing down on the stylus.

22
 Introduction to CAD

(a) (b)

■ FIGURE 20 ■ (a) A Trackball. Photo Courtesy of Logitech, Inc. (b) This Magellan 3-D Controller Allows the User to Manipulate Graphic Objects with
x, y, z, Pitch, Roll, and Yaw Movement. Courtesy of Logitech, Inc.

often incorporated into the keyboard. Now they are a identify displayed elements of a design or to specify a
popular input device on portable computer systems. A location on the screen where an action is to take place.
trackball consists of a ball nested in a holder or cup, The pen senses light created by the electron beam as it
much like the underside of a mechanical mouse, and scans the surface of the CRT. When the pen is held close
from one to three buttons for entering coordinate data to or touches the CRT screen, the computer can deter-
into the system. Within the holder are sensors that pick mine its location and position the cursor under the pen.
up the movement of the ball. The ball is moved in any Because this input device more closely emulates the tra-
direction with the fingers or hand to control cursor ditional drafter’s pencil or pen than other devices, it
movement on the CRT screen. Cursor speed and button quickly gained popularity in the technical drawing field.
functions can be set by the user. Figure 20b shows a It is popular for uses in which the user selects buttons or
thumb mouse, similar to a trackball, which is actually a areas from the screen, because it is quick and easy to use.
3D [Link] controllers allow the user to manip- Bar code readers, although not often used with CAD
ulate objects on x,y, and z axes, as well as control pitch, programs, can offer users a way of labeling, tracking, and
roll, and yaw [Link] 3D controllers allow the storing data and diagrams for future use. (See Fig. 22.)
user complete control of graphic objects in six degrees of Voice recognition technology utilizes a combina-
freedom and are readily used in CAD applications. tion of specialized integrated circuits and software to
The light pen is the oldest type of CAD input device recognize spoken words. The system itself must first be
currently in use (Fig. 21). It looks much like a ballpoint “trained” by repeating commands into a microphone.
pen or the stylus on a digitized tablet. A light pen is a The computer converts the operator’s oral commands
hand-held photosensitive device that works only with to digital form and then stores the characteristics of
raster scan or vector refresh monitors and is used to the operator’s voice. When the operator gives an oral

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Light Pen. Courtesy of HEI, Inc. ■ FIGURE 22 ■ Bar Code Reader. Courtesy of Worthington Data Solutions.

23
 Introduction to CAD

command, the system will check the sound against the

words stored in its memory and then execute the com-
mand. A disadvantage of voice recognition systems is
that the vocabulary supported by the system is limited.
In addition, the memory required for storing complex
sound or voice patterns can be extremely large. Access
time, or time between the spoken word and command
activation, may be several seconds. Finally, if the opera-
tor’s voice changes in some manner or words have sim-
ilar voice patterns, the system may not recognize the
oral input.
■ FIGURE 23 ■ Flatbed Plotter. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a division
of CalComp Canada, Inc., Downsview, Canada.
8 ■ OUTPUT DEVICES
In most instances, the user of a CAD system will need a
record of images that are stored on database files or the medium and move it back and forth under the pen
displayed on the CRT. When an image is placed on carriage. These plotters range from A to E size, with
paper, film, or other media, it is then referred to as hard single or multiple pen carriages, and may accept cut
copy. This hard copy can be produced by one of several sheets or rolls.
types of output devices. All pen plotters are rated according to specified
A commonly used device for the reproduction of standards for accuracy, acceleration, repeatability, and
computerized drawings is the pen plotter. Pen plotters speed. Accuracy is the amount of deviation in the
may be classified as drum, flatbed, or microgrip. The geometry the pen plotter is supposed to draw (usually
drum plotter utilizes a long, narrow cylinder in combi- ranging from .0010 to .0050 in.). Acceleration is the rate
nation with a movable pen carriage. The medium to be at which the pen attains plotting speed and is expressed
drawn on (paper, vellum, or film) is mounted curved in Gs (for gravitational force). Pen speed is important
rather than flat and conforms to the shape of the cylin- because slower speeds usually produce darker [Link]
der drum. The drum rotates, moving the drawing sur- faster the pen attains a constant speed, the more consis-
face, and provides one axis of movement, while the pen tent the line work will be. The ability of a plotter to
carriage moves the pen parallel to the axis of the cylin- retrace the same drawing over and over again is called
der and provides the other axis of movement. The com- repeatability. The deviation of the pen in redrawing the
bined movement of drum and pen allows circles, same line is the measure of repeatability and usually
curves, and inclined lines to be drawn. The pen carriage varies from .0010 to .0050. Plotter pen speed determines
on a drum plotter typically holds more than one pen, so how fast the pen moves across the drawing medium.
varied line weights or multicolor plots can be drawn. Most CAD software also allows the operator to adjust
These plotters accept up to E size paper in single sheets the pen speed to achieve maximum line quality and
or in a roll, which is cut after the drawing is plotted. consistency. Slow pen speeds normally produce better
Flatbed plotters (Fig. 23) differ from drum plot- quality plots than high pen speeds.
ters in that the medium to be drawn on is mounted flat
and held stationary by electrostatic or vacuum attrac- ■ FIGURE 24 ■ Microgrip Plotter. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a
tion while the pen carriage controls movement in box division of CalComp, Canada Inc., Downsview, Canada.
axes. The area of these plotters may be as small as A
size 180 * 1102 or larger than E size 1340 * 4402, and
from one to eight pens may be used for varied line
weights and multicolor plots.
Microgrip plotters (Fig. 24) have become one of
the most widely used types of output devices. Their
popularity is due to their adaptability to all types of
computers, their size ranges, their low maintenance
requirements, and their relatively inexpensive pricing.
Microgrip plotters are similar to drum plotters in that
the medium to be drawn on is moved in one axis while
the pen moves along the other axis. These plotters get
their name from the small rollers that grip the edges of

24
 Introduction to CAD

Other factors help determine the quality of a pen-

plotted drawing. The variety of pens, inks, and drawing
media available allows the operator to coordinate pen,
ink, and paper to produce the most desirable hard copy.
Dot matrix or raster plotting is another method by
which hard copy can be produced. These devices use a
process called rasterization to convert images to a series
of dots. The image is transferred optically (or some-
times by a laser) to the surface of the medium on a sele-
nium drum that is electrostatically charged. Sometimes
the image may be created by an array of nibs that elec-
trically charge small dots on the medium. A high-quality
raster scan plotter can produce an image so fine and of
such quality that it is not obvious how the image was
produced unless examined under a magnifying glass.
Electrostatic plotters (Fig. 25) produce hard copy ■ FIGURE 26 ■ Inkjet Printer. Photo courtesy of CalComp, Downsview, Ontario.
by placing an electrostatic charge on specially coated
paper and having a toner, or ink, adhere to the charged
area. Drawing geometry is converted through rasteri-
zation into a series of dots. These dots represent the
charged area. Resolution of these plotters is deter-
mined by the number of dots per inch (dpi), usually
ranging from 300 to 600 dpi. This type of plotter pro-
duces hard-copy drawings in single color or multicolors
much faster than pen plotters, but the cost, power, and
environmental requirements are also much greater.
An ink jet printer/plotter (Fig. 26) produces
images by depositing droplets of ink on paper. These
droplets correspond to the dots created by the rasteri-
zation process. This device places a charge on the ink ■ FIGURE 27 ■ Laserjet Printer. Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
rather than the paper, as in the electrostatic process. Ink
jet plotters can produce good quality color-rendered
images in addition to standard technical drawings. Laser technology represents the newest evolution in
plotter technology. A laser printer/plotter (Fig. 27 and
28) uses a beam of light to create images. This device
■ FIGURE 25 ■ Electrostatic Printer. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a utilizes electrostatic charging and raster scanning to pro-
division of CalComp, Canada Inc., Downsview, Canada. duce a plotted image that is of very high quality.

9 ■ DATA STORAGE DEVICES

Since all data kept in RAM will be lost when the com-
puter is turned off, they must be saved, or stored, before
the power is off. Data storage devices provide a place to
save information permanently for later use. CAD pro-
grams, for example, are stored on a disk; when loaded
(or activated), portions of the program go into RAM,
which is temporary memory. While a drawing is being
worked on, all data associated with that drawing are
kept in the same temporary memory. Periodically the
operator must save that drawing and all the associated
data to a storage device before the program is exited or
the power is shut off. Otherwise, all accumulated data
from that work session will be lost. These storage
devices can be considered electronic file cabinets.

25
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 30 ■ 3.5 Inch Floppy Disk and Drive. Photo from

Computers, 4/E by Long/Long. © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.

liseconds (ms) and will range from 6 to 80 [Link] lower

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Full Size Laserjet Printer. Photo courtesy of CalComp. the number in milliseconds, the faster the access time.
Floppy disk drives (Fig. 30) derive their name from
Disk drives, optical drives, and magnetic tape are dis- the removable flexible plastic disks used in this device.
tinct categories of storage devices. Disk storage devices The disks used in this drive are typically 3 12 – in diameter.
are the most commonly used method of data storage. The density of a disk refers to the amount of data the disk
Disk drives may be of the fixed (hard disk) variety, flexi- will hold. Typically, a 3 12 – disk, called microdiskette, will
ble (floppy) variety, or optical type. Disk drives file and hold 1.44 MB of data in double-sided, high-density for-
read data in random order. This means that the device [Link] floppy disk is inexpensive and convenient to use
writes data to any portion of the disk that is empty, and it but holds less data and is slower than fixed disk drives.
is able to locate data almost instantly because it has access Zip drives (Fig. 31) are high-capacity magnetic disk
to the whole disk at once. Disk drives are rated according drives, similar to floppy drives, that can store up to 100 MB
to their type, access time, capacity, and transfer rate. on a 3 12 – disk. The disks used in zip drives are a special
The fixed disk drive, or hard disk (Fig. 29) is the high-capacity medium and are not the same as a standard
most common method of data storage. This type of floppy disk. Zip drives are popular because there are
drive uses an aluminum disk as the medium for storage. external parallel and SCSI transfer models available which
These drives may be internal, attached inside the com- can be used to transport large amounts of data from one
puter case, or external, in a separate case of cabinet. A machine to another. They can also be used for effective
disk controller or controller card must be installed in short-term backup (disks have a shelf life of 10 years).
the computer to allow the computer and drive to com- Jaz drives are similar to Zip drives but their disks
municate or interface with each other. The storage can hold up to 2 GB of data (Fig. 32).
capacity of these drives will range from 200 MB to sev-
eral hundred gigabytes. Access time is expressed in mil- ■ FIGURE 31 ■ Zip Disk and Drive. Courtesy of Iomega, Inc.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Fixed or Hard Disk Drive Interior. Courtesy of Western

Digital Corporation.

26
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Jaz Drive and Disk. Courtesy of Iomega Corporation. ■ FIGURE 34 ■ Optical Disk Cartridge and Optical Disk Drive.
Courtesy of SyQuest Technology.

Similarly, superdisks can hold up to 120 MB of “burned” into the disk surface by a laser so the informa-
data while 14 – data cartridges can hold up to 20 GB of tion becomes permanent (unlike magnetic storage) and
information. the disk is removable. Recordable CD-ROM systems
The ever-increasing need for larger storage capaci- can store about 650 MB of information on a single disk.
ty has spurred the development of new technologies. Optical disk drives (Fig. 34) allow data to be
The newest technology in data storage uses lasers to erased and written over. These drives use a laser to
read and write data and is generally termed optical change the state of optical magnetic media. These opti-
storage. Optical storage media are capable of holding cal magnetic media can be changed again and again
many gigabytes of data. (write many read many). Because optical magnetic
CD-ROM drives are a type of optical drive. Previ- media are not sensitive to dust, like hard drives, optical
ously, CD-ROM disks were usually created from a mas- disks can be removed from the drive and replaced with
ter, so when you purchased a CD it already had the a new disk when additional storage capacity is needed.
digital information written to it. Now you can store infor- Magnetic tape storage (Fig. 35) uses plastic tape
mation on recordable CD-ROM systems, which produce coated with magnetic particles. A read/write head in
a write once read many (WORM) disk. WORM devices the tape drive charges magnetic particles to store infor-
allow data to be written to them, but the data become mation on the tape. The data being sent are recorded as
permanent on the disk and cannot be erased. This stor- a series of charges along the tape. Once these particles
age device is especially suited for archival purposes. CD- are charged, they will remain charged until the head
ROM drives use a laser to read and write data to a writes over them or they are [Link] drives
chemically coated aluminum disk (Fig. 33). The data is file and read data in sequential order. This means they
■ FIGURE 33 ■ CD-ROM and Disk. Courtesy of NEC Technologies, Inc.
■ FIGURE 35 ■ Tape Back-up System. Courtesy of Iomega, Inc.

27
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 36 ■ MP3 players use flash memory technology.

Courtesy of Spike Mafford/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

■ FIGURE 37 ■ A Palmtop Computer/organizer. Courtesy of Janis

Christie/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

processes, like creating many different models or views

of the same object automatically (Fig. 38). Software
must look through data in the order that the tape is helps organize data; it will find previously stored draw-
wound or unwound. (This is similar to forwarding or ing symbols, and it will help create and archive new
rewinding a videotape to look for a specific scene, or an ones. Software can be used to count, measure, and
audiotape to play a particular song.) Gigabytes of data direct devices to print or plot drawings, create a bill of
may be stored on some tape systems. These cassettes materials, or exchange files with other programs. CAD
resemble audiocassettes in both size and appearance. software is extremely powerful and has been designed
Tape storage is essentially used for backing up data to serve all major branches of engineering. It will be an
from a hard drive, or for archival purposes (since the important tool in most engineering careers.
tapes can be removed and stored for later use).
Flash memory has quickly become one of today’s 11 ■ COMMON CORE
hottest portable storage technologies. More flexible CAD SOFTWARE All CAD software generates familiar
than floppies, flash memory cards can store up to 1 GB geometric terminology for creating drawings. But even
of data. Flash memory is more rugged and much faster though the geometry is common and the procedures
than a hard drive, and unlike RAM, flash memory cards for construction are similar, every CAD software
can retain data even when the power is turned off. They program will vary in operational procedures typically
can be used with digital cameras, laptops, handhelds, involving the basic hierarchy of command structure.
digital music players, MP3s, or cell phones through the Three features are found in all CAD software. You
use of a flash card reader and a USB port. (See Figure can access these features interactively through basic
36.) They are a reliable and easy way to store and commands and menu options.
transport vital information. Flash memory is also highly
1. Commands for geometry generators (basic geo-
secure; simply remove the flash card from a system to
metric construction).
prevent unauthorized use. Such flash or multimedia
cards are the smallest removable memory solution to 2. Functions to control viewing of drawing geometry.
date. Some are only about the size of a postage stamp 3. Modifiers for changing the drawing or editing varia-
and weigh less than two ounces. Such storage cards tions in the drawing (rotate, mirror, delete, group, etc.).
can transform handheld devices such as palmtop The commands and menu options may often be
computers/organizers (Figure 37) into a mobile office. selected in two basic ways: by typing or by picking
using a tablet (digitizer) or mouse. The Cartesian coor-
10 ■ CAD SOFTWARE dinates may be accessed with the keyboard or the
CAD software tells the computer how to interact with mouse. You may switch between these two input meth-
the flow of data entered by the user through an input ods at any time to issue commands and select options.
device. For example, it lets the computer “use” formulas The sequence of selection is called the hierarchy of
to solve complicated questions requiring detailed analy- command structure and provides an ease of operation
sis of large amounts of data, such as finding the center that is the basis for selecting one software program
of gravity for a truncated cone. It also handles drawing over another.

28
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 38 ■ CAD Software Easily Creates

Different Outputs of the Same Object. Courtesy of
SDRC, Milford, OH.

12 ■ CAD CAPABILITY CHECKLIST 6. Calculate or list pertinent data of graphic con-

CAD software can offer the following characteristics struction, such as actual distances or angles.
required for creating technical documents (Fig. 39): 7. Create a group of geometric figures for editing or
copying.
1. Draw construction lines at any convenient spacing
8. Relocate drawing elements to any new position.
through any points, at any angles, and create tan-
Correct or change additions in stored documents.
gent lines to one or more arcs.
9. Edit all or erase (delete) any part of a line, arc, or
2. Draw any type of line, such as visible, center, hid-
any geometric form on a drawing. Correct dimen-
den, or section.
sions.
3. Draw circles and arcs of any size with given data.
10. Make a mirrored image or create symmetrical
4. Perform cross-hatching within specified bound- forms.
aries.
11. Perform associative or datum unit dimensioning.
5. Establish a scale or set a new scale within a draw-
12. Label drawings with notes and create title blocks
ing for various drawings within a document.
and bills of material.
13. Save the entire drawing or any part for use on
■ FIGURE 39 ■ CAD Assembly Drawing. Courtesy of Spudnik Equipment
other documents and in other formats.
Corporation, Inc.
14. Create pictorials from three-view drawings.
15. Create orthographic views from a 3D model.
16. Retrieve and use stored drawings.
However, software programmers are constantly
adding new capabilities and options to CAD software.
For instance, many new programs offer very sophisti-
cated 3D capabilities, often in a Windows environment
(Fig. 40).

13 ■ DRAWING WITH CAD SOFTWARE

The geometry that is created, drawn, or generated with
CAD programs is generally referred to as objects, enti-
ties, or elements. These geometric entities are individu-
ally constructed figures or groups of elements that

29
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Desktop PCs Running the Windows Operating System Provide Capabilities to Create Parametric Solid Models. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation.

consist of points, lines, arcs, circles, rectangles, poly- chased a system only to discover that it did not perform
gons, splines, solids, surfaces, symbols or blocks, cross- as well as expected.
hatching, dimensions, and notes. These basic building Before purchasing a CAD system, a careful, well-
units are selected from the menu and constructed at spe- thought-out plan for selecting a system should be
cific graphic locations of the monitor screen by the CAD developed and followed. This plan can be divided into
user. Many CAD systems can store standard drawing five phases:
symbols (called blocks) and use overlays on the digitizer
for retrieval. 1. Establish the need for a CAD system.
2. Survey and select system features.
14 ■ SELECTING AND USING A CAD SYSTEM 3. Request CAD system demonstrations.
As the number of manufacturers of computer system 4. Review selected systems.
equipment has increased, there has been a corresponding 5. Select, purchase, and install a CAD system.
decrease in the cost of these systems. Some CAD systems
may contain only those features necessary to produce Let us now discuss each of these phases in greater
simple two-dimensional entities, while others have the detail.
capability to create true three-dimensional drawing
objects. ESTABLISH THE NEED FOR A CAD SYSTEM The first
Since the newer CAD systems are generally easier consideration in the selection process is to determine
to operate, the words “user friendly” are frequently whether a CAD system is needed. All potential users of
used by manufacturers to promote their systems. How- the CAD system should be consulted regarding how,
ever, there has been a tendency to exaggerate what when, and where a system would be used and whether it
particular systems can do. A prospective user should, would be cost effective in their particular operations.
therefore, view all claims with some skepticism until Never purchase a system simply because it may be
proved, for they can be misleading and often lead to considered a first step into the future and your firm
disappointment. Unfortunately, many firms have pur- wants to project a progressive image. It is important to

30
 Introduction to CAD

investigate and evaluate the time- and cost-saving claims able in a CAD system. From this survey, develop a
of manufacturers by contacting firms that have CAD checklist of hardware and software features that your
systems in operation. Contact as many firms as possible, future system should have.
especially those with a wide range of experience. Prepare
a brief questionnaire to survey these firms, asking ques- REQUEST CAD SYSTEM DEMONSTRATIONS After the
tions regarding costs, training periods, system operation, checklist has been created and approved by all parties
and so on. Also ask at what point after installation the concerned, make arrangements to see the various
system became cost effective. Evaluate the responses to CAD systems in operation. A list of vendors can be
these questions and compare them with your specific compiled from advertisements in trade journals,
[Link] information will assist you in deciding magazines, the Internet, and so on, or from the various
if a CAD system can be beneficial to your firm at directories of computer graphics manufacturers that
present. are published. Contact the vendors to arrange
It is difficult to place a direct monetary value on demonstrations. Explain to them exactly what you
many benefits of using CAD. These benefits include expect the system to do. If the vendors are completely
things like shorter design cycle time, improved abili- aware of your requirements, they will be able to give a
ty to visualize complex fits between parts, links to more realistic presentation. Most of all, be prepared to
direct manufacturing, better ability to reuse existing ask questions. With each succeeding demonstration,
drawing and designs, and improved analysis early in your questions will be more effective. Moreover, the
the design phase. The process of determining the answers that you receive will be more meaningful. It is
need for a CAD system can be time consuming and a good idea to select your own project which you
frustrating. Nevertheless, speed should be sacrificed would like to have demonstrated. Some CAD systems
to careful deliberation in this phase. run their own canned example well but may not be
flexible enough to meet your needs. Having your own
SURVEY AND SELECT SYSTEM FEATURES It is generally project also helps you to contrast the systems fairly.
agreed that software should be selected before Some systems may have a fancy demonstration, while
hardware. However, some CAD systems are turnkey others will not look as good initially. You want to select
system—that is, a total system with software and a system that will perform well for your needs, not look
hardware combined and inseparable. Therefore, you good running a canned demonstration.
should examine all the features of any given system You should ask about the brand names of the
very carefully before being attracted by spectacular equipment used, the availability of service contracts,
hardware. For example, some systems use dual the warranty period and what parts are covered by
monitors. The chance of being impressed by this which vendors, the types of CAD software provided
feature may overshadow the question of whether one and what operations they can perform, training for
really needs the two displays. user staff, the availability and cost of software updates,
Consider whether the system will be multipurpose or and technical support.
used strictly for [Link] other office operations,such as A CAD system analysis worksheet can be helpful
word processing or accounting, be done on this machine? when demonstrations are presented. (See Figure 41.)
Will this machine be used to access the Internet? The
answer to these questions may add or eliminate CAD REVIEW SELECTED SYSTEMS It is important at this stage
programs based on their operating system software. that all of the collected information be organized and
Investigate how well a system will exchange infor- carefully reviewed. A list should be made of only those
mation or interface with other CAD or CAM systems systems that merit further serious consideration. You
and its Internet capabilities. Many systems do not have may wish to request another demonstration of the
these capabilities. One important consideration is the particular systems that are on your revised list and to
CAD system’s ability to exchange information with request additional information from current users
other CAD systems and other engineering applica- regarding equipment performance, staff training, vendor
tions. One standard for such exchange is the initial support, and so on.
graphics exchange specification (IGES). There are also
a number of other common formats. Make sure that the FINAL SELECTION, PURCHASE, AND INSTALLATION OF A CAD
system you select can export common file formats, par- SYSTEM This last phase occurs when the final decision
ticularly to other applications you are planning to use. will be made regarding whether or not to purchase a
It is suggested that you survey the people who will CAD system. The decision invariably will depend on
use the system to determine what they think is desir- how you plan to use the system and how much you can

31
 Introduction to CAD

Item Y/N Size/Type Comments Cost

Central Processor
memory (MB)
word size (16/32 bit)
cache
speed (MHz/Mips)
bus type (eisa, vesa, pci)
expansion/upgrade
Operating System
32 bit
multitasking
software availability
Data Input Devices
mouse
trackball
digitizer
light pen
thumb wheel
Display
monochrome
color
screen size
resolution
Video Card
memory
software support
dual display support
Storage, Hard Drive
type
access time
capacity
expansion
removable
Storage, Floppy
type
access time
capacity
removable
CD-ROM
type
speed
capacity
read/write

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Worksheet for Evaluating CAD System Hardware.

32
 Introduction to CAD

Item Y/N Size/Type Comments Cost

Backup System
type
capacity
speed
automation
Output Devices
type
provided with system?
medium
cost per sheet
speed
resolution/accuracy
color
Maintenance

■ FIGURE 41 ■ (cont.)

afford to pay for it. You may want to consider a leasing used symbols, such as electrical relays, switches,
arrangement, or lease-purchase arrangement. This can transformers, resistors, bolts, nuts, keys, piping, and
be effective for keeping the technology up to date. New architectural symbols. These symbols may be in a
technology is available constantly, and the lifetime of symbol library, or the symbol may be located on one
computer equipment is generally considered to be of the templates in the library of templates. Most
about three years. If your system cannot pay for itself CAD systems allow users to customize their symbol
in three years, perhaps it is not a good investment. You libraries. The desired symbols must first be drawn by
should plan to upgrade or purchase new equipment the user on the CAD system the same as they would
and software on a regular cycle. If the decision is made appear on a drawing board. This process may initially
to acquire a system, determine costs, choose a delivery take as much time as it would manually, but once the
date, and arrange for installation and training. image has been entered in the computer database, it
After a CAD system has been installed, the begin- need never be drawn again. The symbol can easily be
ning user must become thoroughly familiar with it and retrieved from the symbol library whenever
learn how to use it effectively. This will require learning required.
some new skills as well as a different vocabulary. The
CAD operator will need to learn to create accurate ■ FIGURE 42 ■ CAD Training Helps the User Learn the Software
drawings and construct them to various scales. In addi- Quickly. Courtesy of Jeff Kaufman and FPG International.
tion, the operator will need to learn to interact effec-
tively with the operating system to store and copy
drawings and to routinely perform backups so that no
data are lost. Most CAD manufacturers offer training
programs and tutorials that will make the learning
process much easier (Fig. 42). They will provide
instruction and training manuals that give information
and details about the operation of the system. These
manuals can be used not only during the initial training
period but also for reference purposes during later
operation of the system.
Most experienced drafters have developed short-
er or simpler methods for creating a drawing, such as
using overlays or templates. CAD systems also have
simplified methods for drawing. Some systems have
symbol libraries that contain many of the frequently

33
 Introduction to CAD

15 ■ SUMMARY The skills learned “on the board” are related and
complementary to those needed by the CAD user.
The information presented in this chapter is intended Learning the performance skills needed for creating
to familiarize the student with the basic concepts, drawings with CAD tools is time consuming and
hardware, peripherals, and systems in CAD. It is not requires practice and manual dexterity. Both methods
possible (nor was it intended) to present a compari- of drafting use simple and familiar geometric terminol-
son of CAD programs or all the commands used on ogy for structuring the graphic production of technical
CAD systems. documents, and both have the same goal—drawings
When possible, the instructor should arrange for that will meet industry standards.
students to visit nearby engineering and drafting depart- The basic principles of drafting are common to
ments that have CAD systems in operation. Those stu- traditional drafting and computer-aided drafting. The
dents who wish to obtain additional information on this American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has
subject should consult their school or local library. well-established standards for shaping engineering
The CAD system on the personal computer is drawings. Knowledge of drafting principles, from the
replacing many drafting instruments, drafting tables, alphabet of lines to dimensioning and sectioning pro-
and drafting files. However, like no other drafting cedures, continues to be essential in shaping CAD
tool before, it raises engineering productivity without documents. CAD can help you produce consistent let-
replacing the basic functions of the designer, engi- tering and regulate line work to improve the produc-
neer, and drafting technician. CAD developers, in tion of working drawings better than any other tool.
their quest to harness computer technologies, have The CAD user is responsible for preparing engi-
had a profound impact on the high-tech teams as neering documents that are an integral part of the total
they resolve problems in research, development, manufacturing process (Fig. 43). The ability to inter-
design, production, and operation (the five basic act with all forms of technical information increases
engineering functions). the significant role of the drafting technician.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ CAD Documents Supply a Multitude of Information that Engineers and Technicians Must Understand and Use. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation.

34
 Introduction to CAD

Graphics
Spotlight Unlocking the Power of Solid Modeling
Successful use of solid modeling should increase the where a design is re-created or its related data is retyped
size of a company’s market, increase its market share, and into another computer is a sign that solid modeling may be
increase its profit margin. Early CAD systems basically underutilized.
only automated the drafting process, but solid modeling Although downstream use is an important considera-
has the potential to affect the entire production process, tion, there is nothing to be gained by insisting that all
from preliminary design through engineering and manufac- design be done with solid modeling when various opera-
turing. Ancillary functions, such as purchasing and market- tions are just as well served by 2D processes. Another
ing, can also be affected. consideration in introducing a new technology is whether it
Solid modeling can create all the critical information affects existing bottlenecks in the production process.
for a product, and a company needs to take advantage of Unless the use of solid modeling (or any other technologi-
all the information contained in these models. Good imple- cal innovation) helps to eliminate or decrease the bottle-
mentation of solid modeling is marked by the wide-ranging necks, or constraints, in the overall process, it will not
use of the solid models in downstream applications. This improve productivity or profits.
maximizes return because it permits many operations to Introduction of solid modeling into company opera-
work from the original solid model rather than re-creating tions requires careful planning. First, there are many solid
the design for each operation. Solid models should be the modeling systems on the market, and choice of the correct
basis for virtual prototypes, engineering analyses, machine one is of paramount importance. Second, it will probably
tool paths, purchase orders, marketing images, etc. Any- be necessary to undertake an expensive hardware
upgrade because solid modeling requires larger worksta-
tions, better graphics, more memory, etc. than simpler pro-
grams. Third, everyone who will use the solid model
should be given extensive training. Introducing solid mod-
eling in a pilot project is also widely recommended. The
gradual implementation of solid modeling on a project-by-
project basis has been found to be more successful than a
one-step installation throughout the company.
Small and medium-sized companies have an advan-
tage over large companies in using solid modeling for max-
imum return. Large companies may have the resources and
dedication to make it work, but the smaller companies have
the most flexibility in terms of organizational structure.

Adapted from “Unlocking the Power of Solid Modeling” by Caren D. Potter,

Computer Graphics World, Nov. 1995, Vol. 18, No. 11, p. S3(4). © PennWell
Multiview CAD Solid Model. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation. Publishing Company 1995.

35
 Introduction to CAD

KEY WORDS
CAD MOTHERBOARD PRINTER JAZ DISK
CAM SIMM PLOTTER SUPERDISKS
SOFTWARE RAM FLOPPY DISK DATA CARTRIDGES
OPERATING SYSTEMS WORM DISK HARD DISK DRIVE FLASH MEMORY
HARDWARE PORT MODEM LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
CPU VIDEO DISPLAY MONITOR MENU (LCD)
MICROPROCESSOR MOUSE WIRE FRAME FLAT PLASMA DISPLAY

MIPS DIGITIZING TABLET CD-ROM

MEGAHERTZ (MHZ) ZIP DISK

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Computers have revolutionized the drawing process. ■ CAD software can draw in three dimensions (width,
New technologies are constantly invented which make height, and depth), unlike paper drawing which only con-
this process quicker, more versatile, and more powerful. sists of two dimensions in a single view.
■ CAD is the tool of choice for engineering design compa- ■ Different CAD packages have different operational pro-
nies. The effective user of this tool requires an under- cedures, and different strengths and weaknesses. Three
standing of technical drawing fundamentals as well as features found in all CAD software are commands for
training on the CAD software program. geometry generators, functions to control the viewing of
■ The microprocessor, RAM, and hard disk drive of the drawing geometry, and modifiers for changing the draw-
computer are essential components of a computer sys- ing or editing variations.
tem. The keyboard and mouse are typical input ■ Operating a CAD system typically has required extensive
devices. Printers and plotters output the drawing to training. Newer CAD systems are becoming more user
paper for review and approval. The display monitor friendly, but one should not overestimate the claims
shows the drafter what is being drawn and offers com- CAD packages make. It is important to evaluate each
mand choices. package thoroughly and make an informed decision.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the basic components of a computer-aided with a 100 MB hard disk? Which will store more infor-
drawing (CAD) system? mation?
2 Discuss the relationship between CAD and CAM in 6 What is the difference between RAM storage and hard
modern design and manufacturing facilities? disk storage? What computer parts are typically found
3 List the similarities and differences between a mouse on the motherboard?
and a digitizing pad with puck? 7 What is the difference between plotting and printing?
4 What are the main advantages of CAD over traditional 8 What are the hardware and software specifications of
drawing methods? your school’s CAD system?
5 What is faster, a computer with a 100 Mhz microproces- 9 What are questions you should ask about any CAD sys-
sor and a 500 MB hard disk, or a 500 Mhz computer tem you consider buying?

CAD PROBLEMS
When necessary, refer to the appropriate sections of the that illustrates the sequence of operations for each of the
chapter to check your answers. systems.
Prob. 1 Define the following terms: computer system, Prob. 3 Prepare a list of CAD system hardware compo-
hardware, software, analog, digital, computer graphics, CAD, nents and give examples of each.
CADD, and CAM. Prob. 4 Call a hardware company and compare the prices
Prob. 2 What are the principal components of a com- for three graphics monitors of different resolutions and sizes.
puter system? A CAD system? Draw a systems flowchart Which purchase do you recommend? Give your reasoning.

36
 Introduction to CAD

Prob. 5 Prepare a list of possible data storage devices Prob. 11 The unknown distance KA in Fig. 44 has been
and determine total storage capabilities for each. determined and the angle measured using CAD. Re-create
Prob. 6 Determine what would be your best storage this problem with your CAD system, changing the 908 angle
device, in terms of value, if your average CAD drawing file at H to 758; then determine the angles at K and A and the
size is 1500k and you store 10–20 drawings per week. length of line KA.
Prob. 7 Arrange a visit to the computer center at your Prob. 12 Prepare a revised version of the CAD drawing
school, or to a local engineering design office, and prepare a (Fig. 45) by increasing the radius 0.40 to 0.4375 and chang-
written report on the use of computers in design and draft- ing the slot dimension 1.60 to 1.70.
ing at these facilities. Prob. 13 Prepare a detailed CAD drawing of the Safety
Problems 8 through 14 ask you to use CAD software to Key (Fig. 46) with the following changes: Correct the
solve some typical geometric construction that is similar right-side view and add the missing dimension 0.40. Exam-
from one software program to another. All the problems have ine the placement of dimensions and relocate where neces-
been prepared on a CAD system. Prepare the required CAD sary. Change 1.12 to 1.25 and add the difference to
drawing problems, as shown with your CAD system, and dimension 4.70.
produce a hard copy with a printer or plotter for approval. Prob. 14 Using a CAD system, determine the true
length of lines AD and CD (Fig. 47) when the horizontal
Prob. 8 Using Fig. 41 as reference, evaluate the hard-
projection of point A is relocated to a new coordinate read-
ware on your existing CAD system.
ing of (0, 3.125) and the horizontal projection of point D is
Prob. 9 Using Fig. 41 as reference, design your relocated to a Cartesian coordinate of (1.75, 1.625). Revise
“dream” CAD system. the drawing using the “F” notation for the frontal projec-
Prob. 10 Prepare a list of modifying (or editing) com- tions instead of the V notation, as shown. What is the new
mands available on the CAD system you will be using. slope of line CD?

■ FIGURE 44 ■

37
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 45 ■

■ FIGURE 46 ■

38
Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 47 ■

39
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Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and
Lettering Techniques

From Chapter 3 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and
Lettering Techniques
OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The traditional method of creating technical drawings is with draw- After studying the material in this chapter, you
ing instruments. Since the eighteenth century, precision instruments should be able to:
have been the tools of drafters. Today, CAD software is another tool 1. Identify the basic tools used by the
used by many drafters. The basic concepts of drawing and measur- drafter.
ing lines and circles is the same for traditional and CAD drawing. 2. List the four objectives of drafting.
The alphabet of lines and the meaning of line types is the same for 3. Describe the difference between the T-
traditional and CAD drawings. By understanding the basic princi- square, parallel rule, and drawing
ples of drawing, the properly trained drafter can create and modify machine.
any type of drawing. While some students may think that CAD soft- 4. Identify various types of lines and how
ware can replace the knowledge required to construct a drawing, they are used.
this is not so. While CAD makes drawing easier, it does not replace 5. Draw lines, arcs, and circles of specific
the basic knowledge that enables a skilled drafter to manipulate size using drawing instruments.
either a pencil or CAD software. 6. Draw lines at specific angles.
Sketching technique is one of the most important skills for engi-
7. Read and measure with the architects
neering visualization. Sketching is a quick way to communicate
scale, engineers scale, and metric scale.
ideas with other members of the design team. A picture is often
8. Draw irregular curves.
worth a thousand words (or 1K words, as it were). Sketching is a
time-efficient way to plan out the drawing processes needed to cre- 9. Identify several drawing media and
ate a complex object. Sketches act like a road map for the comple- standard sheet sizes.
tion of a final paper or CAD drawing. When you sketch basic ideas 10. Create freehand sketches using the cor-
ahead of time, you can often complete a drawing sooner and with rect sketching techniques.
fewer errors. Legible hand lettering is used on the sketch to specify 11. Sketch parallel, perpendicular, and
important information. evenly spaced lines.
12. Sketch a circle and an arc of a given
diameter.
13. Use techniques to keep your sketch pro-
portionate.
14. Enlarge an object using grid paper.
15. Sketch various line types.
16. Add lettering to a sketch.

42
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

INSTRUMENT DRAWING 2. T-square (24–,transparent edge), drafting machine,

or parallel-ruling edge (§§3.4, 3.49, and 3.50)
1 ■ TYPICAL DRAWING EQUIPMENT
3. Set of instruments (§§3.28 and 3.29)
For many years the essential equipment for students in
technical schools and for engineers and designers in 4. 45° triangle (8– sides) (§3.11)
professional practice remained unchanged. This equip- 5. 30¡ * 60¡ triangle (10– long side) (§3.11)
ment included a drawing board, T-square, triangles, an 6. Ames Lettering Guide or lettering triangle
architects’ or engineers’ scale, and a professional quali- 7. Architects’ triangular scale (§3.24)
ty set of drawing instruments. Now, however, other
8. Engineers’ triangular scale (§3.22)
equipment has come into general use, including the
drafting machine, parallel-ruling straightedge, technical 9. Metric triangular scale (§3.20)
fountain pen, and, of course, the computer. 10. Irregular curve (§3.46)
The basic items of drawing equipment are shown in 11. Protractor (§3.13)
Fig. 1. For best results, the drawing equipment you use 12. Mechanical pencils and/or thin-lead mechanical
should be of high [Link] you are ready to buy draw- pencils and HB, F, 2H, and 4H to 6H leads, or
ing instruments (item 3), you should talk to an experi- drawing pencils (§3.7)
enced drafter or designer, or reliable dealer, about your
13. Lead pointer and sandpaper pad
purchase because it is difficult for beginners to distinguish
high-grade instruments from inferior instruments. 14. Pencil eraser
15. Plastic drafting eraser or Artgum cleaning eraser
1. Drawing board (approximately 20– * 24– ), draft- 16. Erasing shield
ing table, or desk.
17. Dusting brush

This asset is intentionally omitted from this text.

43
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

18. Drawing paper, tracing paper, tracing cloth, or

films as required; backing sheet (drawing paper—
white, cream, or light green) to be used under
drawings and tracings
19. Drafting tape
20. Technical fountain pens
21. Drawing ink
22. Templates
23. Calculator

2 ■ OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING
The following pages explain the correct methods for
instrumental drawing. Students who practice and learn
correct manipulation of their drawing instruments will
eventually be able to draw correctly by habit and will be
able to give their full attention to the problems at hand. ■ FIGURE 2 ■ The T-square.
The following are the important objectives stu-
dents should strive to attain:

1. Accuracy. No drawing is of maximum usefulness

if it is not accurate. The engineer or designer can-
not achieve success in professional employment if
the habit of accuracy is not acquired.
2. Speed. Time is money in industry, and there is no
demand for a slow drafter, technician, or engineer.
However, speed is not attained by hurrying; it is an
unsought byproduct of intelligent and continuous ■ FIGURE 3 ■ Testing the Working Edge of the Drawing Board.
work. It comes with study and practice.
3. Legibility. Drafters, technicians, and engineers
must remember that a drawing is a means of com-
munication to others, and that it must be clear and Drafters use drafting tape to hold paper in place,
legible to serve its purpose well. Care should be which in turn permits surfaces such as hardwood or
given to details, especially to lettering (discussed other materials to be used for drawing boards.
further at the end of this chapter). For right-handed people, the left-hand edge of the
4. Neatness. If a drawing is to be accurate and legi- board is the working edge because the T-square head
ble, it must also be clean. Untidy drawings are the slides against it (Fig. 2). (Left-handers: Place the head
result of sloppy and careless methods and will be of the T-square on the right.) This edge must be straight,
unacceptable to an instructor or employer. and you should test the edge with a T-square blade that
has been tested and found straight (Fig. 3). If the edge
of the board is not true, it should be replaced.
3 ■ DRAWING BOARDS
If the left edge of the drawing table top has a true
straightedge and if the surface is hard and smooth (such 4 ■ T-SQUARES
as Masonite™), a drawing board is unnecessary, provid- The T-square is made of a long strip, called the blade,
ed that drafting tape is used to fasten the drawings. It is fastened rigidly at right angles to a shorter piece called
recommended that a backing sheet of heavy drawing the head (Fig. 2). The upper edge of the blade and the
paper be placed between the drawing and the table top. inner edge of the head are working edges and must be
In most cases a drawing board will be needed. straight. The working edge of the head must not be con-
Boards vary from 9– * 12– (for sketching and field vex, or the T-square will rock when the head is placed
work) up to 48– * 72– or larger. The recommended against the board. The blade should have transparent
size for students is 20– * 24–, which will accommodate plastic edges and should be free of nicks along the
the largest sheet likely to be used. working edge. Transparent edges are recommended,

44
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Testing the T-square. ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Placing Paper on Drawing Board.

because they allow the drafter to see the drawing in the

vicinity of the lines being drawn.
Do not use the T-square for any rough purpose.
Never cut paper along its working edge, as the plastic is
easily cut and even a slight nick will ruin the T-square.

5 ■ TESTING AND CORRECTING T-SQUARES ■ FIGURE 6 ■ Positions of Drafting Tape.

To test the working edge of the head, see if the T-square
rocks when the head is placed against a straightedge,
such as a drawing board working edge that has already with the right hand until the top edge coincides with the
been tested and found true. If the working edge of the upper edge of the T-square. Then move the T-square to
head is not straight, the T-square should be replaced. the position shown and fasten the upper left corner,
To test the working edge of the blade, draw a sharp then the lower right corner, and finally the remaining
line very carefully with a hard pencil along the entire corners (Fig. 6). Large sheets may require additional
length of the working edge; then turn the T-square over fastening, whereas small sheets may require fastening
and draw the line again along the same edge (Fig. 4). only at the two upper corners.
If the edge is straight, the two lines will coincide; other- Tracing paper should not be fastened directly to the
wise, the space between the lines will be twice the error board because small imperfections in the surface of the
of the blade. board will interfere with the line work. Always fasten a
It is difficult to correct a crooked T-square blade, larger backing sheet of heavy drawing paper on the
and if the error is considerable, it may be necessary to board first; then fasten the tracing paper over this sheet.
discard the T-square and obtain another.
7 ■ DRAWING PENCILS
6 ■ FASTENING PAPER TO THE BOARD High-quality drawing pencils should be used in techni-
The drawing paper should be placed close enough to cal drawing, never ordinary writing pencils (Fig. 7a).
the working edge of the board to reduce to a minimum Many makes of mechanical pencils are also avail-
any error resulting from a slight “give,” or bending, of able, together with refill leads of conventional size in
the blade of the T-square. The paper should also be all grades (Fig. 7b). Choose a holder that feels com-
close enough to the upper edge of the board to permit fortable in your hand and that grips the lead firmly
space at the bottom of the sheet for using the T-square without slipping. Mechanical pencils have the advan-
and supporting the arm while drawing (Fig. 5). tages of maintaining a constant length of lead while
Drafting tape is preferred for fastening the draw- permitting the use of a lead practically to the end, of
ing to the board because it does not damage the board being easily refilled with new leads, of affording a
and it will not damage the paper if it is removed by ready source for compass leads, of having no wood to
pulling it off slowly toward the edge of the paper. be sharpened, and of easy sharpening of the lead by
To fasten the paper in place, press the T-square various mechanical pencil pointers.
head firmly against the working edge of the drawing Thin-lead mechanical pencils are available with 0.3-,
board with the left hand, while the paper is adjusted 0.5-, 0.7-, or 0.9-mm-diameter drafting leads in several

45
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Drawing Pencils.

grades (Fig. 7c). These thin leads produce uniform In the selection of a grade of lead, the first consid-
width lines without sharpening, providing both a time eration is the type of line work required. For light
savings and a cost benefit. Mechanical pencils are rec- construction lines, guide lines for lettering, and accu-
ommended as they are less expensive in the long run. rate geometrical constructions or work in which accu-
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with the addi- racy is of prime importance, use a hard lead, such as
tion of either a polymer binder or kaolin (clay) in vary- 4H to 6H.
ing amounts to make 18 grades from 9H, the hardest, to For mechanical drawings on drawing paper or trac-
7B, the softest. The uses of these different grades are ing paper, the lines should be black, particularly for
described in Fig. 8. Note that small-diameter leads are drawings to be reproduced. The lead chosen must be
used for the harder grades, whereas large-diameter leads soft enough to produce jet black lines, but hard enough
are used to give more strength to the softer grades. not to smudge too easily or permit the point to crumble
Therefore, the degree of hardness in a wood pencil can under normal pressure. The same comparatively soft
be roughly judged by a comparison of diameters. lead is preferred for lettering and arrowheads.
Specifically formulated leads of carbon black par- This lead will vary from F to 2H, depending on
ticles in a polymer binder are also available in several the paper and weather conditions. If the paper is
grades for use on the polyester films now used quite hard, it will generally be necessary to use harder
extensively in industry (see §3.54). leads. For softer surfaces, softer leads can be used.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Lead Grade Chart.

Hard Medium Soft

The hard leads in this group (left) These grades are for general These leads are too soft to be useful
are used where extreme accuracy purpose work in technical drawing. in mechanical drafting. Their use for
is required, as on graphical com- The softer grades (right) are used such work results in smudged, rough
putations and charts and diagrams. for technical sketching, for letter- lines that are hard to erase, and the
The softer leads in this group ing, arrowheads, and other free- lead must be sharpened continually.
(right) are sometimes used for line hand work on mechanical These grades are used for art work
work on engineering drawings, but drawings. The harder leads (left) of various kinds, and for full-size
their use is restricted because the are used for line work on machine details in architectural drawing.
lines are apt to be too light. drawings and architectural draw-
ings. The H and 2H leads are wide-
ly used on pencil tracings for
reproduction.

46
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

On humid days, paper absorbs moisture from the 8 ■ ALPHABET OF LINES

atmosphere and becomes soft. This can be recog-
nized because the paper expands and becomes wrin- Each line on a technical drawing has a definite mean-
kled. It is necessary to select softer leads to offset the ing and is drawn in a certain way. The line conventions
softening of the paper. If you have been using a 2H endorsed by the American National Standards Insti-
lead, for example, change to an F until the weather tute, ANSI Y14.2M–1992, are presented in Fig. 9,
becomes drier. together with illustrations of various applications.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Alphabet of Lines (Full Size).

47
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Line Gage. Courtesy of Koh-I-Noor Rapidograph, Inc.

Two widths of lines are recommended for use on lines, extension lines, dimension lines, leaders, section
drawings. The ratio of line widths should be approxi- lines, phantom lines, and long-break lines).
mately two-to-one. It is recommended the thin line For the “thick lines”, visible, cutting plane, and
width be 0.3 mm minimum, and the thick line width be short break use a relatively soft lead, such as F or [Link]
0.6 mm minimum. All required lines should be clean- thin lines should be made with a sharp medium-grade
cut, dark, uniform throughout the drawing, and proper- lead, such as H or 2H. All lines (except construction
ly spaced for legible reproduction by all commonly lines) must be sharp and dark. Make construction lines
used methods. Spacing between parallel lines may be with a sharp 4H or 6H lead so thin that they can barely
exaggerated to a maximum of 3 mm .120 so there is no be seen at arm’s length and need not be erased.
fill-in when the drawing is reproduced. The size and In Fig. 9, the ideal lengths of all dashes are indi-
style of the drawing and the smallest size to which it is cated. You would do well to measure the first few hid-
to be reduced govern the actual width of each line. The den dashes and center-line dashes you make and
contrast between the two widths of lines should be dis- thereafter to estimate the lengths carefully by eye. The
tinct. Pencil leads should be hard enough to prevent line gage (Fig. 10) is a convenient reference for lines
smudging, but soft enough to produce the dense black of various widths.
lines necessary for quality reproduction.
When photoreduction and blowback are not nec-
essary, as is the case for most drafting laboratory 9 ■ DRAWING HORIZONTAL LINES
assignments, three weights of lines may improve the To draw a horizontal line, press the head of the T-
appearance and legibility of the drawing. The “thin square firmly against the working edge of the board
lines” may be made in two widths: regular thin lines for with your left hand; then slide your hand to the posi-
hidden lines and stitch lines, and a somewhat thinner tion shown in Fig. 11a so that the blade is pressed
version for the other secondary lines (such as center tightly against the paper. Lean the pencil in the direc-

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Drawing a Horizontal Line.

48
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

tion of the line at an angle of approximately 60° with

the paper, and draw the line from left to right (Fig.
11b). Keep the pencil in a vertical plane; otherwise,
the line may not be straight (Fig. 11c). While drawing
the line, let the little finger of the hand holding the pen-
cil glide lightly on the blade of the T-square, and rotate
the pencil slowly, except for the thin-lead pencils,
between your thumb and forefinger to distribute the
wear uniformly on the lead and maintain a symmetrical
point. Thin-lead pencils should be held nearly vertical
to the paper and not rotated. Also, pushing the thin-
lead pencil from left to right, rather than pulling it,
tends to minimize lead breakage.
When great accuracy is required, the pencil may be
“toed in” to produce a perfectly straight line (Fig.
11d). (Left-handers: In general, reverse the proce-
dure just outlined. Place the T-square head against the
right edge of the board, and with the pencil in the left
hand, draw the line from right to left.)

10 ■ DRAWING VERTICAL LINES

Use either the 45° triangle or the 30° * 60° triangle to
draw vertical lines. Place the triangle on the T-square
with the vertical edge on the left, as shown in Fig. 12a.
With the left hand, press the head of the T-square against
the board; then slide the hand to the position shown
where it holds both the T-square and the triangle firmly
in position. Draw the line upward, rotating the pencil
slowly between the thumb and forefinger. (The only
time it is advisable for right-handers to turn the triangle
so that the vertical edge is on the right is when drawing a
vertical line near the right end of the T-square. In this
case, the line would be drawn downward.)
Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at an
angle of approximately 60° with the paper and in a ■ FIGURE 12 ■ Drawing a Vertical Line.
vertical plane (Fig. 12b). Meanwhile, the upper
part of the body should be twisted to the right (Fig.
12c). (Left-handers: In general, reverse the fore-
going procedure. Place the T-square head on the
right and the vertical edge of the triangle on the
right; then, with the right hand, hold the T-square
and triangle firmly together, and with the left hand
draw the line upward.)

11 ■ TRIANGLES
Most inclined lines in mechanical drawing are drawn
at standard angles with the 45° triangle and the
30° * 60° triangle (Fig. 13). The triangles are made
of transparent plastic so that lines of the drawing can be ■ FIGURE 13 ■ Triangles.

49
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

seen through them. A good combination of triangles is by the arrows, and that all lines in the left half are
the 30° * 60° triangle with a long side of 10– and a 45° drawn toward the center, while those in the right half
triangle with each side 8– long. are drawn away from the center.

12 ■ DRAWING INCLINED LINES 13 ■ PROTRACTORS

The positions of the triangles for drawing lines at all For measuring or setting off angles other than those
of the possible angles are shown in Fig. 14. In the obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is used. The
figure it is understood that the triangles in each case best protractors, which produce the most accurate mea-
are resting on the blade of the T-square. Thus, it is pos- surements, are made of nickel silver (Fig. 15a). For
sible to divide 360° into twenty-four 15° sectors with ordinary work, a plastic protractor is satisfactory and
the triangles used singly or in combination. Note care- much cheaper (Fig. 15b).
fully the directions for drawing the lines, as indicated

■ FIGURE 14 ■ The Triangle Wheel.

50
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Protractors.

14 ■ DRAFTING ANGLES lines up with the other point; then draw the line along
There are a variety of devices that combine the pro- the edge.
tractor with triangles to produce great versatility of
use. One such device is shown in Fig. 16. 16 ■ DRAWING PARALLEL LINES
To draw a line parallel to a given line, move the triangle
15 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH and T-square as a unit until the hypotenuse of the tri-
TWO POINTS angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 18a); then,
To draw a line through two points, place the pencil verti- holding the T-square firmly in position, slide the trian-
cally at one of the points (Fig. 17), and move the gle away from the line, and draw the required line
straightedge about the pencil point as a pivot until it along the hypotenuse (Figs. 18b and 18c).

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Adjustable Triangle. ■ FIGURE 17 ■ To Draw a Pencil Line Through Two Points.

■ FIGURE 18 ■ To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given Line.

51
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 19 ■ To Draw a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line.

Obviously, any straightedge, such as one of the tri- 19 ■ SCALES

angles, may be substituted for the T-square in this oper- A drawing of an object may be the same size as the
ation, as shown in Fig. 18a. object (full size), or it may be larger or smaller than the
object. The ratio of reduction or enlargement depends
17 ■ DRAWING PERPENDICULAR LINES on the relative sizes of the object and of the sheet of
To draw a line perpendicular to a given line, move the paper on which the drawing is to be made. For exam-
T-square and triangle as a unit until one edge of the tri- ple, a machine part may be half size; a building may be
1 1
angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 19a); then slide drawn 48 size; a map may be drawn 1200 size; or a print-
the triangle across the line and draw the required line ed circuit board may be drawn four times its size.
(Figs. 19b and 19c). Scales are instruments used in making technical
To draw perpendicular lines when one of the lines drawings full size at a given enlargement or reduction.
makes 15° with horizontal, arrange the triangles as Figure 22 shows various types of scales, including (a)
shown in Fig. 20. the metric scale, (b) the engineers’ scale, (c) the decimal
scale, (d) the mechanical engineers’ scale, and (e) the
18 ■ DRAWING LINES AT 30°, 60°, OR 45° architects’ scale. A full-divided scale is one in which the
WITH A GIVEN LINE basic units are subdivided throughout the length of the
To draw a line making 30° with a given line, arrange the scale. The architects’ scale is an open divided scale, one
triangle as shown in Fig. 21. Angles of 60° and 45° in which only the end unit is subdivided.
may be drawn in a similar manner. Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood. The
better wood scales have white plastic edges. Scales are
■ FIGURE 20 ■ Perpendicular Lines. either triangular or flat. The triangular scales have the
advantage of combining many scales on one stick, but
the user will waste much time looking for the required
scale if a scale guard (Fig. 23) is not used. The scale
guard marks the scale that is being used. Flat scales are
almost universally used by professional drafters
because of their convenience, but several flat scales are
necessary to replace one triangular scale, and the total
cost is greater.

20 ■ METRIC SYSTEM AND METRIC SCALES

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Line at 30° with Given Line. The metric system is an international standard of mea-
surement that, despite modifications over the past 200
years, has been the foundation of science and industry
and is clearly defined. The modern form of the metric
system is the International System of Units, commonly
referred to as SI (from the French name, Le Systeⱊ me
International d’Unités). The SI system was established
in 1960 by international agreement and is now the
international standard of measurement.

52
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Types of Scales.

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Scale Guard.

53
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

The metric scale is used when the meter is the stan-

dard for linear measurement. The meter was established
by the French in 1791 with a length of one ten-millionth
of the distance from the Earth’s equator to the pole. The
meter is equal to 39.37 inches or approximately 1.1 yards.
The metric system for linear measurement is a dec-
imal system similar to our system of counting money.
For example,

1 mm = 1 millimeter A 1000
1
of a meter B

1 cm = 1 centimeter A 100
1
of a meter B
= 10 mm
1 dm = 1 decimeter A 10
1
of a meter B
= 10 cm = 100 mm
1m = 1 meter
= 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 km = 1 kilometer = 1000 m
= 100,000 cm = 1,000,000 mm
■ FIGURE 24 ■ Decimal Dimensions.
The primary unit of measurement for engineering
drawings and design in the mechanical industries is the
millimeter (mm). Secondary units of measure are the ing at 20-unit intervals. This scale is also convenient for
meter (m) and the kilometer (km). The centimeter ratios of 1 : 20, 1 : 200, 1 : 2000, and so on.
(cm) and the decimeter (dm) are rarely used. The remaining four scales on this triangular metric
In recent years, automotive and other industries scale include the typical scale ratios of 1 : 5, 1 : 25, 1 : 33 13,
have used a dual dimensioning system of millimeters and 1 : 75 (Figs. 24a and 3.24b). These ratios may also
and inches. Manufacturers of large agricultural machin- be enlarged or reduced as desired by multiplying or
ery use all metric dimensions with the inch equivalents dividing by a factor of 10. Metric scales are also available
given in a table on the drawing. with other scale ratios for specific drawing purposes.
Many of the dimensions in the illustrations and the The metric scale is used in map drawing and in draw-
problems in this text are given in metric units. Dimen- ing force diagrams or other graphical constructions that
sions that are given in the customary units (inches and involve such scales as 1 mm = 1 kg and 1 mm = 500 kg.
feet, either decimal or fractional) may be converted
easily to metric values. In accordance with standard
practice, the ratio 1 in. = 25.4 mm is used. 21 ■ INCH-FOOT SCALES
Metric scales are available in flat and triangular Several scales that are based on the inch-foot system of
styles with a variety of scale [Link] triangular measurement continue in domestic use today along with
scale illustrated in Fig. 34 has one full-size scale and the metric system of measurement, which is accepted
five reduced-size scales, all full divided. By means of worldwide for science, technology, and international
these scales a drawing can be made full size, enlarged trade.
sized, or reduced sized. To specify the scale on a draw-
ing see section 26.
22 ■ ENGINEERS’ SCALES
FULL SIZE The 1 : 1 scale (Fig. 24a) is full size, and each
The engineers’ scale is graduated in the decimal system.
division is actually 1 mm in width with the numbering of
It is also frequently called the civil engineers’ scale
the calibrations at 10-mm [Link] same scale is also
because it was originally used mainly in civil engineer-
convenient for ratios of 1 : 10, 1 : 100, 1 : 1000, and so on.
ing. The name chain scale also persists because it was
HALF SIZE The 1 : 2 scale (Fig. 24a) is one-half size, and derived from the surveyors’ chain composed of 100
each division equals 2 mm with the calibration number- links, used for land measurements.
The engineers’ scale is graduated in units of 1 in.
divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 parts. Thus, the

54
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Metric Scales.

engineers’ scale is convenient in machine drawing to set use. On the full-size scale, each inch is divided into fifti-
off dimensions expressed in decimals. For example, to eths of an inch, or .02– (Fig. 25c), and on the half- and
set off 1.650– full size, use the 10-scale and simply set off quarter-size scales, the inches are compressed to half
one main division plus 6 12 subdivisions (Fig. 25a). To size or quarter size and then are divided into 10 parts,
set off the same dimension half size, use the 20-scale, so that each subdivision stands for .1–.
since the 20-scale is exactly half the size of the 10-scale
(Fig. 25b). Similarly, to set off a dimension quarter
size, use the 40-scale.
The engineers’ scale is also used in drawing maps to 24 ■ ARCHITECTS’ SCALES
scales of 1– = 50¿, 1– = 500¿, 1– = 5 miles, and so on The architects’ scale is intended primarily for drawings
and in drawing stress diagrams or other graphical con- of buildings, piping systems, and other large structures
structions to such scales as 1– = 20 lb and 1– = 4000 lb. that must be drawn to a reduced scale to fit on a sheet
of [Link] full-size scale is also useful in drawing rel-
23 ■ DECIMAL SCALES atively small objects, and for that reason the architects’
The increasing use of decimal dimensions has brought scale has rather general usage.
about the development of a scale specifically for that

55
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

The architects’ scale has one full-size scale and ten diminishing in length with each subdivision. To set off
1 1 1
overlapping reduced-sized scales. By means of these 32 –, estimate visually one half of 16 –; to set off 64 –, esti-
scales a drawing may be made to various sizes from full 1
mate one fourth of 16 –.
1
size to 128 size. Note that in all the reduced scales the
major divisions represent feet, and their subdivisions HALF SIZE Use the full-size scale, and divide every
represent inches and fractions thereof. Thus, the scale dimension mentally by two. (Do not use the 12 – scale,
marked 34 means 34 inch = 1 foot, not 43 inch = 1 inch; which is intended for drawing to a scale of 12 – = 1¿, or
that is, one-sixteenth size, not three-fourths [Link] the one-twenty-fourth size.) To set off 1–, measure 14 –; to
scale marked 12 means 12 inch + 1 foot, not 21 inch = 1 set off 2–, measure 1–; to set off 6.5 1
16 –, measure 1 2 – (half
inch, (that is, one twenty-fourth-size, not half size). of 30– ), then 8 – A half of 4 – B ; to set off 2-16 – (see Fig.
1 1 13

32 – A 16 – or half of 16 – B .
1
All the scales, from full size to 128 size, are shown 26), measure 1– then 13 6.5 13

in Fig. 26. Some are upside down, just as they may

QUARTER SIZE Use the 3– scale in which 3– = 1¿ (Fig.
occur in use. These scales are described as follows.
26b). The subdivided portion to the left of zero, which
1
FULL SIZE Each division in the full-size scale is 16 – (Fig. represents 1 foot, is divided into inches, half inches,
26a). Each inch is divided first into halves, then quar- quarter inches, and eighth inches. The entire portion
ters, eighths, and finally sixteenths, the dividing lines representing 1 foot actually measures 3 inches; there-

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Architects’ Scales.

56
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

fore, 3– = 1¿. To set off anything less than 12–, start at graduated so that every 12 – represents 1–. Thus, the half-
zero and measure to the left. size scale is simply a full-size scale compressed to one-half
To set off 10 18 –, read off 9– from zero to the left and size.
add 1 18 – and set off the total 10 18 –, as shown. To set off These scales are also very useful in dividing dimen-
more than 12– —for example, 1¿ – 38 9
– (see your scale)— sions. For example, to draw a 3 11 16 – diameter circle full size,
find the 1¿ mark to the right of zero and the 9 38 – mark to we need half of 3 11 16 – to use as radius. Instead of using
the left of zero; the required distance is the distance arithmetic to find half of 3 11
16 –, it is easier to set off 3 11
16 – on
between these marks and represents 1¿ –9 38 –. the half-size scale.
Triangular combination scales are available that
EIGHT SIZE Use the 1 12 – scale in which 1 12 – = 1¿ (Fig.
include the full- and half-size mechanical engineers’
26b). The subdivided portion of the right of zero repre-
scales, several architects’ scales, and an engineers scale.
sents 1¿ and is divided into inches, then half inches, and fi-
nally quarter inches. The entire portion, representing 1¿, 26 ■ SPECIFYING THE SCALE ON A DRAWING
actually is 1 12 –; therefore, 1 12 – = 1¿. To set off anything less
For machine drawings, the scale indicates the ratio of
than 12–, start at zero and measure to the right.
the size of the drawn object to its actual size, irrespec-
DOUBLE SIZE Use the full-size scale, and multiply every tive of the unit of measurement used. The recommend-
dimension mentally by 2. To set off 1–, measure 2–; to ed practice is to letter FULL SIZE or 1 : 1; HALF SIZE or
set off 3 14 –, measure 6 12 –; and so on. The double-size 1 : 2; and similarly for other reductions. Expansion or
scale is occasionally used to represent small objects. In enlargement scales are given as 2 : 1 or 2 : 3; 3 : 1 or 3 : 3;
such cases, a small actual-size outline view may be 5 : 1 or 5 : 3; 10 : 1 or 10 3; and so on.
shown near the bottom of the sheet to help the shop The various scale calibrations available on the met-
worker visualize the actual size of the object. ric scale and the engineers’ scale provide almost unlimit-
ed scale ratios. The preferred metric scale ratios appear
OTHER SIZE The scales besides those just described are to be 1 : 1; 1 : 2; 1 : 5, 1 : 10, 1 : 20, 1 : 50, 1 : 100, and 1 : 200.
used chiefly by architects. Machine drawings are cus- Map scales are indicated in terms of frac-
tomarily made only double size, full size, half size, one- tions, such as Scale 62500 1
, or graphically, such as
fourth size, or one-eighth size.

25 ■ MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SCALES 27 ■ ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS

The objects represented in machine drawing vary in size Accurate drafting depends considerably on the correct
from small parts, an inch or smaller in size, to equipment or use of the scale in setting off distances. Do not take
parts of large dimensions. By drawing these objects full measurements directly off the scale with the dividers or
size, half size, quarter size, or eighth size, the drawings will compass, as damage will result to the scale. Place the
readily come within the limits of the standard-size sheets. scale on the drawing with the edge parallel to the line on
For this reason the mechanical engineers’ scales are divid- which the measurement is to be made and, with a sharp
ed into units representing inches to full size, half size, quar- pencil having a conical point, make a short dash at right
ter size, or eighth size (Fig. 26c). To make a drawing of an angles to the scale and opposite the correct graduation
object to a scale of one-half size, for example, use the mark, as shown in Fig. 27a. If extreme accuracy is
mechanical engineer’s scale marked half size, which is required, a tiny prick mark may be made at the required

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Accurate Measurements.

57
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

point with the needle point or stylus, (Fig. 27b), or with

one leg of the dividers.
Avoid cumulative errors in the use of the scale. If a
number of distances are to be set off end-to-end, all
should be set off at one setting of the scale by adding
each successive measurement to the preceding one, if
possible. Avoid setting off the distances individually by
moving the scale to a new position each time, since
slight errors in the measurements may accumulate and
give rise to a large error.
■ FIGURE 28 ■ Giant Bow Set. Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer.

28 ■ DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
In technical drawing, accuracy, neatness, and speed are 30 ■ COMPASSES
essential. These objectives are not likely to be obtained The compass, with pencil and inking attachments, is
with cheap or inferior drawing instruments. For the stu- used for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm (10)
dent or the professional drafter, it is advisable, and in radius or larger.
the end more economical, to purchase the best instru- The giant bow compass (Figs. 28–30) has a socket
ments that can be afforded. Good instruments will sat- joint in one leg that permits the insertion of either pencil
isfy the most rigid requirements, and the satisfaction, or pen attachments. A lengthening bar or a beam attach-
saving in time, and improved quality of work that good ment is often provided to increase the radius. Most of the
instruments can produce will more than justify the large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 29a). Sev-
higher price. eral manufacturers now offer different varieties of quick-
Unfortunately, the qualities of high-grade instru- acting bows. The large bow compass shown in Fig. 29b
ments are not likely to be recognized by the beginner, can be adjusted to the approximate setting by simply
who is not familiar with the performance characteristics opening or closing the legs in the same manner as for the
required and who is apt to be attracted by elaborate sets other bow-style compass. For production drafting, in
containing a large number of shiny, low-quality instru- which it is necessary to make dense black lines to secure
ments. Therefore, the student should obtain the advice clear legible reproductions, the giant bow or an appropri-
of the drafting instructor, an experienced drafter, or a ate template is preferred. The large bow instrument is
reliable dealer. much sturdier than the traditional compass and is capa-
ble of taking the heavy pressure necessary to produce
dense black lines without losing the setting.
29 ■ GIANT BOW SETS
Giant bow sets contain various combinations of
instruments, but all feature a large bow compass in 31 ■ USING COMPASSES
place of the traditional large compass (Fig. 28). The following instructions apply generally both to old
Most of the large bows are of the center-wheel type style and giant bow compasses.
(Fig. 29a). Several manufacturers now offer differ- Most compass needle points have a plain end for use
ent varieties of quick-acting bows. The large bow when the compass is converted into dividers and a shoul-
compass shown at (b) can be adjusted to the approx- der end for use as a [Link] the needle point with
imate setting by simply opening or closing the legs in the shoulder end out and so that the small point extends
the same manner as for the other bow-style compass. slightly farther than the pencil lead or pen nib (Fig. 32d).

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Giant Bow Compass.

(a) CENTER-WHEEL (b) QUICK ACTING

58
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

paper or on the backing sheet and then check the

diameter with the scale.
On drawings that have circular arcs and tangent
straight lines, draw the arcs first, whether in pencil or in
ink, as it is much easier to connect a straight line to an
arc than the reverse.
For very large circles, a beam compass (discussed
later in this section) is preferred, or use the lengthening
bar to increase the compass radius. Use both hands, as
shown in Fig. 31, but be careful not to jar the instru-
ment and thus change the adjustment.
When using the compass to draw construction
lines, use a 4H to 6H lead so that the lines will be very
dim. For required lines, the arcs and circles must be
black, and softer leads must be used. However, since
heavy pressure cannot be exerted on the compass as it
can on a pencil, it is usually necessary to use a compass
lead that is one or two grades softer than the pencil
■ FIGURE 30 ■ Using the Giant Bow Compass. used for the corresponding line work. For example, if an
H lead is used for visible lines drawn with a pencil, then
an F lead might be found suitable for the compass
work. The hard leads supplied with the compass are
To draw a penciled circle, (1) set off the required usually unsatisfactory for most line work except con-
radius on one of the center lines, (2) place the needle struction lines. In summary, use leads in the compass
point at the exact intersection of the center lines, (3) that will produce arcs and circles that match the straight
adjust the compass to the required radius (25 mm or pencil lines.
more), and (4) lean the compass forward and draw the It is necessary to exert pressure on the compass to
circle clockwise while rotating the handle between the produce heavy “reproducible” circles, and this tends to
thumb and [Link] obtain sufficient weight of line, enlarge the compass center hole in the paper, especial-
it may be necessary to repeat the movement several ly if there are a number of concentric circles. In such
times. cases, use a horn center, or center tack, in the hole, and
Any error in radius will result in a doubled error in place the needle point of the compass in the center of
diameter; so it is best to draw a trial circle first on scrap the tack.

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Drawing a Circle of Large Radius with the Beam Compass.

59
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Compass Lead Points.

32 ■ SHARPENING THE COMPASS LEAD cuts have been made to produce a point similar to that
Various forms of compass lead points are illustrated in on a screwdriver. In Fig. 32d, the cone point is pre-
Fig. 32. In Fig. 32a, a single elliptical face has been pared by chucking the lead in a mechanical pencil and
formed by rubbing on the sandpaper pad, as shown in shaping it in a pencil pointer. Avoid using leads that are
Fig. 33. In Fig. 32b, the point is narrowed by small too short to be exposed as shown.
side cuts. In Fig. 32c, two long cuts and two small side In using the compass, never use the plain end of the
needle point. Instead, use the shoulder end, as shown in
Fig. 32d, adjusted so that the tiny needlepoint extends
■ FIGURE 33 ■ Sharpening Compass Lead. about halfway into the paper when the compass lead
just touches the paper.

33 ■ BEAM COMPASSES
The beam compass, or trammel (Fig. 34), is used for
drawing arcs or circles larger than can be drawn with the
regular compass and for transferring distances too great
for the regular dividers. Besides steel points, pencil and
pen attachments are provided. The beams may be made

(a)

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Beam Compass Sets.

(a) Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer; (b) Courtesy of
Tacro, Div. of A&T Importers, Inc. (b)

60
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Adjusting the Dividers.

of nickel silver, steel, aluminum, or wood and are procur-

able in various lengths. A square nickel silver beam com- ■ FIGURE 36 ■ Using the Dividers.
pass set is shown in Fig. 34a, and a set with the beam
graduated in millimeters and inches is shown in Fig. 34b. dividers counterclockwise through 180°, and so on, until
the desired number of units has been stepped off. If the
34 ■ DIVIDERS last prick of the dividers falls short of the end of the line
Dividers, as the name implies, are used for dividing dis- to be divided, increase the distance between the divider
tances into a number of equal parts. They are also used points proportionately. For example, to divide the line
for transferring distances or for setting off a series of equal AB into three equal parts, the dividers are set by eye to
distances. Dividers are similar to compasses in construc- approximately one-third the length AB. When it is found
tion and are made in square, flat, and round forms. that the trial radius is too small, the distance between the
The friction adjustment for the pivot joint should be divider points is increased by one-third the remaining
loose enough to permit easy manipulation with one distance. If the last prick of the dividers is beyond the end
hand, as shown in Fig. 35. If the pivot joint is too tight, of the line, a similar decreasing adjustment is made.
the legs of the divider tend to spring back instead of stop- Cumulative errors may result when dividers are
ping at the desired point when the pressure of the fingers used to set off a series of distances end to [Link] set off
is released. To adjust tension, use a small screwdriver. a large number of equal divisions, say 15 first set off
Many dividers are made with a spring and thumb- three equal large divisions and then divide each of
screw in one leg so that minute adjustments in the setting these into five equal parts. Wherever possible in such
can be made by turning the small thumbscrew (Fig. 36). cases, use the scale instead of the dividers (see section
27), or set off the total and then divide into the parts by
35 ■ USING DIVIDERS means of the parallel-line method.

Dividers are used for spaces of approximately 25 mm

(10) or more. For spaces less than 25 mm, use the bow 36 ■ PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS
dividers (Fig. 39a). Never use the large dividers for For enlarging or reducing a drawing, proportional
small spaces when the bow dividers can be used; the lat- dividers are convenient (Fig. 37). They may also be
ter are more accurate. used for dividing distances into a number of equal parts,
Dividing a given distance into a number of equal parts or for obtaining a percentage reduction of a distance.
is a matter of trial and error (Fig. 35). Adjust the dividers For this purpose, points of division are marked on the
with the fingers of the hand that holds them, to the approx- instrument to secure the required subdivisions readily.
imate unit of division, estimated by eye. Rotate the Some instruments are calibrated to obtain special

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Proportional Dividers.

61
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Combination Pen and Pencil Bow. Courtesy of Frank

Oppenheimer. ■ FIGURE 40 ■ Using the Bow Instruments.

ratios, such as 1 : square root of 2, the diameter of a cir- 25 mm or less) spaces and more accurate work.
cle to the side of an equal square, and feet to meters. Whether a center-wheel or side-wheel instrument
is used, the adjustment should be made with the thumb
37 ■ BOW INSTRUMENTS and finger of the hand that holds the instrument (Fig.
The bow instruments are classified as the bow dividers, 40a). The instrument is manipulated by twirling the
bow pen, and bow pencil. A combination pen and pencil head between the thumb and fingers (Fig. 40b).
bow, usually with center-wheel adjustment, and separate The lead is sharpened in the same manner as for
instruments, with either side-wheel or center-wheel the large compass except that for small radii, the
adjustment, are available (Figs. 38 and 39). The inclined cut may be turned inside if preferred (Fig.
choice is a matter of personal preference. 41a). For general use, the lead should be turned on to
the outside, as shown in Fig. 41b. In either case, always
keep the compass lead sharpened. Avoid stubby com-
38 ■ USING BOW INSTRUMENTS pass leads, which cannot be properly sharpened. At
Bow pencils and bow pens are used for drawing circles least 6 mm (0) of lead should extend from the compass
of approximately 25 mm (10) radius or smaller. Bow at all times.
dividers are used for the same purpose as the large In adjusting the needle point of the bow pencil or
dividers, but they are used for smaller (approximately bow pen, be sure to have the needle extending slightly

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Bow Instruments with Side Wheel. ■ FIGURE 41 ■ Compass-Lead Points.

62
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

longer than the pen or the lead (Fig. 41b), the same as
for the large compass.
In drawing small circles, greater care is necessary
in sharpening and adjusting the lead and the needle
point, and especially in accurately setting the desired
radius. If a 6.35 mm (0) diameter circle is to be drawn,
and if the radius is “off” only 0.8 mm (0), the total error
on diameter is approximately 25, which is far too much.
Appropriate templates may also be used for draw- I
ing small circles.

39 ■ DROP SPRING BOW PENCILS AND PENS

Drop spring bow pencils and pens (Fig. 42) are
designed for drawing multiple identical small circles,
such as drill holes or rivet heads. A central pin is made
to move easily up and down through a tube to which
the pen or pencil unit is attached. To use the instru- II
ment, hold the knurled head of the tube between your
thumb and second finger, placing your first finger on
top of the knurled head of the pin. Place the point of
the pin at the desired center, lower the pen or pencil
until it touches the paper, and twirl the instrument
clockwise with your thumb and second finger. Then lift
the tube independently of the pin, and finally lift the
entire instrument. III

40 ■ TO LAY OUT A SHEET

After the sheet has been attached to the board, as
explained in §3.6, proceed as shown in Fig. 43 (see
also Layout A-2).
1. Using the T-square, draw a horizontal trim line near
the lower edge of the paper and then, using the tri-
angle, draw a vertical trim line near the left edge of IV
the paper. Both should be light construction lines.

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Drop Spring Bow Instruments.

VI
■ FIGURE 43 ■ To Lay Out a Sheet. Layout A-2.

63
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

2. Place the scale along the lower trim line with the DARK ACCENTED LINES The pencil lines of a finished
full-size scale up. Draw short and light dashes pencil drawing or tracing should be very dark (Fig.
perpendicular to the scale at the required dis- 44). Dark crisp lines are necessary to give punch or
tances (see Fig. 27a). snap to the drawing. (a) The ends of lines should be
3. Place the scale along the left trim line with the accented by a little extra pressure on the pencil. (b)
full-size scale to the left, and mark the required Curves should be as dark as other lines. (c) and (d)
distances with short and light dashes perpendicu- Hidden-line dashes and center-line dashes should be
lar to the scale. carefully estimated as to length and spacing and should
4. Draw horizontal construction lines with the aid of be of uniform width throughout their length.
the T-square through the marks at the left of the Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines, and
sheet. center lines also should be dark. The difference
between these lines and visible lines is mostly in width;
5. Draw vertical construction lines from the bottom
there is very little difference, if any, in blackness.
upward along the edge of the triangle through the
A simple way to determine whether your lines on
marks at the bottom of the sheet.
tracing paper or cloth are dense black is to hold the
6. Retrace the border and the title strip to make them tracing up to the light. Lines that are not opaque black
heavier. Notice that the layout is made indepen- will not print clearly by most reproduction processes.
dently of the edges of the paper.* Construction lines should be made with a sharp,
hard lead and should be so light that they need not be
41 ■ TECHNIQUE OF PENCIL DRAWING erased when drawing is completed.
Most commercial drafting is executed in pencil. Most CONTRAST IN LINES Contrast in pencil lines, like that in
prints or photocopies are made from pencil tracings, ink lines, should be mostly in widths of the lines, with lit-
and all ink tracings must be preceded by pencil draw- tle if any difference in the degree of darkness (Fig.
ings. It should therefore be evident that skill in drafting 45). The visible lines should contrast strongly with the
chiefly implies skill in pencil drawing. thin lines of the drawing. If necessary, draw over a visi-
Technique is a style or quality of drawing imparted ble line several times to get the desired thickness and
by the individual drafter to the work. It is characterized darkness. A short retracing stroke backward (to the
by crisp black line work and lettering. Technique in let- left), producing a jabbing action, results in a darker line.
tering is discussed later in this chapter.
42 ■ PENCIL TRACING
*In industrial drafting rooms the sheets are available, cut to standard
sizes, with border and title strips already printed. Drafting supply
While some pencil tracings are made of a drawing
houses can supply such papers, printed to order, to schools for little placed underneath the tracing paper (usually when a
extra cost. great deal of erasing and changing is necessary on the

64
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Technical Fountain Pen and Pen Set. Courtesy of Koh-I-Nor Rapidograph, Inc.

original drawing), most drawings today are made All lines must be dark and cleanly drawn when
directly in pencil on tracing paper, pencil tracing cloth, drawings are to be reproduced.
films, or vellum. These are not tracings but pencil draw-
ings, and the methods and technique are the same as
previously described for pencil drawing. 43 ■ TECHNICAL FOUNTAIN PENS
In making a drawing directly on a tracing medium, Technical fountain pens (Fig. 46), with tube and nee-
a smooth sheet of heavy white drawing paper, a back- dle point are available in several line widths. Many peo-
ing sheet, should be placed underneath. The whiteness ple prefer this type of pen because the line widths are
of the backing sheet improves the visibility of the lines, fixed and it is suitable for freehand or mechanical let-
and the hardness of the surface makes it possible to tering and line work. The pen requires an occasional
exert pressure on the pencil and produce dense black filling and a minimum of skill to use. For uniform line
lines without excessive grooving of the paper. work, the pen should be used perpendicular to the

65
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Using the Technical Fountain Pen. FERNANDO BLANCO

CALZADA - Shutterstock.

paper (Fig. 47). For best results, follow the manufac-

turer’s recommendations for operation and cleaning.

44 ■ DRAWING INK
■ FIGURE 48 ■ Alphabet of Ink Lines (Full Size).
Drawing ink is composed chiefly of carbon in colloidal
suspension, alcohol, water, and a binder. The fine parti-
cles of carbon give the deep, black luster to the ink, and
the binder makes it waterproof and quick to dry. The 2. In (a) through (c), ink horizontal lines first, verti-
ink bottle should not be left uncovered, as evaporation cal lines second, and inclined lines last:
will cause the ink to thicken. (a) Ink invisible straight lines.
Special drawing ink is available for use on acetate (b) Ink hidden straight lines.
and polyester films. Such inks should not be used in (c) Ink center lines, extension lines, dimension
technical fountain pens unless the pens are specifically lines, leader lines, and section lines (if any).
made for acetate-based inks.
3. (a) Ink arrowheads and dimension figures.
For removing dried waterproof drawing ink from
(b) Ink notes, titles, etc. (Pencil guide lines directly
pens or instruments, pen-cleaning fluids are available
on the drawing or tracing.)
at dealers.
Some drafters prefer to ink center lines before
indenting the compass centers because ink can go
45 ■ TECHNIQUE OF INKING
through the holes and cause blots on the back of
The various widths of lines used for inked drawings or the sheet.
tracings are shown in Fig. 48. In inking a drawing or When an ink blot is made, the excess ink should be
tracing (Fig. 49), proceed in the following order: taken up with a blotter, paper towel or tissue, and not
allowed to soak into the paper. When the spot is thor-
1. (a) Mark all tangent points in pencil directly on oughly dry, the remaining ink can be erased easily.
the drawing or tracing. For cleaning untidy drawings or for removing the
(b) Indent all compass centers (with pricker or original pencil lines from an inked drawing, a Pink Pearl
divider point). or the Mars-Plastic eraser is suitable if used lightly.
(c) Ink visible circles and arcs. When a gap in a thick ink line is made by erasing,
(d) Ink hidden circles and arcs. the gap should be filled in with a series of fine lines
(e) Ink irregular curves, if any. that are allowed to run together. A single heavy line

66
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

is difficult to match and is more likely to run and

cause a blot.

46 ■ IRREGULAR CURVES
Drawing mechanical curves other than circles or circu-
lar arcs generally requires the use of an irregular or
French curve. An irregular curve is a device for the
mechanical drawing of curved lines and should not be
applied directly to the points or used for purposes of
producing an initial curve. Many different forms and
sizes of curves are manufactured (Fig. 50).
The curves are composed largely of successive seg-
ments of the geometric curves, such as the ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola, and involute. The best curves are
made of transparent plastic. Among the many special
types of curves available are hyperbolas, parabolas,
ellipses, logarithmic spirals, ship curves, and railroad
curves.
Adjustable curves are also available. Figure 51a
consists of a core of lead, enclosed by a coil spring
attached to a flexible strip. Figure 51b consists of a
spline to which “ducks” (weights) are attached. The
spline can be bent to form any desired curve, limited
only by the elasticity of the material. An ordinary piece
of solder wire can be used very successfully by bending
the wire to the desired curve.

47 ■ USING IRREGULAR CURVES

The proper use of the irregular curve requires skill,
especially when the lines are to be drawn in ink (Fig.
52). After points have been plotted through which
the curve is to pass, a light pencil line should be
sketched freehand smoothly through the points.
To draw a mechanical line over the freehand line
with an irregular curve, you match the various seg-
ments of the irregular curve with successive portions of
the freehand curve and draw the line with pencil or rul-
ing pen along the edge of the curve (Fig. 53). The
irregular curve must match the sketched curve for
some distance at each end beyond the segment to be
drawn for any one setting of the curve so that successive
sections of the curve will be tangent to each other, with-
out any abrupt change in the curvature of the line (Fig.
53). In placing the irregular curve, the short-radius
end of the curve should be turned toward the short-
radius part of the curve to be drawn; that is, the portion
■ FIGURE 49 ■ Order of Inking. of the irregular curve used should have the same curvi-
linear tendency as the portion of the curve to be drawn.
This will prevent abrupt changes in direction.

67
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Irregular or French Curves.

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Adjustable Curves. ■ FIGURE 52 ■ Using the Irregular Curves.

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Settings of Irregular Curve.

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 54 ■ Symmetrical Figures.

The drafter should change the position of the irregular curve is turned over and matched so that the
drawing when necessary to avoid working on the lower line may be drawn from 2 to 1. In similar manner, the
side of the curve. same segment is used again in Figs. 54c and 54d. The
When plotting points to establish the path of a ellipse is completed by filling in the gaps at the ends by
curve, it is desirable to plot more points, and closer using the irregular curve, or if desired, a compass.
together, where sharp turns in the curve occur.
Free curves may also be drawn with the compass.
For symmetrical curves, such as an ellipse, use the 48 ■ TEMPLATES
same segment of the irregular curve in two or more Templates are available for a great variety of special-
opposite places (Fig. 54). For example, in Fig. 54a ized needs (Fig. 55). A template may be found for
the irregular curve is matched to the curve and the line drawing almost any ordinary drafting symbols or
drawn from 1 to 2. Light pencil dashes are then drawn repetitive features. The engineers’ triangle is useful for
directly on the irregular curve at these points. (The drawing hexagons or for bolt heads and nuts; the draft-
curve will take pencil marks well if it is lightly “frosted” square is convenient for drawing the curves on bolt
by rubbing with a hard pencil eraser.) In Fig. 54b the heads and nuts, for drawing circles, thread forms, and
so forth; and the chemistry stencil is useful for drawing

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Templates. [Link] - Shutterstock.

69
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

chemical apparatus in schematic form.

Ellipse templates, are perhaps more widely used
than any other type. Circle templates are useful for
drawing small circles quickly and for drawing fillets
and rounds: such templates are used extensively in tool
and die drawings.

49 ■ DRAFTING MACHINES
The drafting machine is an ingenious device that
replaces the T-square, triangles, scales, and protractor
(Figs. 56 and 57). The links, or bands, are arranged
so that the controlling head is always in any desired
fixed position regardless of where it is placed on the
board; thus, the horizontal straightedge will remain
horizontal if so [Link] controlling head is graduated in
degrees (including a vernier on certain machines),
which allows the straightedges, or scales, to be set and
locked at any angle. There are automatic stops at the
more frequently used angles, such as 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°,
75°, and 90°.
The chief advantage of the drafting machine is that
it speeds up drafting. Since its parts are made of metal,
their accurate relationships are not subject to change, ■ FIGURE 57 ■ Adjustable Drafting Table with Track Drafting
whereas T-squares, triangles, and working edges of Machine. Courtesy of Keuffel & Esser Co.
drawing boards must be checked and corrected fre-
quently. Drafting machines for left-handers are avail- straightedge is recommended (Fig. 58). The ends of the
able from the manufacturers. straightedge are controlled by a system of cords and pul-
leys that permit the straightedge to be moved up or down
on the board while maintaining a horizontal position.
50 ■ PARALLEL-RULING STRAIGHTEDGE
For large drawings, the long T-square becomes unwieldy, 51 ■ DRAWING PAPERS
and considerable inaccuracy may result from the “give” or Drawing paper, or detail paper, is used whenever a draw-
swing of the blade. In such a case the parallel-ruling ing is to be made in pencil but not for reproduction. From

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Drafting Machine. Courtesy of VEMCO Corporation.

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Parallel-Ruling Straightedge. David R. Frazier
Photolibrary, Inc. - Alamy.

70
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

working drawings and for general use, the preferred great deal of time. These cloths generally have a sur-
paper is light cream or buff in color, and it is available in face that will produce dense black lines when hard pen-
rolls of widths 24– and 36– and in cut sheets of standard cils are used. Hence, these drawings do not easily
sizes, such as 8.5– * 11–, 11– * 17–, 17– * 22–, and so smudge and will stand up well to handling.
on. Most industrial drafting rooms use standard sheets
with printed borders and title strips (§3.55). Since the 54 ■ POLYESTER FILMS AND COATED SHEETS
cost for printing adds so little to the price per sheet, Polyester film is a superior drafting material available in
many schools have also adopted printed sheets. rolls and sheets of standard size. It is made by bonding a
The best drawing papers have up to 100 pure rag matte surface to one or both sides of a clear polyester
stock; they have strong fibers that afford superior eras- sheet. The transparency and printing qualities are very
ing qualities, folding strength, and toughness; and they good, the matte drawing surface is excellent for pencil or
will not discolor or grow brittle with age. The paper ink, erasures leave no ghost marks, and the film has high
should have a fine grain or tooth that will pick up the dimensional stability. Its resistance to cracking, bending,
graphite and produce clean, dense black lines. Howev- and tearing makes it virtually indestructible, if given rea-
er, if the paper is too rough, it will wear down the pencil sonable care. The film has rapidly replaced cloth and is
excessively and will produce ragged, grainy lines. The competing with vellum in some applications. Some com-
paper should have a hard surface so that it will not panies have found it more economical to make their
groove too easily when pressure is applied to the pencil. drawings directly in ink on the film.
For ink work, as for catalog and book illustrations, Large coated sheets of aluminum (which provides a
white papers are used. The better papers, such as Bris- good dimensional stability) are often used in the aircraft
tol Board and Strathmore, come in several thicknesses, and auto industry for full-scale layouts that are scribed
such as 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply. into the coating with a steel point rather than a [Link]
layouts are reproduced from the sheets photographically.
52 ■ TRACING PAPERS
Tracing paper is a thin transparent paper on which 55 ■ STANDARD SHEETS
drawings are made for the purpose of reproducing by Two systems of sheet sizes, together with length, width,
blueprinting or by other similar processes. Tracings are and letter designations, are listed by ANSI, as shown in
usually made in pencil but may also be made in ink. the accompanying table.
Most tracing papers will take pencil or ink, but some The use of the basic sheet size, 8.5– * 11.0– or
are especially suited to one or to the other. 210 mm * 297 mm, and multiples thereof permits fil-
Tracing papers called vellums have been treated with ing of small tracings and of folded prints in standard
oils, waxes, or similar substances to render them more files with or without correspondence. These sizes can
transparent; other tracing papers are not so treated, but be cut without waste from the standard rolls of paper,
may be quite transparent due to the high quality of the cloth, or film.
raw materials and the methods of manufacture. Some
treated papers deteriorate rapidly with age, becoming
brittle within a few months, but some excellent vellums
are available. Untreated papers made entirely of good
rag stock will last indefinitely and will remain tough.
Nearest Standard
53 ■ TRACING CLOTH International Sizea U.S. Sizea
Tracing cloth is a thin transparent muslin fabric (cotton, (millimeter) (inch)
not linen as commonly supposed) sized with a starch com-
pound or plastic to provide a good working surface for A4 210 * 297 A 8.5 * 11.0
pencil or ink. It is much more expensive than tracing A3 297 * 420 B 11.0 * 17.0
[Link] cloth is available in rolls of standard widths,
such as 30–, 36–, and 42–, and also in sheets of standard A2 420 * 594 C 17.0 * 22.0
sizes, with or without printed borders and title forms. A1 594 * 841 D 22.0 * 34.0
For pencil tracings, special pencil tracing cloths are
available. Many concerns make their drawings in pencil A0 841 * 1189 E 34.0 * 44.0
directly on this cloth, dispensing entirely with the pre- a
ANSI Y14.1m-1992.
liminary pencil drawing on detail paper, thus saving a

71
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 59 ■ A Drawing Created Using CAD. Courtesy of Zura Sports, Inc.

56 ■ THE COMPUTER AS A DRAFTING TOOL nized and following conventions for naming the draw-
Many of you will be using a CAD system as your ings so that you can find them on the CAD system is
drafting tool. Drawings created using a computer are also an important consideration. Even when using a
basically the same as drawings created by hand. Accu- CAD system, skill in freehand sketching is still neces-
racy, speed, and the ability to understand spatial and sary to quickly get your ideas down on paper.
visual information, are equally important in instru-
mental drawing and in using a CAD system. Drawings
created using a CAD system should follow the proper FREEHAND SKETCHING
drafting standards so that they can be easily interpret-
57 ■ TECHNICAL SKETCHING
ed. Most CAD drawings are plotted on standard sheet
sizes and to similar scales as hand-prepared instru- Freehand sketches are a helpful way to organize your
mental drawings. You still need to master the concepts thoughts and record [Link] provide a quick, low-cost
and standards for orthographic and pictorial projec- way to explore various solutions to a problem so that the
tions in order to use a CAD system effectively to cre- best choice can be made. Investing too much time in
ate models and drawings. doing a scaled layout before exploring your options
An advantage of using CAD is that the system through sketches can be a costly mistake. Sketches are
contains commands for easily drawing perfectly also used to clarify information about changes in design
straight uniform lines and other geometric elements. or provide information on repairing existing equipment.
Also the various styles of lines can be quickly repre- The degree of precision needed in a given sketch
sented by the CAD system (Fig. 59). Though it will depends on its use. Quick sketches to supplement verbal
take you some time to learn the command structure of descriptions may be rough and incomplete. Sketches
your CAD system, you would take as long to learn
instrumental drawing techniques for preparing neat
accurate drawings. Keeping your drawing files orga-

72
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

Find a style of pencil that suits your use. Figure 7

shows three styles which are all good for preparing
[Link] mechanical pencils (shown as (c) in
the illustration) come in .3-mm, .5-mm, .7-mm, and .9-
mm leads that advance automatically and are easy to
use. The .5-mm lead is a good general size, or you can
use a .7-mm lead for thick lines and .3-mm for thin lines.
The lead holder shown as part (b) requires a special
sharpener, so it is not usually suitable for work in the
field. Plain wooden pencils work great. They are inex-
pensive and make it easy to produce thick or thin lines
by the amount you sharpen them.
A sketch pad of plain paper with a master grid
sheet showing through underneath works well as a sub-
stitute for grid paper. You can create your own master
grid sheets for different sketching purposes using
CAD. Specially ruled isometric paper is available for
isometric sketching.
Figure 8 shows the grades of lead and their uses.
■ FIGURE 60 ■ Great Ideas Often Start as Freehand Sketches Use soft pencils, such as HB or F, for freehand sketch-
Made on Scratch Paper. Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.
ing. Soft vinyl erasers are recommended.
that are supposed to convey important and precise
59 ■ TYPES OF SKETCHES
information should be drawn as carefully and accurately
as possible. Technical sketches of 3-D objects are usually one of
The term freehand sketch does not mean a sloppy four standard types of projection, shown in Figure 62:
drawing. As shown in Figure 60, a freehand sketch shows
• Multiview projection
attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.
• Axonometric (isometric) projection
58 ■ SKETCHING MATERIALS • Oblique projection
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires • Perspective sketches
only pencil, paper, and eraser. Small notebooks or Multiview projection shows one or more necessary
sketch pads are useful in the field (when working at a views. Axonometric, oblique, and perspective sketches are
site) or when an accurate record is needed. Graph
paper can be helpful in making neat sketches like the
one in Figure 61. Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per ■ FIGURE 62 ■ Types of Projection.
inch is convenient for maintaining correct proportions.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Sketch on Graph Paper.

73
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

methods of showing the object pictorially in a single 62 ■ STYLES OF LINES

view. Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning.
Drawings use two different line widths—thick and thin,
60 ■ SCALE and different line styles indicate the meaning of the line.A
Sketches are not usually made to a specific scale. person reading a drawing depends on line styles to com-
Sketch objects in their correct proportions as accurate- municate whether a line is visible or hidden, if it repre-
ly as possible by eye. Grid paper helps you sketch the sents a center axis, or if its purpose is to convey
correct proportions by providing a ready-made scale dimension information. Without making these distinc-
(by counting squares). The size of the sketch is up to tions, drawings would become a confusing jumble of
you, depending on the complexity of the object and the lines. To make your drawings clear and easy to read,
size of the paper available. Sketch small objects over- make the contrast between the two widths of lines dis-
size to show the details clearly. tinct. Thick lines such as visible lines and cutting-plane
lines should be twice as thick as thin lines. Thin lines are
used for construction lines, hidden lines, dimension lines,
61 ■ TECHNIQUE OF LINES extension lines, center lines, and phantom lines. Figure 9
The main difference between an instrument drawing shows the different styles of lines that you will be using.
and a freehand sketch is in the style or technique of the All lines except for construction lines should be sharp
lines. A good freehand line is not expected to be pre- and dark. Construction lines should be very light so that
cisely straight or exactly uniform, as is a CAD or instru- they are not visible (or are barely visible) in the complet-
ment-drawn line. Freehand lines show freedom and ed drawing. Figures 63 and 64 show examples of tech-
variety. Freehand construction lines are very light, nique for sketching using different line patterns.
rough lines. All other lines should be dark and clean.

■ FIGURE 64 ■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

74
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

Compare each new estimated distance with already-

established distances. One way to estimate distances is to
mark an arbitrary unit on the edge of a card or strip of
paper. Then see how many units wide and how many
units high the object is.
To sketch an object with many curves to a different
scale, use the squares method. On the original picture,
■ FIGURE 65 ■ Circle Viewed as an Ellipse.
rule accurate grid lines to form squares of any convenient
size. It is best to use a scale and some convenient spacing,
such as 12 inch or 10 mm. On the new sheet, rule a similar
63 ■ SKETCHING CIRCLES, ARCS, grid, marking the spacing of the lines proportional to the
AND ELLIPSES original, but reduced or enlarged as needed. Draw the
Small circles and arcs can be sketched in one or two object’s contours in and across the new grid lines to
strokes without any preliminary blocking in. Sketching match the original as closely as you can by eye.
arcs is similar to sketching circles. In general, it is easier
to sketch arcs by holding your pencil on the inside of
the curve. In sketching arcs, look closely at the actual LETTERING
geometric constructions and carefully approximate all Lettered text is often necessary to completely
points of tangency so that the arc touches a line or describe an object or to provide detailed specifica-
other entity at the right point. Circle templates also tions. Lettering should be legible, be easy to create,
make it easy to sketch accurate circles of various sizes. and use styles acceptable for traditional drawing and
If a circle is tipped away from your view, it appears CAD drawing.
as an ellipse. Figure 65 shows a coin viewed so that it
appears as an ellipse. You can learn to sketch small
ellipses with a free arm movement similar to the way 65 ■ FREEHAND LETTERING
you sketch circles, or you can use ellipse templates to
Most engineering lettering is single-stroke Gothic font.
help you easily sketch ellipses. These templates are
A font is the name for a particular shape of letters.
usually grouped according to the amount a circular
Figure 66 shows some common fonts. Most hand-
shape would be rotated to form the ellipse. They pro-
drawn notes are lettered 18 – high and are drawn within
vide a number of sizes of ellipses on each template, but
light horizontal guidelines. CAD notes are typed from
usually only one or a couple typical rotations.
the keyboard and sized according to the plotted size of
the drawing.
64 ■ MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS
The most important rule in freehand sketching is to
keep the sketch in proportion. No matter how bril- 66 ■ LETTERING STANDARDS
liant the technique or how well-drawn the small The modern styles of letters were derived from the design
details, if the proportions are bad, the sketch will be of Roman capital letters, whose origins date all the way
of little use. To keep your sketch in proportion, first back to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The term Roman refers
determine the relative proportions of the height to to any letter that has wide downward strokes, thin con-
the width and lightly block them in. Then lightly necting strokes, and ends terminating in spurs called ser-
block in the medium-size areas and the small details. ifs. In the late 19th century, the development of technical

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Serif and Sans-Serif Lettering.

75
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

drawing created a need for a simplified, legible alphabet strokes. The widths of the letters can be easily
that could be drawn quickly with an ordinary pen. Single- remembered: The letter l and the numeral 1 are only
stroke Gothic sans-serif (meaning without serifs or spurs) a pencil width. The W is eight grid units wide A 1 13
letters are used today because they are very legible. times its height B and is the widest letter in the alpha-
bet. All the other letters or numerals are either five
or six grid units wide, and it is easy to remember the
67 ■ COMPUTER LETTERING six-unit letters because when assembled they spell
Lettering is a standard feature available in computer TOM Q. VAXY. This means that most letters are as
graphics programs. Using CAD software, you can add wide as they are tall, which is probably wider than
titles, notes, and dimensioning information to a drawing. your usual writing. All numerals except the 1 are five
Several fonts and a variety of sizes may be [Link] units wide.
modifications are required, it is easy to make appropriate Lowercase letters are rarely used in engineering
lettering changes on the drawing by editing existing text. sketches except for lettering large volumes of notes.
CAD drawings typically use a Gothic style of let- Vertical lowercase letters are used on map drawings,
tering, but often use a Roman style of lettering for but very seldom on machine drawings. Lowercase let-
titles. When adding lettering to a CAD drawing, a ters are shown in Figure 68. The lower part of the let-
good rule of thumb is not to use more than two fonts ter is usually two-thirds the height of the capital letter.
within the same drawing. You may want to use one
font for the titles and a different one for notes and
other text. However, you may have a couple different 70 ■ INCLINED LETTERS AND NUMERALS
sizes of lettering in the drawing and perhaps some Inclined capital letters and numerals, shown in Figure
slanted lettering all using the same font. It is some- 69, are similar to vertical characters, except for the
times tempting to use many different fonts in a draw- slope. The slope of the letters is about 68° from the hor-
ing because of the wide variety available on CAD izontal. While you may practice drawing slanted hand-
systems, but drawings that use too many different lettering at approximately this angle, it is important in
fonts have been jokingly referred to as having a ran- CAD drawings to always set the amount of incline for
som note style of lettering. the letters at the same value within a drawing so that the
lettering is consistent. Inclined lowercase letters, shown
68 ■ LETTERING TECHNIQUE in Figure 70, are similar to vertical lowercase letters.
Lettering is more similar to freehand drawing than
it is to writing, so the six fundamental drawing
strokes and their directions are basic to lettering.
71 ■ GUIDELINES
Horizontal strokes are drawn left to right. Vertical, Use extremely light horizontal guidelines to keep letter
inclined, and curved strokes are drawn downward. If height uniform, as is shown in Figure 71. Capital letters
you are left-handed, you can use a system of strokes are commonly made 18 – (3.2 mm) high, with the space
similar to the sketching strokes that work for you. between lines of lettering being from three-fifths to full
Lettering ability has little relationship to writing height of the letters. Lettering size may vary depending
ability. You can learn to letter neatly even if you have on the size of the sheet. Do not use vertical guidelines to
terrible handwriting. There are three necessary aspects space the letters; this should be done by eye while letter-
of learning to letter: ing. Use a vertical guideline at the beginning of a row of
text to help you line up the left edges of the following
• Proportions and forms of the letters (to make rows, or use randomly spaced vertical guidelines to help
good letters, you need to have a clear mental you maintain the correct slant.
image of their correct shape) A simple method of spacing horizontal guidelines
• Composition the spacing of letters and words is to use a scale and set off a series of 18 – spaces, making
• Practice both the letters and the spaces between lines of letters
1
8 – high. Another quick method of creating guidelines is
to use a guideline template like the Berol Rapidesign
69 ■ VERTICAL LETTERS AND NUMERALS 925 shown in Figure 72.
The proportions of vertical capital letters and numer- When large and small capitals are used in combi-
als are shown in Figure 67 in a grid six units high. nation, the small capitals should be three-fifths to two-
Numbered arrows indicate the order and direction of thirds as high as the large capitals.

76
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 67 ■ Vertical Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 68 ■ Vertical Lowercase Letters.

77
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 69 ■ Inclined Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 70 ■ Inclined Lowercase Letters.

78
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 71 ■ Pencil Lettering (Full Size).

3 REVERSE WITH INKING PEN

—
36 1
—
4

5
—
32 3
—
16
1
—
8 5
—
32

3
—
32 1
—
8 ■ FIGURE 72 ■ The Berol Rapidesign 925
[Link].
R-925 Template is Used to Quickly Create Guidelines for
LETTERING AID
Lettering.

72 ■ GUIDELINES FOR WHOLE NUMBERS numbers. Make the numerator and the denominator
AND FRACTIONS each about three-fourths as high as the whole number
Beginners should use guidelines for whole numbers and to allow enough space between them and the fraction
fractions. Draw five equally spaced guidelines for whole bar. For dimensioning, the most commonly used height
numbers and fractions, as shown in Figure 73. Frac- for whole numbers is 18 – (3.2 mm), and for fractions 14 –
tions are twice the height of the corresponding whole (6.4 mm), as shown in the figure.
Some of the most common errors in lettering frac-
tions are shown in Figure 74. To make fractions
appear correctly:
■ FIGURE 73 ■ Guide Lines for Dimension Figures.
• Never let numerals touch the fraction bar.
• Center the denominator under the numerator.
• Never use an inclined fraction bar, except when
lettering in a narrow space, as in a parts list.
• Make the fraction bar slightly longer than the
widest part of the fraction.

■ FIGURE 74 ■ Common Errors.

79
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

73 ■ SPACING OF LETTERS AND WORDS

Uniform spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing
spaces by eye. The background areas between letters,
not the distances between them, should be approxi-
mately equal. Equal distances from letter to letter caus-
es the letters to appear unequally spaced. Equal
background areas between letters results in an even
and pleasing spacing.
Some combinations, such as LT and VA, may even
have to be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing.
In some cases the width of a letter may be decreased. ■ FIGURE 75 ■ Centering Title in Title Box.
For example, the lower stroke of the L may be short-
ened when followed by A. These pairs of letters that
need to be spaced extra closely to appear correctly are
called kerned pairs in typesetting.
Space words well apart, but space letters closely
within words. Make each word a compact unit well sep-
arated from adjacent words. For either uppercase or
lowercase lettering, make the spaces between words
approximately equal to a capital O. Be sure to have
■ FIGURE 76 ■ Balanced Machine-Drawing Title.
space between rows of letters, usually equal to the let-
ter height. Rows spaced too closely are hard to read.
Rows that are too far apart do not appear related.
75 ■ WEB SITES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Check the sites below for engineering graphics supplies
74 ■ TITLES and equipment:
In most cases, the title and related information are let-
• [Link]
tered in title boxes or title strips, which may be printed
directly on the drawing paper or polyester film, as shown • [Link]
in Figure 75. The main drawing title is usually centered • [Link]
in a rectangular space, which is easy to do in [Link] These sites feature typography information:
lettering by hand, arrange the title symmetrically about • [Link]
an imaginary centerline, as shown in Figure 76. In any • [Link]
kind of title, the most important words are given most
prominence by making the lettering larger, heavier, or To find other sites like these, use keywords like
both. Other data, such as scale and date, can be smaller. reprographic supplies or engineering type fonts.

KEY WORDS
CAD IRREGULAR CURVE OBLIQUE SERIF
SCALE LINE TYPE GRID PAPER INCLINED
ALPHABET OF LINES HORIZONTAL HIDDEN LINES STABILITY
PARALLEL DIAMETER CENTER LINES SPACING
VERTICAL TEMPLATE SHADING GUIDELINES
RADIUS COMPASS SKETCH TITLE BLOCK
DRAWING MEDIA DIVIDERS PROPORTIONS KERNED PAIRS
PROTRACTOR PERPENDICULAR LETTERING
TRIANGLE FREEHAND SKETCH GOTHIC
T-SQUARE CONSTRUCTION LINES ROMAN

80
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ An understanding of the basic principles of drawing is ■ Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a
required to draw either with a pencil or with CAD software. drawing problem. It is an effective way of communicating
■ The line weight (thickness) and type (dashed or solid) has with all members of the design team.
specific meaning in all technical drawings. This is called ■ There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles,
the alphabet of lines and is essential knowledge for every and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they
drafter. become second nature.
■ Both CAD and traditional drawing have specific meth- ■ Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at
ods for drawing lines, arcs, and circles. Proper under- arms length is an easy method for estimating proportion-
standing of the elements of this basic geometry is al size.
essential for both mechanical and CAD drawing. ■ Using a grid makes sketching in proportion an easy task.
■ Every drawing tool, including every CAD software pro- Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square
gram, requires careful study of the tools and procedures grid and isometric grid.
for using the tools. Proper use of each tool facilitates the ■ You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locat-
creation of neat, accurate drawings. Improper use of a ing the four tangent points where the circle touches the
tool creates sloppy, inaccurate drawings. square.
■ The proper sizing of a drawing requires complete under- ■ A sketched line does not need to look like a mechanical
standing of the use of scales. Paper drawings are scaled line. The main distinction between instrumental drawing
before they are drawn. CAD drawings are scaled when and freehand sketching is the character or technique of
they are printed. the line work.
■ Complex circles and arcs are difficult to draw using either ■ Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not nec-
CAD software or a mechanical compass. The prescribed essarily to a particular scale.
techniques for either tool require understanding of the ■ Notes and dimensions are added to sketches using upper-
proper technique and practice with the appropriate tool. case letters drawn by hand.
■ There are many drawing and printing media used in the ■ The standard shapes of letters used in engineering
creation of traditional drawings and the printing of CAD drawing have been developed to be legible and quick to
drawings. Each media type has specific advantages. Draw- produce.
ing and printing media are chosen based on the cost,
durability, image quality, and reproduction capability.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What tools are used to draw straight lines? 10. What are the main advantages of polyester film as a
2. What tools are used to draw arcs and circles? drawing media?

3. Draw the alphabet of lines and label each line. 11. What are the four standard types of projections?
12. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching?
4. Describe the proper technique for erasing a line using
an erasing shield. 13. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or an arc?
5. Why is the pencil pulled and never pushed when draw- 14. Sketch the alphabet of lines. Which lines are thick?
ing lines? Which are thin? Which are very light and should not
reproduce when copied?
6. Which architects’ scale represents a size ratio of 1:24?
Which metric scale represents a half size? Which engi- 15. What is the advantage of sketching an object first
neering scale would be used for full size? before drawing it using CAD?
16. What is the difference between proportion and scale?
7. Which scale type is the only one to use fractions of an
inch? 17. What font provides the shape of standard engineering
lettering?
8. Is the bevel of a compass lead sharpened on the inside
or outside surface? 18. Describe the characteristics of good freehand lettering.
9. What are the minimum number of points that you 19. Why must guidelines always be used for lettering?
should connect when using an irregular curve? 20. How are sketches used in the design process?

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

DRAWING PROBLEMS
The constructions in Figs. 77 to 87 are to be drawn in Prob. 3 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
pencil on Layout A–2. The steps in drawing this layout are views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 79. Omit all dimensions.
shown in Fig. 43. Draw all construction lines lightly, using Prob. 4 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
a hard lead (4H to 6H), and all required lines dense black figures in pencil, as shown in Fig. 80. Use bow pencil for
with a softer lead (F to H). If construction lines are drawn all arcs and circles within it radius range. Omit all dimen-
properly—that is, lightly—they need not be erased in the sions.
final drawing.
Prob. 5 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
If the layout is to be made on the A4 size sheet, width
views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 81. Use bow pencil for
dimensions for title-strip forms will need to be adjusted to
all arcs and circles within its radius range. Omit all dimen-
fit the available space.
sions.
The pencil drawings of Figs. 82 to 87 should be
done on tracing paper or vellum; then prints should be Prob. 6 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
made to show the effectiveness of the student’s technique. pencil the friction plate in Fig. 82. Omit dimensions and
If ink tracings are required, the originals may be drawn on notes.
film or on detail paper and then traced on vellum or tracing Prob. 7 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
cloth. For any assigned problem, the instructor may require views in pencil of the seal cover in Fig. 83. Omit dimen-
that all dimensions and notes be lettered to afford further sions and notes.
lettering practice. Prob. 8 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen- pencil the Geneva cam in Fig. 84. Omit dimensions and notes.
eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer graph-
ic systems. If a system is available, the instructor may choose Prob. 9 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
to assign specific problems to be completed by this method. accurately in pencil the shear plate in Fig. 85. Give length
of KA. Omit other dimensions and notes.
Prob. 1 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide Prob. 10 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
working space into six equal rectangles and draw visible lines, pencil the ratchet wheel in Fig. 86. Omit dimensions and
as shown in Fig. 77. Draw construction lines AB through notes.
centers C at right angles to required lines; then along each
Prob. 11 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
construction line, set off 0.50– spaces and draw required visi-
pencil the latch plate in Fig. 87. Omit dimensions and notes.
ble lines. Omit dimensions and instructional notes.
Prob. 2 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide
Problems in convenient form for solution may be found in Technical
working space into six equal rectangles and draw lines as Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell, Spencer, Hill,
shown in Fig. 78. In the first two spaces, draw conventional Dygdon, and Novak; Technical Drawing Problems, Series 2, by
lines to match those in Fig. 9. In remaining spaces, locate Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Technical Drawing Prob-
centers C by diagonals, and then work constructions out from lems, Series 3, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; all designed to
them. Omit the metric dimensions and instructional notes. accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

■ FIGURE 77 ■ Using Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted),

divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw
visible lines as shown. Draw construction lines AB
through centers C at right angles to required lines; then
along each construction line, set off 0.50– spaces and
draw required visible lines. Omit dimensions and
instructional notes.

82
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 78 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), divide

working space into six equal rectangles, and draw lines as
shown. In first two spaces, draw conventional lines to match
those in Fig. 9. In remaining spaces, locate centers C by
diagonals, and then work constructions out from them. Omit the
metric dimensions and instructional notes.

■ FIGURE 79 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw

views in pencil as shown. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 80 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw

figures in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles
within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 81 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius
range. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 82 ■ Friction Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 ■ FIGURE 83 ■ Seal Cover. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes. draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

84
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 84 ■ Geneva Cam. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 ■ FIGURE 85 ■ Ratchet Wheel. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes. (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

■ FIGURE 86 ■ Shear Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2

(adjusted), draw accurately in pencil. Give length of KA. Omit other ■ FIGURE 87 ■ Latch Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
dimensions and notes. draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

LETTERING PROBLEMS
Layouts for lettering problems are given in Figs. 88 Prob. 14 As shown in Fig. 90, lay out sheet, add vertical
through 91. Draw complete horizontal and vertical or or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital
inclined guide lines very lightly. Draw the vertical or letters as assigned.
inclined guide lines through the full height of the lettered Prob. 15 As shown in Fig. 91, lay out sheet, add vertical
area of the sheet. For practice in ink lettering, the last two or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital
lines and the title strip on each sheet may be lettered in letters as assigned.
ink, if assigned by the instructor. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 12 As shown in Fig. 88, lay out sheet, add vertical
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital Lettering sheets in convenient form for lettering practice may be
found in Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke,
letters as assigned.
Mitchell, Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; Engineering Drawing
Prob. 13 As shown in Fig. 89, lay out sheet, add vertical Problems, Series 2, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Engi-
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital neering Drawing Problems, Series 3 by Davis and Juneau; all
letters as assigned. designed to accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

85
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 88 ■ Prob. 12. ■ FIGURE 89 ■ Prob. 13.

■ FIGURE 90 ■ Prob. 14. ■ FIGURE 91 ■ Prob. 15.

86
Geometric Constructions

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you All traditional drawing and CAD drawing techniques are based on
should be able to: the construction of basic geometric elements. A point, line, arc, and
1. Identify and draw four different types of circle are the basic elements used to create the most complex draw-
lines. ings. The geometry of drawing is the same for traditional drawing
2. Identify and draw any size angle. and CAD drawing. The drafting student must understand basic geo-
3. Identify and draw four different types metric construction techniques in order to draw on paper or with
of triangles and five types of CAD, or to apply these geometric techniques to solving problems.
parallelograms. Pure geometry problems may be solved with only the compass
4. Identify and draw a regular triangle, and a straightedge, and in some cases these methods may be used to
square, hexagon, and octagon. advantage in technical drawing. However, drafters and designers
5. Divide a space into equal parts; divide have available the T-square, triangles, dividers, and other equip-
an angle in half; divide a line into equal ment, that can often yield accurate results more quickly by what we
parts. may term “preferred methods.” Therefore, many of the solutions in
6. Draw lines and arcs tangent to each this chapter are practical adaptations of the principles of pure
other. geometry.
7. Identify and draw several conic sec- This chapter is designed to present definitions of terms and geo-
tions. metric constructions of importance in technical drawing, suggest sim-
plified methods of construction, point out practical applications, and
8. Define the meaning of a tangent point
and construct its location on any tan- afford opportunity for practice in accurate instrumental drawing.
gent construction.

From Chapter 4 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Points and Lines.

1 ■ POINTS AND LINES

A point represents a location in space or on a drawing
and has no width, height, or depth (Fig. 1). A point is
represented by the intersection of two lines (Fig. 1a),
by a short crossbar on a line (Fig. 1b), or by a small
cross (Fig. 1c). Never represent a point by a simple
dot on the paper.
A line is defined by Euclid as “that which has
length without breadth.” A straight line is the shortest
distance between two points and is commonly referred
to simply as a “line.” If the line is indefinite in extent,
the length is a matter of convenience, and the end-
points are not fixed (Fig. 1d). If the endpoints of the
line are significant, they must be marked by means of
small mechanically drawn crossbars (Fig. 1e). Other ■ FIGURE 2 ■ Angles.
common terms are illustrated in Figs. 1f to 1h.
Either straight lines or curved lines are parallel if the
shortest distance between them remains constant. The
common symbol for parallel lines is ƒ ƒ , and for perpen- The different kinds of angles are illustrated in Fig.
dicular lines it is ⬜ (singular) or ⬜ s (plural). Two per- 2b to 2e. Two angles are complementary (Fig. 2f) if
pendicular lines may be marked with a “box” to they total 90°, and are supplementary (Fig. 2g) if they
indicate perpendicularity, as shown in Fig. 1k. Such total 180°. Most angles used in technical drawing can
symbols may be used on sketches, but not on produc- be drawn easily with the T-square or straightedge and
tion drawings. triangles. To draw odd angles, use a protractor. For con-
siderable accuracy, use a vernier protractor, or the tan-
2 ■ ANGLES gent, sine, or chord methods (§19).
An angle is formed by two intersecting lines. A com-
mon symbol for angle is / (singular) or / s (plural) 3 ■ TRIANGLES
(Fig. 2). A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight
There are 360 degrees (360°) in a full circle, as sides, and the sum of the interior angles is always 180°
shown in Fig. 2a. A degree is divided into 60 minutes (Fig. 3). A right triangle (Fig. 3d) has one 90° angle,
160¿2, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds 160–2. and the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
Thus, 37° 26¿ 10– is read 37 degrees, 26 minutes, and 10 the squares of the two sides (Fig. 3c). As shown in Fig.
seconds. When minutes alone are indicated, the num- 3f, any triangle inscribed in a semicircle is a right tri-
ber of minutes should be preceded by 0°, as in 0° 20¿. angle if the hypotenuse coincides with the diameter.

88
 Geometric Constructions

4 ■ QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four
straight sides (Fig. 4). If the opposite sides are paral-
lel, the quadrilateral is also a parallelogram.

5 ■ POLYGONS
A polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight lines
(Fig. 5). If the polygon has equal angles and equal
sides, it can be inscribed in or circumscribed around a
circle and is called a regular polygon.

6 ■ CIRCLES AND ARCS

A circle is a closed curve, all points of which are the
same distance from a point called the center (Fig. 6a).
Circumference refers to the circle or to the distance
around the circle. This distance equals the diameter
multiplied by p (called pi) or 3.1416. Other definitions
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Triangles. are illustrated in Figs. 6b through 6e.

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Quadrilaterals.

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Regular Polygons.

■ FIGURE 6 ■ The Circle.

89
 Geometric Constructions

7 ■ SOLIDS a square base; and so on. If a portion near the vertex

has been cut off, the pyramid is truncated, or it is
Solids bounded by plane surfaces are called polyhedra referred to as a frustum.
(Fig. 7). The surfaces are called faces, and if the faces A cylinder is generated by a straight line, called the
are equal regular polygons, the solids are called regular generatrix, moving in contact with a curved line and
polyhedra. always remaining parallel to its previous position or to
A prism has two bases, which are parallel equal the axis. Each position of the generatrix is called an ele-
polygons, and three or more lateral faces, which are ment of the cylinder.
parallelograms. A triangular prism has a triangular A cone is generated by a straight line moving in
base; a rectangular prism has rectangular bases; and so contact with a curved line and passing through a fixed
on. If the bases are parallelograms, the prism is a paral- point, the vertex of the cone. Each position of the gen-
lelepiped. A right prism has faces and lateral edges per- eratrix is an element of the cone.
pendicular to the bases; an oblique prism has faces and A sphere is generated by a circle revolving about
laterals edge oblique to the bases. If one end is cut off one of its diameters. This diameter becomes the axis
to form an end and not parallel to the bases, the prism of the sphere, and the ends of the axis are poles of
is said to be truncated. the sphere.
A pyramid has a polygon for a base and triangu- A torus, which is shaped like a doughnut, is gener-
lar lateral faces intersecting at a common point ated by a circle (or other curve) revolving about an axis
called the vertex. The center line from the center of that is eccentric to the curve.
the base to the vertex is the axis. If the axis is per- An oblate or prolate ellipsoid is generated by revolv-
pendicular to the base, the pyramid is a right pyra- ing an ellipse about its minor or major axis, respectively.
mid; otherwise it is an oblique pyramid. A triangular
pyramid has a triangular base; a square pyramid has

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Solids.

90
 Geometric Constructions

Examples of Solids Created with CAD. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

8 ■ BISECTING A LINE OR CIRCULAR ARC 9 ■ BISECTING A LINE

Figure 8a shows the given line or arc AB to be bisected. WITH TRIANGLE AND T-SQUARE
As shown in Fig. 9, from endpoints A and B, draw con-
I. I. From A and B draw equal arcs with radius struction lines at 30°, 45°, or 60° with the given line; then
greater than half AB. through their intersection, C, draw a line perpendicular
II. and III. Join intersections D and E with a straight to the given line to locate the center D, as shown.
line to locate center C.
10 ■ BISECTING AN ANGLE
Figure 10a shows the given angle BAC to be bisected.
■ FIGURE 8 ■ Bisecting a Line or a Circular Arc (§8).
I. Strike large arc R.
II. Strike equal arcs r with radius slightly larger than
half BC, to intersect at D.
III. Draw line AD, which bisects the angle.

11 ■ TRANSFERRING AN ANGLE
Figure 11a shows the given angle BAC to be trans-
ferred to the new position at A¿B¿.

I. Use any convenient radius R, and strike arcs from

centers A and A¿.
II. Strike equal arcs r, and draw side A¿C¿.

12 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH

A POINT AND PARALLEL TO A LINE
With given point P as center, and any convenient radius
R, strike arc CD to intersect the given line AB at E (Fig.
12a). With E as center and the same radius, strike arc

91
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Bisecting a Line with Triangle and T-square (§9).

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Bisecting an Angle (§10).

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Transferring an Angle (§11).

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Drawing a Line Through a Point Parallel to a Line (§12).

R¿ to intersect the given line at G. With PG as radius 13 ■ DRAWING A LINE PARALLEL TO A LINE
and E as center, strike arc r to locate point H. The line AND AT A GIVEN DISTANCE
PH is the required line. Let AB be the line and CD the given distance. As
shown in Fig. 13a, draw two arcs with points E and F
PREFERRED METHOD As shown in Fig. 12b, move the near A and B, respectively, as centers, and CD as radius.
triangle and T-square as a unit until the triangle lines The line GH, tangent to the arcs, is the required line.
up with given line AB; then slide the triangle until its
edge passes through the given point P. Draw CD, the PREFERRED METHOD With any point E of the line as
required parallel line. center and CD as radius, strike an arc JK (Fig. 13b).

92
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Drawing a Line Parallel to a Line at a Given Distance (§13).

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).

Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until the III. Swing scale up until third unit falls on vertical line,
triangle lines up with the given line AB; then slide the and make tiny dots at each point, or prick points
triangle until its edge is tangent to the arc JK, and draw with dividers.
the required line GH. IV. Draw vertical construction lines through each
As shown in Fig. 13c, with centers selected at ran- point.
dom on the curved line AB and with CD as radius, draw
a series of arcs; then draw the required line tangent to Some practical applications of this method are
these arcs. shown in Fig. 16.

14 ■ DIVIDING A LINE INTO EQUAL PARTS

There are two methods for dividing a line into equal
parts. The first method is shown in Fig. 14:

I. Draw a light construction line at any convenient ■ FIGURE 15 ■ Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).
angle from one end of line.
II. With dividers or scale, set off from intersection of
lines as many equal divisions as needed (in this
case, three).
III. Connect last division point to the other end of
line, using triangle and T-square, as shown.
IV. Slide triangle along T-square and draw parallel lines
through other division points, as shown.

The second method for dividing a line into equal

parts is shown in Fig. 15:

I. Draw vertical construction line at one end of

given line.
II. Set zero of scale at other end of line.

93
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Practical Applications of Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).

15 ■ DIVIDING A LINE INTO PROPORTIONAL through O and the points 2 and 5 to divide AB into the
PARTS required proportional parts.
Let it be required to divide the line AB into three parts Given AB, divide into proportional parts, in this case
proportional to 2, 3, and 4. proportional to the square of x, where x = 1, 2, 3, Á
(Fig. 17c). Set zero of scale at end of line and set off
PREFERRED METHOD Draw a vertical line from point B divisions 4, 9, 16, Á . Join the last division to the other
(Fig. 17a). Select a scale of convenient size for a total end of the line, and draw parallel lines as shown. This
of nine units and set the zero of the scale at A. Swing method may be used for any power of x.
the scale up until the ninth unit falls on the vertical line.
Along the scale, set off points for 2, 3, and 4 units, as 16 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH A POINT AND
shown. Draw vertical lines through these points. PERPENDICULAR TO A LINE
Draw a line CD parallel to AB and at any conve- The line AB and a point P (Fig. 18) are given.
nient distance (Fig. 17b). On this line, set off 2, 3, and
4 units, as shown. Draw lines through the ends of the WHEN THE POINT IS NOT ON THE LINE From P, draw any
two lines to intersect at the point O. Draw lines convenient inclined line, as PD (Fig. 18a). Find center

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Dividing a Line into Proportional Parts (§15).

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Drawing a Line Through a Point and Perpendicular to a Line (§16).

94
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Drawing a Triangle with Sides Given (§17).

C of line PD, and draw arc with radius CP. The line EP
is the required perpendicular.
With P as center, strike an arc to intersect AB at C
and D (Fig. 18b). With C and D as centers and radius
slightly greater than half CD, strike arcs to intersect at
E. The line PE is the required perpendicular.

WHEN THE POINT IS ON THE LINE With P as center and any

radius, strike arcs to intersect AB at D and G (Fig.
18c). With D and G as centers and radius slightly
greater than half DG, strike equal arcs to intersect at F. ■ FIGURE 20 ■ Drawing a Right Triangle (§18).
The line PF is the required perpendicular.
As shown in Fig. 18d, select any convenient unit
of length A for example, 6 mm or 14 – B . With P as center
and 3 units as radius, strike an arc to intersect the given 18 ■ DRAWING A RIGHT TRIANGLE WITH
line at C. With P as center and 4 units as radius, strike HYPOTENUSE AND ONE SIDE GIVEN
arc DE. With C as center and 5 units as radius, strike an Given sides S and R (Fig. 20), with AB as a diameter
arc to intersect DE at F. The line PF is the required per- equal to S, draw a semicircle. With A as center and R as
pendicular. radius, draw an arc intersecting the semicircle at C.
This method makes use of the 3–4–5 right triangle Draw AC and CB to complete the right triangle.
and is frequently used in laying off rectangular founda-
tions of large machines, buildings, or other structures.
For this purpose a steel tape may be used and distances
of 30¿, 40¿, and 50¿ measured as the three sides of the 19 ■ LAYING OUT AN ANGLE
right triangle. Many angles can be laid out directly with the triangle,
or they may be laid out with the protractor. Other
PREFERRED METHOD Move the triangle and T-square as methods, for which considerable accuracy is required,
a unit until the triangle lines up with AB (Fig. 18e); are discussed next (Fig. 21).
then slide the triangle until its edge passes through the
point P (whether P is on or off the line), and draw the TANGENT METHOD The tangent of angle u is y>x and
required perpendicular. y = x tan u. To construct the angle, assume a con-
venient value for x, preferably 10 units of convenient
length (Fig. 21a). (The larger the unit, the more
17 ■ DRAWING A TRIANGLE WITH SIDES GIVEN accurate will be the construction.) Find the tangent of
Given the sides A , B, and C, as shown in Fig. 19a: angle u in a table of natural tangents, multiply by 10,
and set off y = 10 tan u.
I. Draw one side, as C, in desired position, and strike
arc with radius equal to side A. EXAMPLE To set off 3112°, find the natural tangent
II. Strike arc with radius equal to side B. of 3112°, which is 0.6128. Then
III. Draw sides A and B from intersection of arcs, as
shown. y = 10 units * 0.6128 = 6.128 units.

95
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Laying Out Angles (§19).

SINE METHOD Draw line x to any convenient length,

preferably 10 units (Fig. 21b). Find the sine of angle u
in a table of natural sines, multiply by 10, and strike arc
R = 10 sin u. Draw the other side of the angle tangent
to the arc, as shown.

EXAMPLE To set off 25 12°, find the natural sine of

25 12°, which is 0.4304. Then

R = 10 units * 0.4305 = 4.305 units.

CHORD METHOD Draw line x to any convenient length,

and draw arc with any convenient radius R—say 10
units (Fig. 21c). Find the chordal length C in a table of
chords (see a machinists’ handbook), and multiply the
value by 10 since the table is made for a radius of 1 unit.

EXAMPLE To set off 43° 20¿, the chordal length C

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Drawing an Equilateral Triangle (§20).
for 1 unit radius, as given in a table of chords, equals
0.7384; and if R = 10 units, then C = 7.384 units.

If a table is not available, the chord C may be cal-

culated by the formula C = 2 sin u>2.
perpendicular at C. With B and C as centers and AB
as radius, strike arcs to intersect at D. Draw lines CD
EXAMPLE Half of 43° 20¿ = 21°40¿. The sine of
and BD.
21° 40¿ = 0.3692. C = 2 * 0.3692 = 0.7384 for a 1
unit radius. For a 10 unit radius, C = 7.384 units.
PREFERRED METHOD One side AB (Fig. 23b) is given.
Using the T-square or parallel straightedge and 45°
20 ■ DRAWING AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE triangle, draw lines AC and BD perpendicular to AB
Side AB is given. With A and B as centers and AB as and the lines AD and BC at 45° with AB. Draw line CD.
radius, strike arcs to intersect at C (Fig. 22a). Draw
lines AC and BC to complete the triangle. PREFERRED METHOD Given the circumscribed circle
(distance “across corners”), draw two diameters at right
PREFERRED METHOD Draw lines through points A and angles to each other (Fig. 23c). The intersections of
B, making angles of 60° with the given line and these diameters with the circle are vertexes of an
intersecting C (Fig. 22b). inscribed square.

PREFERRED METHOD Given the inscribed circle (Fig.

21 ■ DRAWING A SQUARE 23d) (distance “across flats,” as in drawing bolt
One side AB (Fig. 23a) is given. Through point A, heads), use the T-square (or parallel straightedge)
draw a perpendicular (see Fig. 18c). With A as cen- and 45° triangle and draw the four sides tangent to
ter and AB as radius, draw the arc to intersect the the circle.

96
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Drawing a Square (§21).

22 ■ DRAWING A REGULAR PENTAGON 23 ■ DRAWING A HEXAGON

Given the circumscribed circle, do the following: The circumscribed circle (Fig. 25) as given. Each side
of a hexagon is equal to the radius of the circumscribed
PREFERRED METHOD Divide the circumference of the circle (Fig. 25a). Therefore, using the compass or
circle into five equal parts with the dividers, and join dividers and the radius of the circle, set off the six sides
the points with straight lines (Fig. 24a). of the hexagon around the circle, and connect the
points with straight lines. As a check on the accuracy of
GEOMETRICAL METHOD As shown in Fig. 24b: the construction, make sure that opposite sides of the
I. Bisect radius OD at C. hexagon are parallel.
II. With C as center and CA as radius, strike arc AE. PREFERRED METHOD This construction (Fig. 25b) is a
With A as center and AE as radius, strike arc EB. variation of the one shown in Fig. 25a. Draw vertical and
III. Draw line AB; then set off distances AB around the horizontal center [Link] A and B as centers and radius
circumference of the circle, and draw the sides equal to that of the circle, draw arcs to intersect the circle
through these points. at C, D, E, and F, and complete the hexagon as shown.

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Drawing a Pentagon (§22).

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23).

97
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23).

Given the circumscribed circle (distance “across 24 ■ DRAWING AN OCTAGON

corners”) (Figs. 26a and 26b), draw vertical and hori- Given an inscribed circle, or distance “across flats” (Fig.
zontal center lines, and then diagonals AB and CD at 30° 28a), use a T-square or straightedge and a 45° triangle
or 60° with horizontal; finally, with the 30° * 60° trian- to draw the eight sides tangent to the circle, as shown.
gle and the T-square, draw the six sides as shown. Given a circumscribed square, or distance “across
Given the inscribed circle (distance “across flats”) flats” (Fig. 28b), draw diagonals of square; then with
(Figs. 26c and 26d), draw vertical and horizontal the corners of the given square as centers and with half
center lines; then with the 30° * 60° triangle and the the diagonal as radius, draw arcs cutting the sides as
T-square or straightedge, draw the six sides tangent to shown in I. Using a T-square and 45° triangle, draw the
the circle. This method is used in drawing bolt heads eight sides, as shown in II.
and nuts. For maximum accuracy, diagonals may be
added, as in Figs. 26a and 26b.
As shown in Fig. 27, use the 30° * 60° triangle
and the T-square or straightedge; draw lines in the 25 ■ TRANSFERRING PLANE FIGURES BY
order shown in Fig. 27a, where the distance AB GEOMETRIC METHODS
(“across corners”) is given or, as shown in Fig. 27b, TRANSFERRING A TRIANGLE TO A NEW LOCATION Set off any
where a side CD is given. side of the given triangle (Fig. 29a), such as AB, in the
new location (Fig. 29b). With the ends of the line as
centers and the lengths of the other sides of the given
■ FIGURE 27 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23). triangle as radii, strike two arcs to intersect at C. Join C
to A and B to complete the triangle.

TRANSFERRING A POLYGON BY THE TRIANGLE METHOD Divide

the polygon into triangles as shown, and transfer each
triangle as explained previously (Fig. 29c).

TRANSFERRING A POLYGON BY THE RECTANGLE METHOD

Circumscribe a rectangle abut the given polygon (Fig.
29d). Draw a congruent rectangle in the new location
and locate the vertexes of the polygon by transferring
location measurements a, b, c, and so on along the
sides of the rectangle to the new rectangle. Join the
points thus found to complete the figure.

TRANSFERRING IRREGULAR FIGURES Figures composed of

rectangular and circular forms are readily transferred
by enclosing the elementary features in rectangles and
determining centers of arcs and circles (Fig. 29e).
These may then be transferred to the new location.

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Drawing an Octagon (§24). Photo by Laima Druskis.

TRANSFERRING FIGURES BY OFFSET MEASUREMENTS Offset small dot directly over each important point of the
location measurements are frequently useful in drawing. Encircle each dot so it is not lost. Remove the
transferring figures composed of free curves (Fig. 29f). tracing paper, place it over the paper to receive the
When the figure has been enclosed by a rectangle, the transferred drawing, and maneuver the tracing paper
sides of the rectangle are used as reference lines for the into the desired position. With a needle point (such as a
location of points along the curve. point of the dividers), prick through each dot. Remove
the tracing paper and connect the pricked points to
TRANSFERRING FIGURES BY A SYSTEM OF SQUARES Figures reproduce the lines of the original drawing.
involving free curves are easily copied, enlarged, or To reproduce arcs or circles, it is only necessary to
reduced by the use of a system of squares (Fig. 29g). transfer the center and one point on the circumference.
For example, to enlarge a figure to double size, draw To duplicate a free curve, transfer as many pricked
the containing rectangle and all small squares double points on the curve as desired.
their original size. Then draw the lines through the
corresponding points in the new set of squares. TRACING METHOD Lay tracing paper over the drawing
to be transferred, and make a pencil tracing of it. Turn
the tracing paper over and mark over the lines with
26 ■ TRANSFERRING DRAWINGS BY short strokes of a soft pencil to provide a coating of
TRACING-PAPER METHODS graphite over every line. Turn tracing face up and
To transfer a drawing to an opaque sheet, the following fasten in position where drawing is to be transferred.
procedures may be used. Trace over all lines of the tracing, using a hard pencil.
The graphite on the back acts as a carbon paper and
PRICKED-POINT METHOD Lay tracing paper over the will produce dim but definite lines. Heavy in the dim
drawing to be transferred. With a sharp pencil, make a lines to complete the transfer.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Transferring a Plane Figure (§25).

99
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Transferring a Symmetrical Half (§26).

If one half of a symmetrical object has been drawn to the same ratio. Thus, if full-size dimensions are laid
(Fig. 30), such as the ink bottle in I, the other half off along the vertical line, the enlarged dimensions will
may be drawn with the aid of tracing paper, as follows: appear along the horizontal line, as shown.
To enlarge or reduce a rectangle (say, a photo-
I. Trace the half already drawn. graph), a simple method is to use the diagonal, as
II. Turn tracing paper over and maneuver to the position shown in Fig. 31b. A simple method of enlarging or
for the right [Link] trace over the lines freehand or reducing a drawing is to make use of radial lines (Fig.
mark over the lines with short strokes, as shown. 31c). The original drawing is placed underneath a
III. Remove the tracing paper, revealing the dim im- sheet of tracing paper, and the enlarged or reduced
printed lines for the right half. Heavy in these lines drawing is made directly on the tracing paper.
to complete the drawing.
28 ■ DRAWING A CIRCLE THROUGH THREE
27 ■ ENLARGING OR REDUCING A DRAWING POINTS
The construction shown in Fig. 31a is an adaptation I. Let A, B, and C be the three given points not in a
of the parallel-line method (Figs. 12 and 13); it may straight line (Fig. 32a). Draw lines AB and BC,
be used to enlarge or reduce any group of dimensions which will be chords of the circle. Draw perpen-

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Enlarging or Reducing (§27).

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Finding Center of Circle (§§28 and 29).

100
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Drawing a Circle Tangent to a Line (§30).

dicular bisectors EO and DO intersecting at O 31 ■ DRAWING A TANGENT TO A CIRCLE

(see Fig. 8). THROUGH A POINT
II. With center at O, draw required circle through the PREFERRED METHOD Given point P on the circle (Fig.
points. 34a), move the T-square and triangle as a unit until
one side of the triangle passes through the point P and
the center of the circle; then slide the triangle until the
29 ■ FINDING THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE
other side passes through point P, and draw the re-
Draw any chord AB, preferably horizontal as shown quired tangent.
(Fig. 32b). Draw perpendiculars from A and B, cutting Given point P outside the circle (Fig. 34b), move
the circle at D and E. Draw diagonals DB and EA whose the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the
intersection C will be the center of the circle. This triangle passes through point P and, by inspection, is
method uses the principle that any right triangle tangent to the circle; then slide the triangle until the
inscribed in a circle cuts off a semicircle (see Fig. 3f). other side passes through the center of the circle, and
Another method, slightly longer, is to reverse the lightly mark the point of tangency T. Finally, move the
procedure of Fig. 32a. Draw any two nonparallel triangle back to its starting position, and draw the
chords and draw perpendicular bisectors. The intersec- required tangent.
tion of the bisectors will be the center of the circle. In both constructions either triangle may be used.
Also, a second triangle may be used in place of the
30 ■ DRAWING A CIRCLE TANGENT TO A LINE T-square.
AT A GIVEN POINT
Given a line AB and a point P on the line (Fig. 33a): 32 ■ DRAWING TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES
Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until one side
I. At P, erect a perpendicular to the line. of the triangle is tangent, by inspection, to the two cir-
II. Set off the radius of the required circle on the per- cles (Figs. 35a and 35b); then slide the triangle until
pendicular. the other side passes through the center of one circle,
III. Draw a circle with radius CP. and lightly mark the point of tangency. Then slide the

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Drawing a Tangent to a Circle Through a Point (§31).

101
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Drawing Tangents to Two Circles (§32).

triangle until the slide passes through the center of the arc with radius equal to that of the given arc plus R. The
other circle, and mark the point of tangency. Finally, intersection C of the arcs is the center of the required
slide the triangle back to the tangent position, and draw tangent arc.
the tangent lines between the two points of tangency.
Draw the second tangent line in a similar manner.
34 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO
LINES AT RIGHT ANGLES
33 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO A LINE I. Two lines are given at right angles to each other
OR ARC AND THROUGH A POINT (Fig. 37a).
Given line AB, point P, and radius R (Fig. 36a), draw II. With given radius R, strike arc intersecting given
line DE parallel to the given line and distance R from it. lines at tangent points T.
From P draw arc with radius R, cutting line DE at C, the III. With given radius R again, and with points T as
center of the required tangent arc. centers, strike arcs intersecting at C.
Given line AB, with tangent point Q on the line
IV. With C as center and given radius R, draw the re-
and point P (Fig. 36b), draw PQ, which will be a chord
quired tangent arc.
of the required arc. Draw perpendicular bisector DE,
and at Q erect a perpendicular to the line to intersect For small radii, such as 18 R for fillets and rounds, it is
DE at C, the center of the required tangent arc. not practicable to draw complete tangency construc-
Given arc with center Q, point P, and radius R (Fig. tions. Instead, draw a 45° bisector of the angle and locate
36c), from P, strike arc with radius R. From Q, strike the center of the arc by trial along this line (Fig. 37b).

■ FIGURE 36 ■ Tangents (§33).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Drawing a Tangent Arc in a Right Angle (§34).

Note that the center C can be located by inter- 36 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO AN ARC
secting lines parallel to the given lines, as shown in AND A STRAIGHT LINE
Fig. 13b. The circle template can also be used to I. An arc with radius G and a straight line AB (Figs.
draw the arcs R for the parallel line method of Fig. 39a and 39b) are given.
13b. While the circle template is convenient to use for
II. Draw a straight line and an arc parallel, respec-
small radii up to about 58 – or 16 mm, the diameter of
tively, to the given straight line and arc at the
the template circle is precisely equal to twice the
required radius distance R from them, to intersect
required radius.
at C, the required center.
III. From C, drop a perpendicular to the given straight
35 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO line to obtain one point of tangency T. Join the
LINES AT ACUTE OR OBTUSE ANGLES centers C and O with a straight line to locate the
I. Two lines intersecting not making 90° with each other point of tangency T.
other (Fig. 38a and 38b) are given. IV. With center C and given radius R, draw the re-
II. Draw lines parallel to given lines, at distance R quired tangent arc between the points of tan-
from them, to intersect at C, the required center. gency.
III. From C, drop perpendiculars to the given lines,
respectively, to locate tangent points T. 37 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT
IV. With C as center and with given radius R, draw TO TWO ARCS
the required tangent arc between the points of I. Arcs with centers A and B and required radius R
tangency. (Figs. 40a and 40b) are given.

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Drawing Tangent Arcs (§35).

103
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to an Arc and a Straight Line (§36).

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs (§37).

II. With A and B as centers, draw arcs parallel to the radius of small circle) and HK - R (given radius
given arcs and at a distance R from them; their inter- minus radius of large circle) intersecting at G, the
section C is the center of the required tangent arc. center of the required tangent arc. Lines of centers
III. Draw lines of centers AC and AC to locate points GA and GB (extended) determine points of tangency
of tangency T, and draw the required tangent arc T (Fig. 41a).
between the points of tangency, as shown.
REQUIRED ARC ENCLOSES ONE GIVEN ARC With C and D as
centers, strike arcs HK + r (given radius plus radius of
38 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO small circle) and HK - R (given radius minus radius of
ARCS AND ENCLOSING ONE OR BOTH large circle) intersecting at G, the center of the required
REQUIRED ARC ENCLOSES BOTH GIVEN ARCS With A and B tangent arc. Lines of centers GC and GD (extended)
as centers, strike arcs HK + r (given radius minus determine points of tangency T (Fig. 41b).

104
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs and Enclosing One or Both (§38).

43a). At A and B, erect perpendiculars AF and BC.

Draw perpendicular bisectors of AT and BT. The
intersections F and C of these bisectors and the
perpendiculars, respectively, are the centers of the
required tangent arcs.
Let MAB and CD be the two parallel lines, with
point B as one end of the curve and R the given radii (Fig.
43b). At B, erect perpendicular to AB, make BG = R,
■ FIGURE 42 ■ Drawing a Series of Tangent Arcs Conforming to
a Curve (§39). and draw the arc as shown. Draw line SP parallel to CD
at distance R from CD. With center G, draw the arc of
radius 2R, intersecting line SP at O. Draw perpendicular
39 ■ DRAWING A SERIES OF TANGENT ARCS OJ to locate tangent point J, and join centers G and O to
CONFORMING TO A CURVE locate point of tangency T. Using centers G and O and
radius R, draws the two tangent arcs as shown.
First sketch lightly a smooth curve as desired (Fig. 42).
By trial, find a radius R and a center C, producing an arc CONNECTING TWO NONPARALLEL LINES Let AB and CD be
AB that closely follows that portion of the curve. The the two nonparallel lines (Fig. 43c). Erect
successive centers D, E, and so on will be on lines joining perpendicular to AB at B. Select point G on the
the centers with the points of tangency, as shown. perpendicular so that BG equals any desired radius,
and draw the arc as shown. Erect perpendicular to CD
at C and make CE = BG. Join G to E and bisect it. The
40 ■ DRAWING AN OGEE CURVE intersection F of the bisector and the perpendicular
CONNECTING TWO PARALLEL LINES Let NA and BM be the CE, extended, is the center of the second arc. Join
two parallel lines. Draw AB, and assume inflection centers of the two arcs to locate tangent point T, the
point T (at midpoint if two equal arcs are desired) (Fig. inflection point of the curve.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Drawing an Ogee Curve (§40).

105
 Geometric Constructions

shorter than the given arc AB. If the angle subtended by

each division is 10°, the error is approximately 1 in 830.*

43 ■ SETTING OFF A GIVEN LENGTH ALONG

A GIVEN ARC
To transfer distances from the tangent line to the arc,
reverse the preceding method (Fig. 45c).
To set off the length BC along the arc BA, draw BC
■ FIGURE 44 ■ Drawing Two Curves Tangent to Three
tangent to the arc at B (Fig. 45d). Divide BC into four
Intersecting Lines (§41).
equal parts. With center at 1, the first division point, and
radius 1–C, draw the arc CA. The arc BA is practically
equal to BC for angles less than 30°. For 45° the difference
41 ■ DRAWING A CURVE TANGENT TO THREE is approximately 1 in 3232, and for 60° it is about 1 in 835.
INTERSECTING LINES
Let AB, BC, and CD be the given lines (Fig. 44a and 44 ■ THE CONIC SECTIONS
44b). Select point of tangency P at any point on line
The conic sections are curves produced by planes inter-
BC. Make BT equal to BP, and CS equal to CP, and
secting a right circular cone (Fig. 46). Four types of
erect perpendiculars at the points P, T, and S. Their
curves are produced: the circle, ellipse, parabola, and
intersections O and Q are the centers of the required
hyperbola, according to the position of the planes, as
tangent arcs.
shown. These curves were studied in detail by the
ancient Greeks and are of great interest in mathemat-
42 ■ RECTIFYING A CIRCULAR ARC ics, as well as in technical drawing. For equations, see
To rectify an arc is to lay out its true length along a any text on analytic geometry.
straight [Link] constructions are approximate, but well
within the range of accuracy of drawing instruments. 45 ■ ELLIPSE CONSTRUCTION
TO RECTIFY A QUADRANT OF A CIRCLE, AB Draw AC The long axis of an ellipse is the major axis and the short
tangent to the circle BC at 60° to AC, as shown (Fig. axis is the minor axis (Fig. 47a). The foci E and F are
45a). The line AC is almost equal to the arc AB; the found by striking arcs with radius equal to half the major
difference in length is about 1 in 240. axis and with center at the end of the minor axis. Anoth-
er method is to draw a semicircle with the major axis as
TO RECTIFY ARC, AB Draw tangent at B (Fig. 45b). diameter, and then to draw GH parallel to the major axis
Draw chord AB and extend it to C, making BC equal to and GE and HF parallel to the minor axis as shown.
half AB. With C as center and radius CA, strike the arc An ellipse is generated by a point moving so that
AD. The tangent BD is slightly shorter than the given the sum of its distances from two points (the foci) is con-
arc AB. For an angle of 45° the difference in length is stant and equal to the major axis. As shown in Fig. 47b,
about 1 in 2866. an ellipse may be constructed by placing a looped string
Use the bow dividers and, beginning at A, set off
equal distances until the division point nearest B is *If the angle u subtending an arc of radius R is known, the length of
reached (Fig. 45c). At this point, reverse the direction the arc is
and set off an equal number of distances along the tan- u
2pR = 0.01745Ru.
gent to determine point C. The tangent BC is slightly 360°

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Rectifying Circular Arcs

(§§42 and 43).

106
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Conic Sections (§44).

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Ellipse Constructions (§45).

around the foci E and F and around C, one end of the left more closely), equal to the number of points
minor axis, and moving the pencil point P along its max- desired in each quadrant of the ellipse. In this
imum orbit while the string is kept taut. figure, five points were deemed sufficient. For
large ellipses, more points should be used—
46 ■ DRAWING A FOCI ELLIPSE enough to ensure a smooth, accurate curve.
Begin construction with any one of these points,
Let AB be the major axis and CD the minor axis (Fig.
such as 3. With E and F as centers and radii A–3
48). This method is the geometrical counterpart of
and B–3, respectively (from the ends of the
the pin-and-string method. Keep the construction very
major axis to point 3), strike arcs to intersect at
light, as follows:
four points 3¿, as shown. Using the remaining
I. To find foci E and F, strike arcs R with radius equal points 1, 2, 4, and 5, for each find four addition-
to half the major axis and with centers at the ends al points on the ellipse in the same manner.
of the minor axis. III. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points; then
II. Between E and O on the major axis, mark at ran- heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an irregu-
dom a number of points (spacing those on the lar curve.

■ FIGURE 48 ■ Drawing a Foci Ellipse (§46).

107
 Geometric Constructions

Graphics
Spotlight Virtual Reality on the PC
At DaimlerChrysler, an investment of somewhere in the now able to run on inexpensive PCs using the standard
region of 20 million eurodollars was required to produce systems Windows NT and Linux.
DB View—a visualization program developed by Daimler- Various business units at DaimlerChrysler are already
Chrysler scientists at the Virtual Reality Competence Cen- successfully using the virtual reality tool in a range of appli-
ter. The center is located at the company’s research center cations, including equipment texts and vehicle ergonomics.
in the German city of Ulm. One of the main benefits so far has been shorter develop-
In the end, all of the cost and effort was more than ment times.
worth it, however, since use of the program by 140 Daim-
lerChrysler employees is now leading to a reduction in
product development times.
What’s more, the program is now being marketed by
Debis IT Systems under the name Virtual Product Explorer
(VPE). In addition, Debis IT Systems is responsible for pro-
viding training and product support. The company also
handles errors and deals with individual requirements.
External users can therefore also profit from the 3D dis-
play program. VPE not only visually depicts design data,
but it can also be used to display airflow or temperature
distribution, thereby enabling the testing of vehicle comfort
to be simulated on a computer. A major advantage of the
system is that while the program originally required expen-
sive high-performance computers, most applications are Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler AG.

47 ■ DRAWING A TRAMMEL ELLIPSE trammel distances equal to the semimajor (AC or BC)
and semiminor (DC or EC) axes. With the short tram-
A “long trammel” or a “short trammel” may be pre-
mel, these distances overlap; with the long trammel they
pared from a small strip of stiff paper or thin cardboard
are end to end. To use either method, place the trammel
(Fig. 49). In both cases, set off on the edge of the
so that two of the points are on the respective axes, as
shown; the third point will then be on the curve and can
■ FIGURE 49 ■ Drawing a Trammel Ellipse (§47). be marked with a small dot. Find additional points by
moving the trammel to other positions, always keeping
the two points exactly on the respective axes. Extend
the axes to use the long trammel. Find enough points to
ensure a smooth and symmetrical ellipse. Sketch the
ellipse lightly through the points; then heavy in the
ellipse with the aid of an irregular curve.

48 ■ DRAWING A CONCENTRIC-CIRCLE
ELLIPSE
If a circle is viewed so that the line of sight is perpendicu-
lar to the plane of the circle, as shown for the silver dollar
in Fig. 50a, the circle will appear as a circle, in true size

108
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Drawing a Concentric-Circle Ellipse (§48).

and shape. If the circle is viewed at an angle, as shown in

Fig. 50b, it will appear as an ellipse. If the circle is viewed
edgewise, it appears as a straight line, as shown in Fig.
50c. The case shown in Fig. 50b is the basis for the con-
struction of an ellipse by the concentric-circle method,
which follows. (Keep the construction very light.)

I. Draw circles on the major and minor axes, using

them as diameters; draw any diagonal XX through
center O. From the points X, where the diagonal ■ FIGURE 51 ■ Oblique-Circle Ellipse (§49).
intersects the large circle, draw lines XE parallel to
the minor axis, and from the points H, where the
diagonal intersects the small circle, draw lines HE ter at C and radius CA, draw a circle; draw the diame-
parallel to the major axis. The intersections E are ter GF perpendicular to AB, and draw lines joining
points on the ellipse. Two additional points, S and points D and F and points G and E.
R, can be found by extending lines XE and HE, giv- Assume that the required ellipse is an oblique pro-
ing a total of four points from the one diagonal jection of the circle just drawn; the points D and E of
XX. the ellipse are the oblique projections of the points F
and G of the circle, respectively; similarly, the points P
II. Draw as many additional diagonals as needed to
and Q are the oblique projections of the points R and S,
provide a sufficient number of points for a smooth
respectively. The points P and Q are determined by
and symmetrical ellipse, each diagonal accounting
assuming point X at any point on AB and drawing the
for four points on the ellipse. Notice that where
lines RS and PQ and RP and SQ, parallel, respectively,
the curve is sharpest (near the ends of the ellipse),
to GF and DE and FD and GE.
the points are constructed closer together to
Determine at least five points in each quadrant
determine the curve better.
(more for larger ellipses) by assuming additional points
III. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points, and on the major axis and proceeding as explained for
then heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an ir- point X. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points;
regular curve.† then heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an irregu-
lar curve.
49 ■ DRAWING AN ELLIPSE ON CONJUGATE
DIAMETERS: THE OBLIQUE-CIRCLE METHOD 50 ■ DRAWING A PARALLELOGRAM ELLIPSE
Let AB and DE be the given conjugate diameters (Fig. Given the major and minor axes, or the conjugate
51). Two diameters are conjugate when each is parallel diameters AB and CD, draw a rectangle or parallel-
to the tangents at the extremities of the other. With cen- ogram with sides parallel to the axes, respectively (Fig.
52a and 52b). Divide AO and AJ into the same
†In Fig. 50, part I, the ordinate EZ of the ellipse is to the corre- number of equal parts, and draw light lines through
sponding ordinate XZ of the circle as b is to a, where b represents the
semi-minor axis and a the semimajor axis. Thus, the area of the ellipse
these points from the ends of the minor axis, as shown.
is equal to the area of the circumscribed circle multiplied by b/a; The intersection of like-numbered lines will be points
hence, it is equal to pab. on the ellipse. Locate points in the remaining three

109
 Geometric Constructions

intersect at center O as shown. The axes are then found

as shown in Fig. 53a.
Conjugate diameters AB and CD only are given
(Fig. 53c). With O as center and CD as diameter,
draw a circle. Through center O and perpendicular to
CD, draw line EF. From points E and F, where this per-
pendicular intersects the circle, draw lines FA and EA to
form angle FAE. Draw the bisector AG of this angle.
The major axis JK will be parallel to this bisector, and
the minor axis LM will be perpendicular to it. The
length AH will be one half the major axis, and HF one
half the minor axis. The resulting major and minor axes
are JK and LM, respectively.

52 ■ DRAWING A TANGENT TO AN ELLIPSE

CONCENTRIC-CIRCLE CONSTRUCTION To draw a tangent at
any point on an ellipse, such as E, draw the ordinate at
E to intersect the circle at V (Fig. 54a). Draw a
tangent to the circumscribed circle at V (§31), and
■ FIGURE 52 ■ Parallelogram Ellipse (§50). extend it to intersect the major axis extended at G. The
line GE is the required tangent.
To draw a tangent from a point outside the ellipse,
quadrants in a similar manner. Sketch the ellipse light- such as P, draw the ordinate PY and extend it. Draw
ly through the points; then heavy in the final ellipse DP, intersecting the major axis at X. Draw FX and
with the aid of an irregular curve. extend it to intersect the ordinate through P at Q.
Then, from similar triangles QY:PY = OF:OD. Draw a
51 ■ FINDING THE AXES OF AN ELLIPSE WITH tangent to the circle from Q, (§31), find the point of
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS GIVEN tangency R, and draw the ordinate at R to intersect the
ellipse at Z. The line ZP is the required tangent. As a
Conjugate diameters AB and CD and the ellipse are check on the drawing, the tangents RQ and ZP should
given (Fig. 53a). With intersection O of the conjugate intersect at a point on the major axis extended. Two
diameters (center of ellipse) as center, and any conve- tangents to the ellipse can be drawn from point P.
nient radius, draw a circle to intersect the ellipse in four
points. Join these points with straight lines, as shown; FOCI CONSTRUCTION To draw a tangent at any point on
the resulting quadrilateral will be a rectangle whose the ellipse, such as point 3, draw the focal radii E–3 and
sides are parallel, respectively, to the required major F–3, extend one, and bisect the exterior angle, as shown
and minor axes. Draw the axes EF and GH parallel to in Fig. 54b. The bisector is the required tangent.
the sides of the rectangle. To draw a tangent from any point outside the
An ellipse only is given (Fig. 53b). To find the ellipse, such as point P, with center at P and radius PF,
center of the ellipse, draw a circumscribing rectangle or strike an arc as shown. With center at E and radius AB,
parallelogram about the ellipse; then draw diagonals to strike an arc to intersect the first arc at points U. Draw

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Finding the Axes of an

Ellipse (§51).

110
 Geometric Constructions

found to be about 49°; hence the 50° ellipse template is

indicated. Ellipse templates are generally available in
ellipse angles at 5° intervals, such as 15°, 20°, and 25°.
The 50° template provides a variety of sizes of 50°
ellipses, and it is only necessary to select the one that
fits. If the ellipse angle is not easily determined, you can
always look for the ellipse that is approximately as long
and as “fat” as the ellipse to be drawn.
A simple construction for finding the ellipse angle
when the views are not available is shown in Fig. 55c.
Using center O, strike arc BF; then draw CE parallel to
the major axis. Draw diagonal OE, and measure angle
EOB with a protractor. Use the ellipse template nearest
to this angle; in this case a 35° template is selected.
Since it is not feasible to have ellipse openings for
every exact size that may be required, it is often neces-
sary to use the template somewhat in the manner of an
irregular curve. For example, if the opening is too long
and too “fat” for the required ellipse, one end may be
drawn and then the template may be shifted slightly to
draw the other end. Similarly, one long side may be
■ FIGURE 54 ■ Tangents to an Ellipse (§52). drawn and then the template may be shifted slightly to
draw the opposite side. In such cases, leave gaps between
the lines EU to intersect the ellipse at the points Z. The the four segments, to be filled in freehand or with the aid
lines PZ are the required tangents. of an irregular curve. When the differences between the
ellipse openings and the required ellipse are small, it is
only necessary to lean the pencil slightly outward or
53 ■ ELLIPSE TEMPLATES inward from the guiding edge to offset the differences.
To save time in drawing ellipses and to ensure uniform For inking the ellipses, a technical fountain pen with a
results, ellipse templates are often used (Fig. 55a). “0” or “00” size designation is recommended (Fig. 55d).
These are plastic sheets with elliptical openings in a
wide variety of sizes, and they usually come in sets of
six or more sheets. 54 ■ DRAWING AN APPROXIMATE ELLIPSE
Ellipse guides are usually designated by the ellipse For many purposes, particularly where a small ellipse is
angle, the angle at which a circle is viewed to appear as required, the approximate circular-arc method is per-
an ellipse. In Fig. 55b, the angle between the line of fectly satisfactory (Fig. 56). Such an ellipse is sure to
sight and the edge view of the plane of the circle is be symmetrical and may be quickly drawn.

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Using the Ellipse Template (§53).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Drawing an Approximate Ellipse (§54).

Given axes AB and CD, A tangent to the parabola at any point G bisects
the angle formed by the focal line FG and the line SG
I. Draw line AC. With O as center and OA as radius,
perpendicular to the directrix.
strike the arc AE. With C as center and CE as
Given the rise and span of the parabola (Fig. 57c),
radius, strike the arc EF.
divide AO into any number of equal parts, and divide AD
II. Draw perpendicular bisector GH of the line AF; into a number of equal parts amounting to the square of
the points K and J, where it intersects the axes, are that number. From line AB, each point on the parabola is
centers of the required arcs. offset by a number of units equal to the square of the
III. Find centers M and L by setting off OL = OK and number of units from point O. For example, point 3 pro-
OM = OJ. Using centers K, L, M, and J, draw cir- jects 9 units (the square of 3). This method is generally
cular arcs as shown. The points of tangency T are at used for drawing parabolic arches.
the junctures of the arcs on the lines joining the
centers.
■ FIGURE 57 ■ Drawing a Parabola (§55).
55 ■ DRAWING A PARABOLA
The curve of intersection between a right circular cone
and a plane parallel to one of its elements, is a parabola
(see Fig. 46d). The parabola is used to reflect surfaces
for light and sound, for vertical curves in highways, for
forms of arches, and approximately for forms of the
curves of cables for suspension bridges. It is also used to
show the bending moment at any point on a uniformly
loaded beam or girder.
A parabola is generated by a point moving so that
its distances from a fixed point, the focus, and from a
fixed line, the directrix, remain equal.
Focus F and directrix AB are given. A parabola may
be generated by a pencil guided by a string (Fig. 57a).
Fasten the string at F and C; its length is GC. The point
C is selected at random; its distance from G depends on
the desired extent of the curve. Keep the string taut and
the pencil against the T-square, as shown.
Given focus F and directrix AB, draw a line DE par-
allel to the directrix and at any distance CZ from it (Fig.
57b). With center at F and radius CZ, strike arcs to
intersect the line DE in the points Q and R, which are
points on the parabola. Determine as many additional
points as are necessary to draw the parabola accurate-
ly, by drawing additional lines parallel to line AB and
proceeding in the same manner.

112
 Geometric Constructions

56 ■ JOINING TWO POINTS

BY A PARABOLIC CURVE
Let X and Y be the given points (Fig. 59). Assume any
point O, and draw tangents XO and YO. Divide XO and
YO into the same number of equal parts, number the divi-
sion points as shown, and connect corresponding points.
These lines are tangents of the required parabola and
form its envelope. Sketch a light smooth curve, and then
heavy in the curve with the aid of an irregular curve.
These parabolic curves are more pleasing in appear-
ance than circular arcs and are useful in machine design.
■ FIGURE 58 ■ Drawing a Parabola (§55). If the tangents OX and OY are equal, the axis of the
parabola will bisect the angle between them.

To find the focus, F, given points P, R, and V of a 57 ■ DRAWING A HYPERBOLA

parabola (Fig. 57d), draw a tangent at P, making The curve of intersection between a right circular cone
a = b. Draw perpendicular bisector of AP, which inter- and a plane making an angle with the axis smaller than
sects the axis at F, the focus of the parabola. that made by the elements is a hyperbola (see Fig.
Draw a parabola given rectangle or parallelogram 46e). A hyperbola is generated by a point moving so
ABCD (Figs. 58a and 58b). Divide BC into any even that the difference of its distances from two fixed
number of equal parts, divide the sides AB and DC points, the foci is constant and equal to the transverse
each into half as many parts, and draw lines as shown. axis of the hyperbola.
The intersections of like-numbered lines are points on Let F and F¿ be the foci and AB the transverse axis
the parabola. (Fig. 60a). The curve may be generated by a pencil

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Parabolic Curves (§56).

■ FIGURE 60 ■ Drawing a Hyperbola (§57).

113
 Geometric Constructions

guided by a string, as shown. Fasten a string at F¿ and hyperbola is extended to intersect the axes, the inter-
C; its length is FC minus AB. The point C is chosen at cepts between the curve and the axes are equal (Fig.
random; its distance from F depends on the desired 61a). For example, a chord through given point P
extent of the curve. intersects the axes at points 1 and 2, intercepts P–1 and
Fasten the straightedge at F. If it is revolved about 2–3 are equal, and point 3 is a point on the hyperbola.
F, with the pencil point moving against it and with the Likewise, another chord through P provides equal
string taut, the hyperbola may be drawn as shown. intercepts P–1¿ and 3¿ –2¿, and point 3¿ is a point on
To construct the curve geometrically, select any the curve. Not all chords need be drawn through given
point X on the transverse axis produced (Fig. 60b). point P, but as new points are established on the curve,
With centers at F and F¿ and BX as radius, strike the chords may be drawn through them to obtain more
arcs DE. With the same centers, F and F¿, and AX as points. After enough points are found to ensure an
radius, strike arcs to intersect the arcs first drawn in the accurate curve, the hyperbola is drawn with the aid of
points Q, R, S, and T, which are points of the required an irregular curve.
hyperbola. Find as many additional points as are neces- In an equilateral hyperbola, the coordinates are
sary to draw the curves accurately by selecting other related so their products remain constant. Through
points similar to point X along the transverse axis and given point P, draw lines 1–P–Y and 2–P–Z parallel,
proceeding as described for point X. respectively, to the axes (Fig. 61b). From the origin of
To draw the tangent to a hyperbola at a given point coordinates O, draw any diagonal intersecting these
P, bisect the angle between the focal radii FP and F¿P. two lines at points 3 and X. At these points draw lines
The bisector is the required tangent. parallel to the axes, intersecting at point 4, a point on
To draw the asymptotes HCH of the hyperbola, the curve. Likewise, another diagonal from O inter-
draw a circle with the diameter FF¿ and erect perpen- sects the two lines through P at points 8 and Y, and
diculars to the transverse axis at the points A and B to lines through these points parallel to the axes intersect
intersect the circle in the points H. The lines HCH are at point 9, another point on the curve. A third diagonal
the required asymptotes. similarly produces point 10 on the curve, and so on.
Find as many points as necessary for a smooth curve,
and draw the parabola with the aid of an irregular
58 ■ DRAWING AN EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA curve. It is evident from the similar triangles O–X–5
Let the asymptotes OB and OA, at right angles to each and O–3–2 that lines P–1 * P–2 = 4–5 * 4–6.
other, and the point P on the curve be given (Fig. 61). The equilateral hyperbola can be used to represent
In an equilateral hyperbola, the asymptotes, which varying pressure of a gas as the volume varies, since the
are at right angles to each other, may be used as the pressure varies inversely with the volume; that is,
axes to which the curve is referred. If a chord of the pressure * volume is constant.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Equilateral Hyperbola (§58).

114
 Geometric Constructions

to the circumference of the cylinder. Such a helix,

therefore, can be defined as the shortest line that can
be drawn on the surface of a cylinder connecting two
points not on the same element.
To draw the helix, draw two views of the cylinder
on which the helix is generated (Fig. 63b). Divide the
circle of the base into any number of equal parts. On
the rectangular view of the cylinder, set off the lead and
divide it into the same number of equal parts as the
base. Number the divisions as shown (in this case 16).
When the generating point has moved one sixteenth of
■ FIGURE 62 ■ Spiral of Archimedes (§59).
the distance around the cylinder, it will have risen one
sixteenth of the lead; when it has moved halfway
around the cylinder, it will have risen half the lead; and
59 ■ DRAWING A SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES
so on. Points on the helix are found by projecting up
To find points on the curve, draw lines through the pole from point 1 in the circular view to line 1 in the rectan-
C, making equal angles with each other, such as 30° gular view, from point 2 in the circular view to line 2 in
angles (Fig. 62). Beginning with any one line, set off the rectangular view, and so on.
1
any distance, such as 2 mm or 16 – ; set off twice that dis- Figure 63b is a right-hand helix. In a left-hand helix
tance on the next line, three times on the third, and so (Fig. 63c), the visible portions of the curve are inclined
on. Through the points thus determined, draw a in the opposite direction—that is, downward to the right.
smooth curve, using irregular curve. The helix shown in Fig. 63b can be converted into a left-
hand helix by interchanging the visible and hidden lines.
60 ■ DRAWING A HELIX The helix finds many applications in industry, as in
A helix is generated by a point moving around and screw threads, worm gears, conveyors, spiral stairways,
along the surface of a cylinder or cone with a uniform and so [Link] stripes of a barber pole are helical in form.
angular velocity about the axis, and with a uniform lin- The construction for a right-hand conical helix is
ear velocity about the axis, and with a uniform velocity shown in Fig. 63d.
in the direction of the axis (Fig. 63). A cylindrical
helix is generally known simply as a helix. The distance 61 ■ DRAWING AN INVOLUTE
measure parallel to the axis traversed by the point in An involute is the path of a point on a string as the
one revolution is called the lead. string unwinds from a line, polygon, or circle.
If the cylindrical surface on which a helix is gener-
ated is rolled out onto a plane, the helix becomes a TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A LINE Let AB be the given
straight line (Fig. 63a). The portion below the helix line. With AB as radius and B as center, draw the
becomes a right triangle, the altitude of which is equal semicircle AC (Fig. 64a). With AC as radius and A as
to the lead of the helix; the length of the base is equal center, draw the semicircle CD. With BD as radius and

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Helix (§60).

115
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 64 ■ Involutes (§61).

B as center, draw the semicircle DE. Continue similarly, to the semicircumference of the circle (see Fig. 45e).
alternating centers between A and B, until a figure of Divide these distances and the semicircumference into
the required size is completed. the same number of equal parts (six, for instance) and
number them consecutively, as shown. Suppose the cir-
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A TRIANGLE Let ABC be the cle rolls to the left; when point 1 of the circle reaches
given triangle. With CA as radius and C as center, point 1¿ of the line, the center of the circle will be at D,
strike the arc AD (Fig. 64b). With BD as radius and B point 7 will be the highest point of the circle, and the
as center, strike the arc DE. With AE as radius and A as generating point 6 will be at the same distance from the
center, strike the arc EF. Continue similarly until a line AB as point 5 is when the circle is in its central posi-
figure of the required size is completed. tion. Hence, to find the point P¿, draw a line through
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A SQUARE Let ABCD be the point 5 parallel to AB and intersect it with an arc drawn
given square. With DA as radius and D as center, draw from the center D with a radius equal to that of the cir-
the 90° arc AE (Fig. 64c). Proceed as for the involute of cle. To find point P–, draw a line through point 4 paral-
a triangle until a figure of the required size is completed. lel to AB, and intersect it with an arc drawn from the
center E, with a radius equal to that of the circle. Points
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE A circle may be J, K, and L are found in a similar manner.
regarded as a polygon with an infinite number of sides Another method that may be employed is shown
(Fig. 64d). The involute is constructed by dividing the in the right half of Fig. 64. With center at 11¿ and the
circumference into a number of equal parts, drawing a chord 11–6 as radius, strike an arc. With 10¿ as center
tangent at each division point, setting off along each and the chord 10–6 as radius, strike an arc. Continue
tangent the length of the corresponding circular arc similarly with centers 9¿, 8¿, and 7¿. Draw the required
(see Fig. 45c), and drawing the required curve cycloid tangent to these arcs.
through the points set off on the several tangents. Either method may be used; however, the second
An involute can be generated by a point on a is the shorter one and is preferred. It is evident, from
straight line that is rolled on a fixed circle (Fig. 64e). the tangent arcs drawn in the manner just described,
Points on the required curve may be determined by set- that the line joining the generating point and the point
ting off equal distances 0–1, 1–2, 2–3, and so on, along of contact for the generating circle is a normal of the
the circumference, drawing a tangent at each division cycloid. The lines 1¿ –P– and 2¿P¿, for instance, are nor-
point, and proceeding as explained for Fig. 64d. mals; this property makes the cycloid suitable for the
The involute of a circle is used in the construction outlines of gear teeth.
of involute gear teeth. In this system, the involute
forms the face and a part of the flank of the teeth of
gear wheels; the outlines of the teeth of racks are ■ FIGURE 65 ■ Cycloid (§62).
straight lines.

62 ■ DRAWING A CYCLOID
A cycloid is generated by a point P in the circumference
of a circle that rolls along a straight line (Fig. 65).
Given the generating circle and the straight line AB
tangent to it, make the distances CA and CB each equal

116
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Epicycloid and Hypocycloid (§63).

63 ■ DRAWING AN EPICYCLOID OR A 64 ■ COMPUTER GRAPHICS

HYPOCYCLOID Through the use of various application programs and
If the generating point P is on the circumference of a routines available in computer graphics, it is possible to
circle that rolls along the convex side of a larger circle, establish accurately the various geometric construc-
the curve generated is an epicycloid (Fig. 66a). If the tions shown in this chapter. CAD programs are particu-
circle rolls along the concave side of a larger circle, the larly well suited for repetitive operations, such as
curve generated is a hypocycloid (Fig. 66b). These dividing a line into a number of equal parts, and for
curves are drawn in a manner similar to the cycloid generating lines representing mathematical curves,
(Fig. 65). Like the cycloid, these curves are used to such as the hyperbola and parabola. Examples of
form the outlines of certain gear teeth and are, there- CAD-produced geometric shapes and surfaces are
fore, of practical importance in machine design. shown in Fig. 67.

■ FIGURE 67 ■ Geometric Shapes and Surfaces Produced with TRI-CAD System. Courtesy of Lodgrafix, Inc. (§64).

117
 Geometric Constructions

KEY WORDS
POINT BISECT CIRCLE
CENTER
ARC CONSTRUCTION LINES TANGENT POINT
DIAMETER
TANGENT RADIUS PERPENDICULAR
RIGHT ANGLE
PARALLEL CONCENTRIC REGULAR POLYGON
POLYGON LINE CONIC SECTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Understanding basic geometric construction techniques point, line, arc, or circle needs to be drawn, and more
is fundamental to the success of both traditional drawing importantly, how to draw it. A poor paper drafter will
and CAD drawing. most likely be a poor CAD drafter.
■ All drawings are made up of points, lines, arcs, and circles ■ One of the more difficult types of geometric construction
drawn at various sizes and constructed in specific location is tangencies. There are many different types of tangen-
to each other. Geometric construction cannot be approx- cies and each requires a special drawing technique.
imated. ■ Knowing when to draw a line parallel or perpendicular
■ Every point, line, arc and circle must be precisely located. to another line is an important part of geometric con-
CAD cannot draw correctly if you cannot tell the pro- struction.
gram where you want an element drawn. ■ Unless the drafter knows the basics of geometric con-
■ The advantage that CAD provides in geometric construc- struction, it will be difficult to create a drawing using
tion is drawing precision. Only the drafter knows where a either instruments or CAD.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the four basic conic sections and how are they 6. Draw a regular square, hexagon, and octagon so that the
cut from a cone? distance from flat to flat is 2 inches.
2. How can you divide a line into equal parts? A space 7. List the different methods for drawing an approxima-
into equal parts? tion of an ellipse. Pick one and draw an ellipse with a
3. How many ways can an arc be tangent to one line? To major diameter of 6 inches and a minor diameter of 3
two lines? To a line and an arc? To two arcs? Draw an inches.
example of each. 8. Demonstrate the technique for drawing a line parallel
4. Draw an equilateral triangle, a right triangle, and an to a given line using only a pencil, triangle, and straight
isosceles triangle. edge.
5. Given a line, draw another line (1) parallel to the first, 9. Demonstrate the technique for drawing a line perpen-
(2) perpendicular to the first. Then draw a horizontal dicular to a given line using only a pencil, triangle, and
line through the intersection of the lines. Finally, draw a straight edge.
vertical line through the intersection.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS

Geometric constructions should be done very accurately, problems to metric measure. (See decimal and millimeter
using a hard pencil (2H to 4H) with a long, sharp, conical equivalents.)
point. Draw given and required lines dark and medium in Set up each problem so as to make the best use of
thickness, and draw construction lines very light. Do not the space available, to present the problem to best advan-
erase construction lines. Indicate points and lines as tage, and to produce a pleasing appearance. Letter the
described in §1. principal points of all constructions in a manner similar to
In your assignments from the following problems, use the various illustrations in this chapter.
Layout A–2 divided into four parts, as shown in Fig. 68, or Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen-
Layout A4–2 (adjusted). Additional sheets with other prob- eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer graph-
lems selected from Figs. 69–80 and drawn on the same ics systems. If a system is available, your instructor may
sheet layout may be assigned. choose to assign specific problems to be completed by this
Many problems are dimensioned in the metric system. method.
Your instructor may ask you to convert these remaining
The first four problems are shown in Fig. 68.

118
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 68 ■ (Probs. 1–4) Geometric

Constructions. Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted).

Prob. 1 Draw an inclined line AB 65 mm long and bisect Prob. 12 Draw an equilateral triangle having 63.5-mm
it (see Fig. 8). sides (see Fig. 22a). Bisect the interior angles (see Fig.
Prob. 2 Draw any angle with vertex at C. Bisect it (see Fig. 10). Draw the inscribed circle using the intersection of the
10), and transfer one half to a new position at D (see Fig. 11). bisectors as center.
Prob. 13 Draw inclined line TU 55 mm long, and then
Prob. 3 Draw inclined line EF and assume distance
draw a square on TU as a given side (see Fig. 23a).
GH = 42 mm. Draw a line parallel to EF and at the distance
GH from it (see Fig. 13a). Prob. 14 Draw a 54-mm diameter-circle (lightly);
inscribe a square in the circle and circumscribe a square on
Prob. 4 Draw the line JK 95 mm long and divide it into the circle (see Figs. 23c and 23d).
five equal parts using dividers. Draw a line LM 58 mm long
and divide it into three equal parts by the parallel-line Prob. 15 Draw a 65-mm-diameter circle (lightly). Find
method (see Fig. 15). the vertexes of a regular inscribed pentagon (see Fig.
24a), and join the vertexes to form a five-pointed star.
Prob. 5 Draw a line OP 92 mm long and divide it into three
proportional parts to in the ratio of 3 : 5 : 9 (see Fig. 17a). Prob. 16 Draw a 65-mm-diameter circle (lightly).
Inscribe a hexagon (see Fig. 25b), and circumscribe a hexa-
Prob. 6 Draw a line 87 mm long and divide it into parts gon (see Fig. 26d).
proportional to the square of x, where x = 1, 2, 3, and 4 (see
Prob. 17 Draw a square (lightly) with 63.5-mm sides (see
Fig. 17c).
Fig. 23b), and inscribe an octagon (see Fig. 28b).
Prob. 7 Draw a triangle with sides of 76 mm, 85 mm, and Prob. 18 Draw a triangle similar to that in Fig. 29a,
65 mm (see Fig. 19). Bisect the three interior angles (see with sides 50 mm, 38 mm, and 73 mm long. Transfer the tri-
Fig. 10). The bisectors should meet at a point. Draw the angle to a new location and turned 180° similar to that in Fig.
inscribed circle with the point as center. 29b. Check by the pricked-point method (§29).
Prob. 8 Draw a right triangle having a hypotenuse 65 Prob. 19 In the center of your space, draw a rectangle 88
mm and one leg 40 mm (see Figs. 3 and 20), and draw a mm wide and 61 mm high. Show construction for reducing
circle through the three vertexes (see Fig. 32). this rectangle first to 70 mm wide and then to 58 mm wide
Prob. 9 Draw an inclined line QR 84 mm long. Select a (see Fig. 31b).
point P on the line 32 mm from Q, and erect a perpendicular Prob. 20 Draw three points arranged approximately as
(see Fig. 18c). Assume a point S 45.5 mm from the line, and those in Fig. 32a), and draw a circle through the three points.
erect a perpendicular from S to the line (see Fig. 18b).
Prob. 21 Draw a 58-mm-diameter circle. Assume a point
Prob. 10 Draw two lines making an angle of 3512° with S on the left side of the circle and draw a tangent at that
each other using the tangent method (see Fig. 21a). Check point (see Fig. 34a). Assume a point T to the right of the
with a protractor. circle 50 mm from its center. Draw two tangents to the circle
Prob. 11 Draw two lines making an angle of 33° 16¿ with through the point (see Fig. 34b).
each other using the sine method (see Fig. 21b). Check Prob. 22 Draw a horizontal center line through your
with a protractor. space. Then draw two circles with 50-mm-diameter and

119
 Geometric Constructions

38-mm-diameter, respectively, with centers 54 mm apart. Prob. 35 Draw a major axis 102 mm long (horizontally)
Locate the circles so that the construction will be centered and a minor axis 64 mm long, with their intersection at the
in the space. Draw “open-belt” tangents to the circles (see enter of the space. Draw an ellipse by the foci method with
Fig. 35a). at least five points in each quadrant (see Fig. 48).
Prob. 23 Do the same as for Prob. 21 except draw Prob. 36 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
“crossed-belt” tangents to the circle (see Fig. 35b). by the trammel method (see Fig. 49).
Prob. 24 Draw a vertical line VW 33 mm from the left Prob. 37 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
side of your space. Assume point P 44 mm farther to the by the concentric-circle method (see Fig. 50).
right and 25 mm down from top of space. Draw a 56-mm-
Prob. 38 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
diameter circle through P, tangent to VW (see Fig. 36a).
by the parallelogram method (see Fig. 52a).
Prob. 25 Draw a vertical line XY 35 mm from the left
Prob. 39 Draw conjugate diameters intersecting at the
side of your space. Assume point P 44 mm farther to the
center of your space. Draw 88-mm-diameter horizontally,
right and 25 mm down from the top of the space. Assume
and 70-mm-diameter at 60° with horizontal. Draw an oblique-
point Q on line XY and 50 mm from P. Draw a circle through
circle ellipse (see Fig. 51). Find at least five points in each
P and tangent to XY at Q (see Fig. 36b).
quadrant.
Prob. 26 Draw a 64-mm-diameter circle with center C 16
Prob. 40 Draw conjugate diameters as in Prob. 39, and
mm directly to left of center of space. Assume point P at the
draw the ellipse by the parallelogram method (see Fig. 52b).
lower right and 60 mm from C. Draw an arc with 25-mm-
radius through P and tangent to the circle (see Fig. 36c). Prob. 41 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an approx-
Prob. 27 Draw a vertical line and a horizontal line, each imate ellipse (see Fig. 56).
65 mm long (see Fig. 37, part I). Draw an arc with a 38-mm Prob. 42 Draw a parabola with a vertical axis and the
radius, tangent to the lines. focus 12 mm from the directrix (see Fig. 57b). Find at least
Prob. 28 Draw a horizontal line 20 mm up from the bot- nine points on the curve.
tom of your space. Select a point on the line 50 mm from the Prob. 43 Draw a hyperbola with a horizontal transverse
left side of space, and through it draw a line upward to the axis 25 mm long and the foci 38 mm apart (see Fig. 60b).
right at 60° to horizontal. Draw arcs with a 35-mm radius Draw the asymptotes.
within an obtuse angle and acute angle, respectively, tangent Prob. 44 Draw a horizontal line near the bottom of the
to the two lines (see Fig. 38). space, and a vertical line near the left side of the space.
Prob. 29 Draw two intersecting lines making an angle of Assume point P 16 mm to the right of the vertical line and 38
60° with each other similar to Fig. 38a. Assume a point P on mm above the horizontal line. Draw an equilateral hyperbo-
one line at a distance of 45 mm from the intersection. Draw la through P and with reference to the two lines as asymp-
an arc tangent to both lines with one point of tangency at P totes. Use either method shown in Fig. 61.
(see Fig. 33). Prob. 45 Using the center of the space as the pole, draw
Prob. 30 Draw vertical line AB 32 mm from the left side a spiral of Archimedes with the generating point moving in a
of your space. Draw an arc of 42 mm radius with its center 75 counterclockwise direction and away from the pole at the
mm to the right of the line and in the lower right portion of rate of 25 mm in each convolution (see Fig. 62).
your space. Draw an arc of 25 mm radius tangent to AB and
Prob. 46 Through center of your space, draw a horizon-
to the first arc (see Fig. 39).
tal center line, and on it construct a right-hand helix 50 mm
Prob. 31 With centers 20 mm up from the bottom of diameter, 64 mm long, and with a lead of 25 mm (see Fig.
your space and 86 mm apart, draw arcs of radii 44 mm and 24 63). Draw only a half-circular end view.
mm, respectively. Draw an arc of 32 mm radius tangent to
Prob. 47 Draw the involute of an equilateral triangle
the two arcs (see Fig. 40).
with 15-mm sides (see Fig. 64b).
Prob. 32 Draw two circles as in Prob. 22. Draw an arc of
Prob. 48 Draw the involute of a 20-mm-diameter circle
70-mm radius tangent to the upper sides of, and enclosing, the
(see Fig. 64d).
circles (see Fig. 41a). Draw an arc of 50-mm radius tangent to
the circles but enclosing only the smaller circle (see Fig. 41b). Prob. 49 Draw a cycloid generated by a 30-mm-
diameter circle rolling along a horizontal straight line (see
Prob. 33 Draw two parallel inclined lines 45 mm apart.
Fig. 65).
Choose a point on each line and connect them with an ogee
curve tangent to the two parallel lines (see Fig. 43a). Prob. 50 Draw an epicycloid generated by a 38-mm-
Prob. 34 Draw an arc of 54 mm radius that subtends an diameter circle rolling along a circular arc with a radius of 64
angle of 90°. Find the length of the arc by two methods (see mm (see Fig. 66a).
Figs. 45a and 45c). Calculate the length of the arc and Prob. 51 Draw a hypocycloid generated by a 38-mm-
compare with the lengths determined graphically. (See first- diameter circle rolling along a circular arc with a radius of 64
note in §42). mm (see Fig. 66b).

120
 Geometric Constructions

Prob. 52 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 58 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
spanner in Fig. 69. Omit dimensions and notes unless shift lever in Fig. 75. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 53 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 59 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
rocker arm in Fig. 70. Omit dimensions and notes unless gear arm in Fig. 76. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 54 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 60 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
outside caliper in Fig. 71. Omit dimensions and notes form roll lever in Fig. 77. Omit dimensions and notes
unless assigned. unless assigned.
Prob. 55 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 61 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
special cam in Fig. 72. Omit dimensions and notes unless press base in Fig. 78. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 56 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 62 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
boiler stay in Fig. 73. Omit dimensions and notes unless special S-wrench in Fig. 79. Omit dimensions and notes
assigned. unless assigned.
Prob. 57 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 63 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
shaft hanger casting in Fig. 74. Omit dimensions and notes photo floodlight reflector in Fig. 80. Omit dimensions and
unless assigned. notes unless assigned.

■ FIGURE 69 ■ (Prob. 52) Spanner. ■ FIGURE 71 ■ (Prob. 54) Outside Caliper.

■ FIGURE 72 ■ (Prob. 55) Special Cam.

■ FIGURE 70 ■ (Prob. 53) Rocker Arm.

121
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 76 ■ (Prob. 59) Gear Arm.

■ FIGURE 73 ■ (Prob. 56) Boiler Stay.

■ FIGURE 77 ■ (Prob. 60) Form Roll Lever.

■ FIGURE 74 ■ (Prob. 57) Shaft Hanger Casting.

■ FIGURE 75 ■ (Prob. 58) Shift Lever.

■ FIGURE 78 ■ (Prob. 61) Press Base.

122
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 79 ■ (Prob. 62) Special S-Wrench.

■ FIGURE 80 ■ (Prob. 63) Photo Floodlight Reflector.

123
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Technical Sketching and Shape Description

From Chapter 5 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Proper sketching technique is one of the most important skills that a After studying the material in this chapter, you
traditional or CAD drafter must master. Sketching is a formal should be able to:
process of visualizing three-dimensional objects in preparation for 1. Read any type of sketch and understand
drawing on paper or with CAD. Sketching is a quick way to com- the object depicted in the sketch.
municate ideas with other members of the design team. (The old 2. Create sketches of both two- and three-
Chinese saying that “one picture is worth a thousand words” is not dimensional objects using the correct
without foundation.) Sketching is an excellent way of planning out sketching methods.
the drawing process necessary to effectively create a complex object. 3. Demonstrate how to sketch parallel,
A properly drawn sketch will act like a road map for the completion perpendicular, and evenly spaced lines.
of the final paper or CAD drawing. Drafters who sketch solutions 4. Demonstrate how to sketch a circle and
before placing lines on paper or the CAD screen can often complete arc of a given diameter.
a drawing sooner and with fewer errors than those who cannot 5. Demonstrate how to estimate and com-
sketch effectively. Sketching is an excellent way of learning how to pare dimensions of an object using a
represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface. pencil at arms length.
6. Sketch an object to scale using grid
drawing media.
7. Prepare a sketch of an object to be
drawn using CAD showing all tangents,
centers, and sizes.
8. Sketch an object on isometric grid
paper.
9. Sketch the primary views of an ortho-
graphic drawing in proper orientation
and alignment.
10. Show examples of the correct use of the
alphabet of sketch lines.
11. Describe the difference between a
sketch and a drawing.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 1 n Great Ideas Often Start as

Freehand Sketches Made on Scratch Paper.
Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.

1 n TECHNICAL SKETCHING to someone who cannot sketch reasonably well with-

out guide lines. Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per
Freehand sketches are of great value to designers in
inch is recommended. Such paper is convenient for
organizing their thoughts and recording their ideas.
maintaining correct proportions (Fig. 2).
Sketching is an effective and economical means of
Sketching pads of plain tracing paper may be
formulating various solutions to a given problem so that
accompanied by a master cross-section sheet, which
a choice can be made between them. Time can be lost if
shows clearly through a transparent sheet placed on top
the designer starts to do a scaled layout before adequate
of it. (A master cross-section sheet can also be drawn
preliminary study with the aid of sketches. Information
with instruments.) A specially ruled isometric paper is
about changes in design or covering replacement of
available for isometric sketching (see Fig. 26).
broken parts or lost drawings is usually conveyed
Soft pencils, such as HB or F, should be used for
through sketches.
freehand sketching. Use a mechanical pencil, and sharp-
The degree of perfection required in a given sketch
en it to a conical point. Use this sharp point for center
depends on its intended use. Quick sketches done to
lines, dimension lines, and extension lines. For visible
supplement oral descriptions may be rough and incom-
lines, hidden lines, and cutting-plane lines, round off the
plete. On the other hand, sketches that are supposed to
convey important and precise information to engineers,
n FIGURE 2 n Sketch on Graph Paper.
technicians, or skilled workers should be executed as
carefully and exactly as possible.
The term “freehand sketch” does not mean a crude
or sloppy freehand drawing in which no particular effort
has been made. On the contrary, as shown in Fig. 1, a
freehand sketch should be made with care and with
attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.

2 n SKETCHING MATERIALS
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it
requires only pencil, paper, and eraser. When sketch-
es are made in the field and an accurate record is
required, small notebooks or sketching pads are fre-
quently used. Graph paper can be helpful, especially

127
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

4 n SCALE
Sketches usually are not made to any scale. Objects
should be sketched in their correct proportions as
accurately as possible, by eye. However, cross-section
paper provides a ready scale (by counting squares) that
may be used to assist in sketching to correct propor-
tions. The size of the sketch is purely optional, depend-
ing on the complexity of the object and the size of
paper available. Small objects are often sketched over-
size to show the necessary details clearly.

5 n TECHNIQUE OF LINES
The chief difference between an instrument drawing
and a freehand sketch lies in the character or technique
of the lines. A good freehand line is not expected to be
as rigidly straight or exactly uniform as an instrument
line. While the effectiveness of an instrument line lies
n FIGURE 3 n Pencil Points. in exacting uniformity, the quality of a freehand line
lies in its freedom and variety (Figs. 5 and 7).
Conventional lines drawn instrumentally and free-
point slightly to produce the desired thickness of line
hand are shown in Fig. 6. The freehand construction
(Fig. 3). For carefully made sketches, two soft erasers
line is a very light, rough line in which some strokes
are recommended—a Pink Pearl and a Mars-Plastic.

3 n TYPES OF SKETCHES
Since technical sketches are made of three-dimensional n FIGURE 5 n Comparison of Lines.
objects, the form of the sketch conforms approximately
to one of the four standard types of projection. In multi-
view projection (Fig. 4a), the object is described by its
necessary views (§§14–16). As shown in Figs. 4b
through 4d, the object may also be shown pictorially
in a single view, by axonometric (isometric), oblique, or
perspective sketches, respectively (see §§9–13). n FIGURE 6 n Sketch Lines.

n FIGURE 4 n Types of Projection.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 9 n Drawing Inclined Lines.

n FIGURE 7 n Drawing Horizontal Lines. hence, they may be drawn with the same general move-
ments (Fig. 9).
In sketching long lines, mark the ends of the line
may overlap. All other lines should be dark and clean- with light dots. Then move the pencil back and forth
cut. Accent the ends of all dashes, and maintain a sharp between the dots in long sweeps, always keeping your
contrast between the line thicknesses. In particular, eye on the dot toward which the pencil is moving. The
make visible lines heavy so the outline will stand out point of the pencil should touch the paper lightly, with
clearly, and make hidden lines, center lines, dimension each successive stroke correcting the defects of the pre-
lines, and extension lines thin. ceding [Link] the path of the line has been estab-
lished sufficiently, apply a little more pressure, replacing
6 n SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINES the trial series with a distinct [Link] dim the line with
Since most lines on an average sketch are straight lines, a soft eraser and draw the final line clean-cut and dark,
you should learn to make them correctly. Hold your pen- now keeping your eye on the point of the pencil.
cil naturally, about 1 12 – back from the point, and approxi- An easy method for blocking in horizontal or ver-
mately at right angles to the line to be drawn. Draw tical lines is to hold your hand and pencil rigidly and
horizontal lines from left to right with a free and easy glide your fingertips along the edge of the pad or board,
wrist-and-arm movement (Fig. 7). Draw vertical lines as shown in Fig. 10a. Another method is to mark the
downward with finger and wrist movements (Fig. 8). distance on the edge of a card or a strip of paper and
Inclined lines may be made to conform in direction transfer this distance at intervals (Fig. 10b); then draw
to horizontal or vertical lines by shifting position with the final line through these points. A third method is to
respect to the paper or by turning the paper slightly; hold your pencil as shown in the lower part of Fig. 10b
and to make distance marks on the paper at intervals by
tilting the lead down to the paper. All of these methods
n FIGURE 8 n Drawing Vertical Lines. of transferring distances are substitutes for dividers and
have many uses in sketching.
To find the midpoint of a line AB (Fig. 10c), hold
the pencil in your left hand with your thumb gauging
the estimated half-distance. Try this distance on the left
and then on the right until you locate the center by trial
and mark it [Link] method is to mark the total dis-
tance AB on the edge of a strip of paper and then to
fold the paper to bring points A and B together, thus
locating center C at the crease. To find quarter points,
the folded strip can be folded once more.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 10 n Blocking in Horizontal and Vertical Lines.

7 n SKETCHING CIRCLES AND ARCS

Small circles and arcs can be easily sketched in one or
two strokes without any preliminary blocking in.
One method of sketching a larger circle (Fig. 11) is
to first sketch lightly the enclosing square, mark the mid-
points of the sides, draw light arcs tangent to the sides of
the square, and then heavy in the final circle. Another
method (Fig. 12) is to sketch the two center lines, add n FIGURE 11 n Sketching a Circle.
light 458 radial lines, sketch light arcs across the lines at
the estimated radius distance from the center, and finally
sketch the required circle heavily. Dim all construction
lines with a soft eraser before heavying in the final circle.
An excellent method, particularly for large circles
(Fig. 13a), is to mark the estimated radius on the edge
of a card or scrap of paper, to set off from the center as
many points as desired, and to sketch the final heavy
circle through these points.
Clever drafters will prefer the method shown in
n FIGURE 12 n Sketching a Circle.
Figs. 13b and 13c, in which the hand is used as a com-
pass. You place the tip of your little finger or the knuck-
le joint of your little finger at the center, “feed” the
pencil out to the desired radius, hold this position rigidly, In Fig. 13d, two pencils are held rigidly like a
and carefully revolve the paper with the other hand, as compass and the paper is slowly revolved.
shown. If you are using a sketching pad, place the pad on Methods of sketching arcs (Fig. 14) are adapta-
your knee and revolve the entire pad. tions of those used for sketching circles. In general, it is

n FIGURE 13 n Sketching Circles.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 14 n Sketching Arcs.

easier to sketch arcs with your hand and pencil on the Fig. 15a, part I. Lighten all lines with a soft eraser and
concave side of the curve. In sketching tangent arcs, heavy in the final ellipse (Fig. 15a, part II).
always keep in mind the actual geometric construc- Another method (Fig. 15b) is to sketch lightly the
tions, carefully approximating all points of tangency. enclosing rectangle (Fig. 15b, part I), mark the mid-
points of the sides, and sketch light tangent arcs, as
shown. Then complete the ellipse lightly (Fig. 15b,
8 n SKETCHING ELLIPSES part II), lighten all lines with a soft eraser, and heavy in
If a circle is viewed obliquely, it appears as an ellipse. the final ellipse. The same general procedure shown in
With a little practice, you can learn to sketch small Fig. 15b may be used in sketching the ellipse on the
ellipses with a free arm movement (Fig. 15a). Hold the given axes (Fig. 15c).
pencil naturally, rest the weight on the upper part of the The trammel method (Fig. 15d), is excellent for
forearm, and move the pencil rapidly above the paper sketching large ellipses. Prepare a trammel on the edge
in the elliptical path desired; then lower the pencil to of a card or strip of paper, move it to different positions,
describe several light overlapping ellipses, as shown in and mark points on the ellipse at A. (The trammel

n FIGURE 15 n Sketching Ellipses.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 16 n Sketching a Utility Cabinet.

method is explained in §50.) Sketch the final ellipse In this case, the height is about 1 34 times the width.
through the points, as shown. For sketching isometric Then
ellipses, see §12.
1. Sketch the enclosing rectangle in the correct pro-
portion (Fig. 16I). In this case, the sketch is to be
slightly larger than the given picture.
9 n MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS
2. Divide the available drawer space into three parts
The most important rule in freehand sketching is keep with the pencil by trial (Fig. 16II). Sketch light
the sketch in proportion. No matter how brilliant the diagonals to locate centers of drawers, and block
technique or how well the small details are drawn, if the in drawer handles. Sketch all remaining details.
proportions—especially the large overall proportions— 3. Dim all construction with a soft eraser, and heavy
are bad, the sketch will be bad. First, the relative propor- in all final lines (Fig. 16III).
tions of the height to the width must be carefully
established; then as you proceed to the medium-sized Another method of estimating distances is illus-
areas and the small details, constantly compare each new trated in Fig. 17. On the edge of a card or strip of
estimated distance with already established distances. paper, mark an arbitrary unit. Then see how many units
If you are working from a given picture, such as wide and how many units high the desk is. If you are
the utility cabinet in Fig. 16a, you must first estab- working from the actual object, you can use a scale, a
lish the relative width compared to the height. One piece of paper, or the pencil itself as a unit to determine
way is to use the pencil as a measuring stick, as shown. the proportions.

n FIGURE 17 n Sketching a Desk.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 18 n Squares Method.

To sketch an object composed of many curves to pencil to compare measurements, as shown in Fig. 19.
the same scale or to a larger or smaller scale, the While doing this, do not change your position, and
method of “squares” is recommended (Fig. 18). On always hold your pencil at arm’s length. The length
the given picture, rule accurate grid lines to form sighted can then be compared in a similar manner with
squares of any convenient size. It is best to use a scale any other dimension of the object. If the object is small,
and some convenient spacing, such as either .500 or 10 such as a machine part, you can compare distances in
mm. On the new sheet rule a similar grid, marking the the manner of Fig. 16, by actually placing the pencil
spacing of the lines proportional to the original, but against the object itself.
reduced or enlarged as desired. Make the final sketch In establishing proportions, the blocking-in method
by drawing the lines in and across the grid lines as in is recommended, especially for irregular shapes. The
the original, as near as you can estimate by eye. steps for blocking in and completing the sketch of a
In sketching from an actual object, you can easily shaft hanger are shown in Fig. 20. As always, first give
compare various distances on the object by using the attention to the main proportions, next to the general

n FIGURE 19 n Estimating Dimensions.

n FIGURE 20 n Blocking In an irregular Object (Shaft Hanger).

133
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

sizes and direction of flow of curved shapes, and finally

to the snappy lines of the completed sketch.
In making sketches from actual machine parts, it is
necessary to use the measuring tools used in the shop,
especially those needed to determine dimensions that
must be relatively accurate.

10 n PICTORIAL SKETCHING
We will now examine several simple methods of prepar-
ing pictorial sketches that will be of great assistance in
learning the principles of multiview projection.

11 n ISOMETRIC SKETCHING
Isometric sketching is one of several simple methods
of preparing pictorial sketches that will be of great
assistance in learning the principles of multiview pro-
jection.
To make an isometric sketch from an actual object,
hold the object in your hand and tilt it toward you, as
shown in Fig. 21a. In this position, the front corner
will appear vertical, and the two receding bottom edges n FIGURE 21 n Isometric Sketching.
and those parallel to them, respectively, will appear at
2. Block in the recess and the projecting block (Fig.
about 30° with horizontal, as shown. The steps in
21II).
sketching are as follows:*
3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
1. Sketch the enclosing box lightly, making AB vertical heavy in all final lines (Fig. 21III).
and AC and AD approximately 30° with horizontal
(Fig. 21I). These three lines are the isometric axes. 12 n ISOMETRIC ELLIPSES
Make AB, AC, and AD approximately proportional When objects with cylindrical or conical shapes are
in length to the actual corresponding edges on the placed in isometric or other oblique positions, the circles
object. Sketch the remaining lines parallel, respec- are seen at an angle and appear as ellipses (Fig. 22a).
tively, to these three lines. The most important consideration in sketching iso-
metric ellipses is as follows: The major axis of the ellipse
is always at right angles to the center line of the cylinder,
and the minor axis is at right angles to the major axis
and coincides with the center line.
*The angle of the receding lines may be less than 30° (say, 20° or 15°).
Two views of a block with a large cylindrical hole
Although the result will not be an isometric sketch, the sketch may be are shown in Fig. 23a. The steps in sketching the
more pleasing and effective in some cases. object are as follows:

n FIGURE 22 n Isometric Ellipses.

134
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 23 n Isometric Ellipses.

1. Sketch the block and the enclosing parallelogram

for the ellipse, making the sides of the parallelogram
parallel to the edges of the block and equal in length
to the diameter of the hole (Fig. 23I). Draw diago-
nals to locate the center of the hole, and then draw
center lines AB and CD. Points A, B, C, and D will be
midpoints of the sides of the parallelogram, and the
ellipse will be tangent to the sides at those points.
The major axis will be on the diagonal EF, which is at
right angles to the center line of the hole, and the n FIGURE 24 n Isometric Ellipses.
minor axis will fall along the short diagonal. Sketch
long, flat elliptical sides CA and BD, as shown.
2. Sketch short, small-radius arcs CB and AD to com-
plete the ellipse (Fig. 23II). Avoid making the ends
of the ellipse “squared off” or pointed like a football.
3. Sketch lightly the parallelogram for the ellipse
that lies in the back plane of the object, and sketch n FIGURE 25 n Sketching Semiellipses.
the ellipse in the same manner as the front ellipse
(Fig. 23III).
4. Draw lines GH and JK tangent to the two ellipses
(Fig. 23IV). Dim all construction with a soft eras-
er, and heavy in all final lines.

Another method for determining the back ellipse

is shown in Fig. 24.
1. Select points at random on the front ellipse and
sketch “depth lines” equal in length to the depth
of the block (Fig. 24I).
2. Sketch the ellipse through the ends of the lines (Fig.
24II).
Two views of a bearing with a semicylindrical
opening are shown in Fig. 25a. The steps in sketching
are as follows:
1. Block in the object, including the rectangular
space for the semicylinder (Fig. 25I).
2. Block in the box enclosing the complete cylinder
(Fig. 25II). Sketch the entire cylinder lightly.

135
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

3. Dim all construction lines, and heavy in all final 2. Sketch receding lines parallel to each other and at
lines, showing only the lower half of the cylinder any convenient angle (say, 30° or 45°) with the
(Fig. 25III). horizontal (Fig. 27II). Cut off the receding lines
at the correct depth. These lines may be full
13 n SKETCHING ON ISOMETRIC PAPER length, but three quarters or one half size pro-
Two views of a guide block are shown in Fig. 26a. The duces a more natural appearance. If the lines are
steps in sketching illustrate not only the use of isometric full length, the sketch is a cavalier sketch. If half
paper, but also the sketching of individual planes or faces size, the sketch is a cabinet sketch.
to build up a pictorial visualization from the given views. 3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser and
heavy in the final lines (Fig. 27III).
1. Sketch the isometric of the enclosing box, count-
ing off the isometric grid spaces to equal the cor- Oblique sketching is not a very desirable method
responding squares on the given views (Fig. 26I). for sketching an object that has circular shapes in or
Sketch surface A, as shown. parallel to more than one plane of the object because
2. Sketch additional surfaces B and C and the small ellipses result when circular shapes are viewed
ellipse (Fig. 26II). obliquely. Therefore, place the object with most or all
of the circular shapes toward you so that they will
3. Sketch additional surfaces E, F, G, and H to com-
appear as true circles and arcs in oblique sketching, as
plete the sketch (Fig. 26III).
shown in Fig. 27a.
14 n OBLIQUE SKETCHING
15 n OBLIQUE SKETCHING
Another simple method for sketching pictorially is
ON GRAPH PAPER
oblique sketching. Hold the object in your hand (Fig.
27a). Ordinary graph paper is convenient for oblique sketch-
ing. Two views of a bearing bracket are shown in Fig.
1. Block in the front face of the bearing, as if you 28a. The dimensions are determined simply by count-
were sketching a front view (Fig 27I). ing the squares.

n FIGURE 26 n Sketching on Isometric Paper.

n FIGURE 27 n Sketching in Oblique.

136
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 28 n Oblique Sketching on Cross-Section Paper.

1. Sketch lightly the enclosing box construction (Fig. 4. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
28I). Sketch the receding lines at 45° diagonally heavy in all final lines (Fig. 27IV). Note the simi-
through the squares. To establish the depth at a larity between the perspective sketch and the
reduced scale, sketch the receding lines diagonally oblique sketch in Fig. 27.
through half as many squares as the given number
shown in Fig. 28a. Two-point perspective (two vanishing points) is the
2. Sketch all arcs and circles (Fig. 28II). most true to life of all pictorial methods, but it requires
some natural sketching ability or considerable practice
3. Heavy in all final lines (Fig. 28III).
for best results. The simple method shown in Fig. 30
can be used successfully by the nonartistic student.
16 n PERSPECTIVE SKETCHING
1. Sketch the front corner of the desk in true
The bearing sketched in oblique in Fig. 27 can easily height, and locate two vanishing points (VPL and
be sketched in one-point perspective—that is, with one VPR) on a horizon line (eye level) (Fig. 30I).
vanishing point (Fig. 29). The distance CA may vary—the greater it is, the
1. Sketch the true front face of the object just as in higher the eye level will be and the more we will
oblique sketching (Fig. 29I). Select the vanishing be looking down on top of the object. A good
point (VP) for the receding lines. In most cases, it is de- rule of thumb is to make C-VPL one third to one
sirable to place VP above and to the right of the pic- fourth of C-VPR.
ture, as shown, although it can be placed anywhere in 2. Estimate depth and width, and sketch the enclos-
the vicinity of the picture. However, if the vanishing ing box (Fig. 30II).
point is placed too close to the center, the lines will 3. Block in all details (Fig. 30III). Note that all par-
converge too sharply, and the picture will be distorted. allel lines converge toward the same vanishing
2. Sketch the receding lines toward VP (Fig. 29II). point.
3. Estimate the depth to look good, and sketch in the 4. Lighten the construction lines with a soft eraser as
back portion of the object (Fig. 29III). Note that necessary, and heavy in all final lines (Fig. 30IV).
the back circle and arc will be slightly smaller than Make the outlines thicker and the inside lines thin-
the front circle and arc. ner, especially where they are close together.

n FIGURE 29 n Sketching in One-Point Perspective.

137
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

intended by the [Link] provide this information, a

number of views, systematically arranged, are used.
This system of views is called multiview projection.
Each view provides certain definite information if the
view is from a direction perpendicular to a principal
face or side of the object. For example, an observer
looking perpendicularly toward one face of an object
obtains a true view of the shape and size of that side
(Fig. 31a). The view as seen by the observer is shown
in Fig. 31b. (The observer is theoretically at an infi-
nite distance from the object.)
The three principal dimensions of an object are
width, height, and depth (Fig. 31a). In technical drawing,
these fixed terms are used for dimensions taken in these
directions, regardless of the shape of the object. The
terms “length” and “thickness” are not used because they
cannot be applied in all cases. Note that the front view in
Fig. 31b shows only the height and width of the object
and not the depth. In fact, any one view of a three-dimen-
sional object shows only two dimensions; the third dimen-
sion is found in an adjacent view.

18 n REVOLVING THE OBJECT

In addition to the three views just described, other
n FIGURE 30 n Two-Point Perspective. views can be obtained by revolving the object, as
shown in Fig. 32. First, hold the object in the front-
view position (Fig. 32a). To get the top view (Fig.
17 n VIEWS OF OBJECTS 32b), revolve the object to bring the top of the object
A pictorial drawing or a photograph shows an object as up and toward you. To get the right-side view (Fig.
it appears to the observer, but not as it is. Such a picture 32c), revolve the object to bring the right side toward
cannot describe the object fully, no matter which direc- you. To obtain views of any of the other sides, merely
tion it is viewed from, because it does not show the turn the object to bring those sides toward you.
exact shapes and sizes of the several parts. The top, front, and right-side views, arranged closer
In industry, a complete and clear description of the together, are shown in Fig. 32d. These are called the
shape and size of an object to be made is necessary to three regular views because they are the views most
make certain that the object is manufactured exactly as frequently used.

n FIGURE 31 n Front View of an Object.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 32 n The Three Regular Views.

At this stage we can consider spacing between 19 n THE SIX VIEWS

views as purely a matter of appearance. The views
should be spaced well apart, yet close enough to appear Any object can be viewed from six mutually perpendic-
related to each other. The space between the front and ular directions, as shown in Fig. 33a. These six views
top views may or may not be equal to the space may be drawn if necessary, as shown in Fig. 33b.
between the front and side views. If dimensions are to The six views are always arranged as shown, which is
be added to the sketch, adequate space for them will the American National Standard arrangement. The
have to be left between views. top, front, and bottom views align vertically, while the
An important advantage of a view over a photo- rear, left-side, front, and right-side views align horizon-
graph of an object is that hidden features can be clear- tally. To draw a view out of place is a serious error and
ly shown by means of hidden lines. In Fig. 32d, surface is generally regarded as one of the worst possible mis-
7-8-9-10 in the front view appears as a visible line 5-6 takes in drawing.
in the top view and as a hidden line 15-16 in the side Note that height is shown in the rear, left-side,
view. Also, hole A, which appears as a circle in the front front, and right-side views; width is shown in the rear,
view, shows as hidden lines 1-4 and 2-3 in the top view, top, front, and bottom views; and depth is shown in the
and 11-12 and 13-14 in the side view. For a complete four views that surround the front view—namely, the
discussion of hidden lines, see §24. Also note the use of left-side, top, right-side, and bottom views. Each view
center lines for the hole (see §25). shows two of the principal dimensions. Note also that

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 33 n The Six Views.

in the four views that surround the front view, the front (Fig. 33). Another illustration of the second method is
of the object faces toward the front view. given in Fig. 34, which shows six views of a house. The
Adjacent views are reciprocal. If the front view in observer can walk around the house and view its front,
Fig. 33 is imagined to be the object itself, the right- sides, and rear and can imagine the top view as seen from
side view is obtained by looking toward the right side an airplane and the bottom or “worm’s-eye view” as seen
of the front view, as shown by the arrow RS. Likewise, if from underneath. Notice the use of the terms “plan,” for
the right-side view is imagined to be the object, the the top view, and “elevation,” for all views showing the
front view is obtained by looking toward the left side of height of the building. These terms are regularly used in
the right-side view, as shown by the arrow F. The same architectural drawing and occasionally with reference to
relation exists between any two adjacent views. drawings in other fields.*
Obviously, the six views may be obtained either by
shifting the object with respect to the observer (Fig. 32) *Architects frequently draw the views of a building on separate sheets
or by shifting the observer with respect to the object because of the large sizes of the drawings.

n FIGURE 34 n Six Views of a House.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 35 n Six Views of a Compact Automobile.

20 n ORIENTATION OF FRONT VIEW 21 n NECESSARY VIEWS

Six views of a compact automobile are shown in Fig. A drawing for use in production should contain only
35. The view chosen for the front view in this case is those views needed for a clear and complete shape
the side, not the front of the automobile. In general, description of the object. These minimum required
the front view should show the object in its operating views are referred to as the necessary views. In selecting
position, particularly of familiar objects (such as the views, the drafter should choose those that best show
house shown and the automobile). A machine part is essential contours or shapes and have the least number
often drawn in the position it occupies in the assem- of hidden lines.
bly. However, in most cases this is not important, and As shown in Fig. 36a, three distinctive features of
the drafter may assume the object to be in any conve- this object need to be shown on the drawing: (1) round-
nient position. For example, an automobile connect- ed top and hole, seen from the front; (2) rectangular
ing rod is usually drawn horizontally on the sheet. notch and rounded corners, seen from the top; and (3)
Also, it is customary to draw screws, bolts, shafts, right angle with filleted corner, seen from the side.
tubes, and other elongated parts in a horizontal posi- Another way to choose required views is to elimi-
tion. nate unnecessary views. Figure 36b shows a thumbnail

n FIGURE 36 n Choice of Views.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 37 n Two Necessary Views.

sketch of the six views. Both the front and rear views The question often arises: What are the absolute
show the true shapes of the hole and the rounded top, minimum views required? For example, in Fig. 38, the
but the front view is preferred because it has no hidden top view might be omitted, leaving only the front and
lines. Therefore, the rear view (which is seldom needed) right-side views. However, it is more difficult to “read”
is crossed out. Both the top and bottom views show the the two views or visualize the object, because the char-
rectangular notch and rounded corners, but the top acteristic “Z” shape of the top view is omitted. In addi-
view is preferred because it has fewer hidden lines. tion, one must assume that corners A and B (top view)
Both the right-side and left-side views show the right are square and not filleted. In this example, all three
angle with the filleted corner. In fact, in this case the views are necessary.
side views are identical, except reversed. In such If an object requires only two views and the left-
instances, it is customary to choose the right-side view. side and right-side views are equally descriptive, the
The necessary views, then, are the three remaining right-side view is customarily chosen (Fig. 39). If con-
views: the top, front, and right-side views. These are the
three regular views referred to in connection with Fig.
32. More complicated objects may require more than
three views or special views, such as partial views.

22 n TWO-VIEW DRAWINGS
Often only two views are needed to clearly describe
the shape of an object. In Fig. 37a, the right-side view
shows no significant contours of the object and is
crossed out. In Fig. 37b, the top and front views are
identical, so the top view is eliminated. In Fig. 37c, all
necessary information is given in the front and top
views so the side view is unnecessary. n FIGURE 38 n Three Views.

n FIGURE 39 n Choice of Right-Side View.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

23 n ONE-VIEW DRAWINGS
Frequently, a single view supplemented by a note or
lettered symbols is sufficient to describe clearly the
shape of a relatively simple object. In Fig. 42a, one
view of the shim plus a note indicating the thickness as
0.25 mm is sufficient. In Fig. 42b, the left end is 65
mm square, the next portion is 49.22 mm diameter, the
next is 31.75 mm diameter, and the portion with the
thread is 20 mm diameter, as indicated in the note.
Nearly all shafts, bolts, screws, and similar parts should
be represented by single views in this manner.

24 n HIDDEN LINES
Correct and incorrect practices in drawing hidden lines
are illustrated in Fig. 43. In general, a hidden line
n FIGURE 40 n Choice of Top View. should join a visible line except when it causes the visi-
ble line to extend too far, as shown in Fig. 43a. In other
words, leave a gap whenever a hidden line is a continua-
tour A were omitted, then the presence of slot B would tion of a visible line. Hidden lines should intersect to
make it necessary to choose the left-side view in pref- form L and T corners (Fig. 43). A hidden line preferably
erence to the right-side view. should “jump” a visible line when possible (Fig. 43c).
If an object requires only two views and the top Parallel hidden lines should be drawn so that the dashes
and bottom views are equally descriptive, the top view are staggered, as in bricklaying (Fig. 43d). When two or
is customarily chosen (Fig. 40). three hidden lines meet at a point, the dashes should
If only two views are necessary and the top view and join, as shown for the bottom of the drilled hole in Fig.
right-side view are equally descriptive, the combination 43e and for the top of a countersunk hole in Fig. 43f.
chosen is the one that spaces best on the paper (Fig. 41). The example in Fig. 43g is similar to that in Fig. 43a;

n FIGURE 41 n Choice of Views to Fit Paper.

n FIGURE 42 n One-View Drawings.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 43 n Hidden-Line Practices.

hidden lines should not join visible lines when this makes ever, should be cautious about leaving out hidden lines
the visible line extend too far. Correct and incorrect until experience shows when they can be safely omitted.
methods of drawing hidden arcs are shown in Fig. 43h.
Poorly drawn hidden lines can easily spoil a draw-
ing. Dashes should be about 5 mm long and spaced 25 n CENTER LINES
about 1 mm apart, by eye. Accent the beginning and Center lines (symbol: cL) are used to indicate axes of sym-
end of each dash by pressing down on the pencil, metrical objects or features, bolt circles, and paths of
whether drawn freehand or mechanically. motion. Typical applications are shown in Fig. 44. As
As far as possible, views should be chosen that show shown in Fig. 44a, a single center line is drawn in the
features with visible lines. Hidden lines should be used longitudinal view and crossed center lines in the circular
where necessary to make the drawing clear. Hidden lines [Link] small dashes should cross at the intersections of
not needed for clarity should be omitted so as not to clut- center lines. Center lines should extend uniformly about
ter the drawing and also to save [Link] beginner, how- 8 mm outside the feature for which they are drawn.

n FIGURE 44 n Center-Line Applications.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 45 n Sketching Two Views of a Support Block.

The long dashes of center lines may vary from 20 establish the height of the object, while making
to 40 mm or more in length, depending on the size of spaces A approximately equal. Sketch vertical lines
the drawing. The short dashes should be about 5 mm 3, 4, 5, and 6 to establish the width and depth in cor-
long, with spaces about 2 mm. Center lines should rect proportion to the already established height,
always start and end with long dashes. Short center while making spaces B approximately equal and
lines, especially for small holes, may be made solid (Fig. space C equal to or slightly less than space B.
44e). Always leave a gap when a center line forms a 2. Block in smaller details, using diagonals to locate the
continuation of a visible or hidden line. Center lines center (Fig. 45II). Sketch lightly the circle and arcs.
should be thin enough to contrast well with the visible 3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
and hidden lines, but dark enough to reproduce well. heavy in all final lines (Fig. 45III).
Center lines are useful mainly in dimensioning and
should be omitted from unimportant rounded or fillet- 27 n SKETCHING THREE VIEWS
ed corners and other shapes that are self-locating.
A sketch of a lever bracket that requires three views is
26 n SKETCHING TWO VIEWS shown in Fig. 46a. The steps in sketching the three
views are as follows:
A sketch of the support block in Fig. 45a requires
only two views. The steps in sketching are as follows: 1. Block in the enclosing rectangles for the three
views (Fig. 46I). Sketch horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, and
1. Block in lightly the enclosing rectangles for the two
4 to establish the height of the front view and the
views (Fig. 45I). Sketch horizontal lines 1 and 2 to

n FIGURE 46 n Sketching Three Views of a Lever Bracket.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

Graphics
Spotlight Sketching and Parametric Modeling
T HE D ESIGN P ROCESS
Using CAD parametric modeling in many ways mirrors the
design process. To get the rough ideas down, the designer
starts by making hand sketches. Then as the ideas are
refined, more accurate drawings are created either with
instruments or using CAD. Necessary analysis is per-
formed, and in response the design may change. The
drawings are revised as needed to meet the new require-
ments. Eventually the drawings are approved so that the
parts may be manufactured.

R OUGH S KETCHES
Using parametric modeling software, initially the designer
roughly sketches the basic on the screen. These sketches
do not have to have perfectly straight lines or accurate
(B) Constrained Sketch
corners. The software interprets the sketch much as you
would interpret a rough sketch given to you by a colleague. ated as a 3D feature to which other features can be added.
If the lines are nearly horizontal or vertical, the software As the design changes the dimensions and constraints that
assumes that you meant them thus. If the line appears to control the sketch geometry can be changed, and the para-
be perpendicular it is assumed that it is. metric model will update to reflect the new design.
When you are creating sketches by hand or for para-
C ONSTRAINING THE S KETCH
metric modeling, think about the implications of the geome-
Using a parametric CAD system, you can start by sketching
try you are drawing. Does the sketch imply that lines are
on the computer screen as though you were sketching free-
perpendicular? Are the arcs you have drawn intended to be
hand. Then the two-dimensional sketch is refined by adding
tangent or intersecting? When you are creating a parametric
geometric constraints, which tell how to interpret the sketch
model, the software makes assumptions about how you
and by adding parametric dimensions, which control the size
intend to constrain the geometry based on your sketch. You
of sketch geometry. Once the sketch is refined, it can be cre-
can remove, change, or add new constraints as you wish.
AutoCAD Mechanical Desktop software contains Auto-
CAD Designer parametric design software. Using it you can
create a rough sketch like the one you see in Fig. A.
You select the Profile command to have the software
constrain the sketch automatically. The results of profiling
the sketch are shown in Fig. B. The symbols show the con-
straints that were assumed.
The dialog box shown on the next page in Fig. C lists
types of geometric constraints you can use to control the
sketch geometry in AutoCAD Designer. The dialog box
labeled Fig. D on the left shows the constraints that you
can use to control the way parts fit together in an assembly.
When you have completed the parametric model, you
have an “intelligent” part. When design changes are nec-
essary, you can change a dimension or constraint causing
(A) Rough Sketch the model to automatically update. Orthographic drawings

146
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

with correctly shown hidden lines and dimensions can be

generated automatically. Or the part can be exported for
rapid prototyping or manufacture.

(C) Assembly Constraints (D) Sketch Constraints

Images Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

depth of the top view, making spaces A approxi- 4. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser
mately equal and space C equal to or slightly less (Fig. 46IV).
than one space A. Sketch vertical lines 5, 6, 7, and 8 5. Heavy in all final lines so that the views will stand
to establish the width of the top and front views out clearly (Fig. 46V).
and the depth of the side view. Make sure that this
is in correct proportion to the height, while making
spaces B approximately equal and space D equal to 28 n ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS
or slightly less than one space B. Note that spaces C Errors in arranging the views are so commonly made
and D are not necessarily equal, but are indepen- by students that it is necessary to repeat this: The views
dent of each other. Similarly, spaces A and B are not must be drawn in accordance with the American
necessarily equal. To transfer the depth dimension National Standard arrangement shown in Fig. 33.
from the top view to the side view, use the edge of a Figure 47a shows an offset guide that requires three
card or strip of paper, as shown, or transfer the dis- views. These three views, correctly arranged, are shown
tance by using the pencil as a measuring stick (see in Fig. 47b. The top view must be directly above the
Figs. 10b and 10c). Note that the depth in the top front view, and the right-side view directly to the right
and side views must always be equal. of the front view—not out of alignment, as in Fig. 47c.
2. Block in all details lightly (Fig. 46II). Also, never draw the views in reversed positions, with
3. Sketch all arcs and circles lightly (Fig. 46III). the bottom over the front or the right-side to the left of

n FIGURE 47 n Position of Views.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 49 n Precedence of Lines.

n FIGURE 48 n Meaning of Lines.

the front view (Fig. 47d), even though the views do 30 n PRECEDENCE OF LINES
line up with the front view. Visible lines, hidden lines, and center lines often coin-
cide on a drawing, and the drafter must know which
29 n MEANING OF LINES line to show. A visible line always takes precedence
A visible line or a hidden line has three possible mean- over (covers up) a center line or a hidden line, as shown
ings (Fig. 48): (1) intersection of two surfaces, (2) edge at A and B in Fig. 49. A hidden line takes precedence
view of a surface, and (3) contour view of a curved sur- over a center line, as shown at C. Note that at A and C
face. Since no shading is used on a working drawing, it is the ends of the center line are shown, but are separated
necessary to examine all the views to determine the from the view by short gaps.
meaning of the lines. For example, the line AB at the top
of the front view might be regarded as the edge view of a 31 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS
flat surface if we look at only the front and top views and Preliminary sketches are usually done on paper with a
do not observe the curved surface on top of the object, pencil or pen. More detailed CAD drawings usually fol-
as shown in the right-side view. Similarly, the vertical line low the initial sketches. Finished CAD drawings should
CD in the front view might be regarded as the edge view apply the same rules for arranging views, clearly depict-
of a plane surface if we look at only the front and side ing the subject of the drawing, using the proper line pat-
views. However, the top view shows that the line repre- terns and line weights, and following all of the necessary
sents the intersection of an inclined surface. standards as manually created drawings (Fig. 50).

n FIGURE 50 n Multiview CAD Assembly Drawing of a MAXIM Fire Truck. Courtesy of CADKEY.

148
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

KEY WORDS
CONSTRUCTION LINES VISIBLE LINES OBLIQUE SKETCH
ORTHOGRAPHIC PRECEDENCE OF LINES GRID PAPER PROPORTIONS
PROJECTION ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS HIDDEN LINES
ISOMETRIC SHAPE DESCRIPTION CENTER LINES
PRIMARY VIEWS PICTORIAL SHADING

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Sketching is one of the most important skills that a tradi- ■ You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locat-
tional or CAD drafter must learn to become effective. ing the four tangent points where the circle touches the
■ Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a square. This same technique can be applied to isometric
drawing problem. It is an effective way of communicating circles by drawing isometric “squares” (parallelograms).
with all members of the design team. ■ You can sketch objects using the same view orientation and
■ There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles, alignment that traditional drawing conventions demand.
and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they ■ A sketched line must not look like a mechanical line. The
become second nature. main distinction between instrumental drawing and free-
■ Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at hand sketching is the character or technique of the
arms length is an easy method for estimating proportion- linework.
al size. ■ Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not nec-
■ Using a sketching grid makes measuring an easy task. essarily to a particular scale.
Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square
grid and isometric grid.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the four standard types of projections? 7. What is the advantage of sketching an object first
2. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching? before drawing it using CAD?

3. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or arc? 8. Why are tangent points so important when sketching,
drawing on paper with instruments, or using CAD?
4. Sketch the alphabet of lines. Which lines are thick?
Which are thin? Which are very light and will not repro- 9. What is the difference between proportion and scale?
duce when copied? 10. Which view should be sketched directly below the TOP
5. When is isometric grid paper used? When is square grid view?
paper used? 11. Why should center lines, visible lines, and hidden lines
6. What type of three-dimensional drawing can easily be line up between views when sketching?
drawn on square grid paper?

SKETCHING PROBLEMS
Figures 52 and 53 present a variety of objects from ric measurements may be easily utilized on appropriate
which the student is to sketch the necessary views. Using metric-grid graph paper.
8.5– * 11.0– graph paper, sketch a border and title strip In the problems in Fig. 53, no indications of size are
and divide the sheet into two parts (Fig. 51). Sketch two given. The student is to sketch the necessary views of
assigned problems per sheet. On the problems in Fig. assigned problems to fit the spaces comfortably, as shown
52, “ticks” are given that indicate .50– or .25– spaces. in Fig. 51. It is suggested that the student prepare a
Thus, measurements may be easily spaced off on graph small paper scale, making the divisions equal to those on
paper having .12– or .25– grid spacings. the paper scale in Prob. 1. This scale can be used to
If desired, the “ticks” on the problems in Fig. 52 may determine the approximate sizes. Let each division equal
be used to indicate 10-mm and 5-mm spaces. Thus, met- either .50– or 10 mm on your sketch.

149
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Multiview Sketch (Layout A-1).

Missing-line and missing-view problems are given in ments may be easily utilized on appropriate metric-grid
Figs. 54 and 55, respectively. These are to be graph paper. In these problems, all holes are through holes.
sketched, two problems per sheet, in the arrangement
shown in Fig. 51. If the instructor so assigns, the miss- Prob. 25 Prob. 25–48 (Fig. 53) Sketch necessary
ing lines or views may be sketched with a colored pencil. views using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). No
The problems given in Figs. 54 and 55 may be indication of size is given in these problems. Sketch the nec-
sketched in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on essary views to fit the spaces comfortably. Prepare a small
graph paper. paper scale, making the divisions equal to those on the paper
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen- scale in Prob. 25, and apply to the problems to obtain
eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer approximate sizes. Let each division equal either .50– or 10
graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor may mm on your sketch.
choose to assign specific problems to be completed by this Prob. 49 Prob. 49–72 (Fig. 54) Sketch given views
method. using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). Add missing
For all of the following problems, use 8.5– * 11.0– lines. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm. The problems
graph paper or plain paper. Sketch a border and title strip, may be sketched in isometric on isometric paper or in
and divide the sheet into two parts, as shown in Fig. 51. oblique on graph paper.
Sketch two assigned problems per sheet.
Prob. 73–105 (Fig. 55) Using Layout A-1 or A4-1
Prob. 1 Prob. 1–24 (Fig. 52) Sketch necessary adjusted (freehand), sketch the two given views and add the
views using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). The missing views, as indicated. The squares may be either .25–
“ticks” on the figures indicate .50– or .25– spaces. Thus, mea- or 5 mm. The given views are either front and right-side
surements may be easily spaced off on graph paper having views or front and top views. Hidden holes with center lines
.12– or .25– grid spacings. The “ticks” may also be used to are drilled holes. Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in
indicate 10-mm or 5-mm spaces, so that metric measure- oblique on cross-section paper.

150
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24
n FIGURE 52 n Multiview Sketching Problems. Sketch necessary views, using Layout A–1 (see Fig. 51) or A4–1
adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. The units shown may be either .50– and .25– or
10 mm and 5 mm. All holes are through holes.

151
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

4
1 2 3

5 6 7 8

12
9 10 11

13 14 15 16

20
17 18 19

21 22 23 24
n FIGURE 53 n Multiview Sketching Problems. Sketch necessary views, using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or
plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. Prepare paper scale with divisions equal to those in Prob. 1, and apply to problems to obtain
approximate sizes. Let each division equal either .50– or 10 mm on your sketch. See instructions in Sketching Problems.

152
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24

n FIGURE 54 n Missing-Line Sketching Problems. (1) Sketch given views, using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or
plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. Add missing lines. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm. See instructions in Sketching
Problems. (2) Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on cross-section paper.

153
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3

7
4 5 6

8 9 10
11

12 13 14

19

15 16 17 18

23
20 21 22

24 25 26

27

28 29 30 31 32 33

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Third-View Sketching Problems. (1) Using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or plain paper, two
problems per sheet as in Fig. 51, sketch the two given views and add the missing views, as indicated. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm.
See instructions in Sketching Problems. The given views are either front and right-side views or front and top views. Hidden holes with center
lines are drilled holes. (2) Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on cross-section paper.

154
Multiview Projection

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you A view of an object is known technically as a projection. A projec-
should be able to: tion is a view conceived to be drawn or projected onto a plane
1. Draw the six standard views of an known as the plane of projection. A system of views of an object
object. formed by projectors from the object perpendicular to the desired
2. Draw any three views using proper con- planes of projection is known as orthographic, or multiview, pro-
ventions, placement, and alignment. jection (see ANSI/ASME Y14.3M–1994). This system of required
3. Transfer height, width, or depth dimen- views provides for the shape description of the object.
sions between views. Drawing conventions describe the projection process so that all
4. Lay out a three-view drawing so it is technical drawings can be created and interpreted in the same way.
centered on the drawing medium. Conventions assure that no ambiguity exists between the drawer’s
5. Apply conventional practices to the rev- intent and the reader’s interpretation. Understanding surface orien-
olution of ribs, spokes, and webs. tations can help students visualize the six standard views of projec-
6. Identify and draw visible and hidden
tion. Surfaces are either normal, inclined, or oblique. The endpoints
lines in all six standard views. of lines define surface boundaries. Conic sections and irregular
curves can be approximated by mapping definable lines from one
7. Identify and project surfaces appearing
in all views.
view to another. Various manufacturing processes for holes, fillets,
and rounds are described in specific ways on technical drawings.
8. Identify surface shapes, and determine
edge views of surfaces.
9. Draw and project normal, inclined, and
oblique surfaces in all views.
10. Draw positive and negative cylinders in
all views.
11. Plot conic sections and irregular curves
in all views.
12. Understand drawing conventions for
hole treatments and machine process-
es.
13. Describe the concept of first-and-third
angle projections.
14. Understand and use fold lines or miter
lines to create new views.

From Chapter 6 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 1 n Projection of an Object.

1 n PROJECTION METHOD description because it shows the true angle of the inclined
The method of viewing an object to obtain a multiview surface. In this view, the hole is invisible and its extreme
projection is illustrated for a front view in Fig. 1a. contours are represented by hidden lines, as shown.
Between the observer and the object, a transparent
plane or pane of glass representing a plane of projec- n FIGURE 2 n Top and Right-Side Views.
tion is located parallel to the front surfaces of the
object. The outline on the plane of projection shows
how the object appears to the observer. Theoretically,
the observer is at an infinite distance from the object so
that the lines of sight are parallel.
In more precise terms, this view is obtained by draw-
ing perpendicular lines, or projectors, from all points on
the edges or contours of the object to the plane of projec-
tion (Fig. 1b). The infinite number of collective piercing
points of these projectors form lines on the pane of glass
(Fig. 1c). As shown, a projector from point 1 on the
object pierces the plane of projection at point 7, which is
a view or projection of the point. The same procedure
applies to point 2, whose projection is point 9. Since 1
and 2 are endpoints of a straight line on the object, the
projections 7 and 9 are joined to give the projection of
the line 7–9. Similarly, if the projections of the four cor-
ners 1, 2, 3, and 4 are found, the projections 7, 9, 10, and
8 may be joined by straight lines to form the projection
of the rectangular surface.
The same procedure can be applied to curved
lines—for example, the top curved contour of the
object. A point, 5, on the curve is projected to the plane
at 6. The projection of an infinite number of such
points (a few are shown in Fig. 1b) on the plane of
projection results in the projection of the curve. If this
procedure of projecting points is applied to all edges
and contours of the object, a complete view or projec-
tion of the object results. This view is necessary in the
shape description because it shows the true curvature
of the top and the true shape of the hole.
A similar procedure may be used to obtain the top
view (Fig. 2a). This view is necessary in the shape

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 Multiview Projection

The right-side view (Fig. 2b) is necessary because frontal plane; the rear plane is hinged to the left-side
it shows the right-angled characteristic shape of the plane, except as explained in §8. Each plane revolves
object and the true shape of the curved intersection. outwardly from the original box position until it lies in
Note how the cylindrical contour at the top of the the frontal plane, which remains stationary. The hinge
object appears when viewed from the side. The lines of the glass box are known as folding lines.
extreme, or contour, element 1–2 on the object is pro- The positions of these six planes after they have
jected to give the line 3–4 on the view. The hidden hole been revolved are shown in Fig. 4. Carefully identify
is also represented by projecting the extreme elements. each of these planes and corresponding views with its
The plane of projection on which the front view is original position in the glass box, and repeat this men-
projected is called the frontal plane; that on which the tal procedure, if necessary, until the revolutions are
top view is projected, the horizontal plane; and that thoroughly understood.
on which the side view is projected, the profile plane. Observe that in Fig. 3b lines extend around the
glass box from one view to another on the planes of
projection. These are the projections of the projectors
2 n THE GLASS BOX from points on the object to the views. For example,
If planes of projection are placed parallel to the princi- the projector 1–2 is projected on the horizontal plane
pal faces of the object, they form a “glass box,” as at 7–8 and on the profile plane at 16–17. When the
shown in Fig. 3a. Notice that the observer is always top plane is folded up, lines 9–10 and 7–8 will become
on the outside looking in, so the object is seen through vertical and line up with 10–6 and 8–2, respectively.
the planes of projection. Since the glass box has six Thus, 9–10 and 10–6 form a single straight line 9–6,
sides, six views of the object can be obtained. and 7–8 and 8–2 form a single straight line 7–2, as
Note that the object has three principal dimen- shown in Fig. 4. This explains why the top view is the
sions: width, height, and depth. These are fixed terms same width as the front view and why it is placed
used for dimensions in these directions, regardless of directly above the front view. The same relation exists
the shape of the object. between the front and bottom views. Therefore, the
To show the views of a solid, or three-dimensional, front, top, and bottom views all line up vertically and
object on a flat sheet of paper, it is necessary to unfold are the same width.
the planes so that they will all lie in the same plane (Fig. In Fig. 3b, when the profile plane is folded out,
3b). All planes except the rear plane are hinged to the lines 4–13 and 13–15 become a single straight line

n FIGURE 3 n The Glass Box.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 4 n The Glass Box Unfolded.

4–15, and lines 2–16 and 16–17 become a single 3 n FOLDING LINES
straight line 2–17, as shown in Fig. 4. The same rela-
tion exists between the front, left-side, and rear views. The front, top, and right views of the object shown in the
Therefore, the rear, left-side, front, and right-side views previous figures are shown in Fig. 5a with folding lines
all line up horizontally and are the same height. between the views. These folding lines correspond to the
Note that in Fig. 3b lines OS and OW and lines hinge lines of the glass box, as we have [Link] H/F fold-
ST and WX are respectively equal. These lines of ing line, between the top and front views, is the intersec-
equal length are shown in the unfolded position in tion of the horizontal and frontal planes. The F/P folding
Fig. 4. Thus, it is seen that the top view must be the line, between the front and side views, is the intersection
same distance from the folding line OZ as the right- of frontal and profile planes (see Figs. 3 and 4).
side view is from the folding line OY. Similarly, the The distances X and Y, from the front view to the
bottom view and left-side view are the same distance respective folding lines, are not necessarily equal, since
from their respective folding lines as are the right- they depend on the relative distances of the object
side view and the top view. Therefore, the top, right- from the horizontal and profile planes. However, as
side, bottom, and left-side views are all equidistant explained in §8, distances D1, from the top and side
from the respective folding lines and are the same views to the respective folding lines, must always be
depth. Note that in these four views that surround the equal. Therefore, the views may be any desired dis-
front view, the front surfaces of the object are faced tance apart, and the folding lines may be drawn any-
inward or toward the front view. Observe also that where between them, as long as distances D1 are kept
the left-side and right-side views and the top and bot- equal and the folding lines are at right angles to the
tom views are the reverse of each other in outline projection lines between the views.
shape. Similarly, the rear and front views are the It will be seen that distances D2 and D3 , respectively,
reverse of each other. are also equal and that the folding lines H/F and F/P are

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 5 n Folding Lines.

in reality reference lines for making equal depth mea- lines for setting off depth measurements in the top and
surements in the top and side views. Thus, any point in side views, we may use the front surface A of the object
the top view is the same distance from H/F as the corre- as a reference line. In this way, D 1, D 2, and all other
sponding point in the side view is from F/P. depth measurements are made to correspond in the two
While it is necessary to understand the folding lines, views in the same manner as if folding lines were used.
particularly because they are useful in solving graphical
problems in descriptive geometry, they are as a rule 4 n TWO-VIEW INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING
omitted in industrial practice as shown in Fig. 5b. The complete structure of some objects can be shown
Again, the distances between the top and front views with only two views. For example, the necessary views
and between the side and front views are not necessari- of the operating arm in Fig. 6a include only the front
ly equal. Instead of using the folding lines as reference and top views, as shown by the arrows.

n FIGURE 6 n Two-View Instrumental Drawing (dimensions in millimeters).

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 7 n Transferring Depth Dimensions.

To draw [full size with instruments in Layout A–2] Professional drafters transfer dimensions between
the necessary views of the operating arm in Fig. 6, do the top and side views either with dividers or a scale
the following: (Figs. 7a and 7b). The scale method is especially
convenient when a drafting machine is used, because
1. Determine the spacing of the views (Fig. 6I). The
both vertical and horizontal scales are readily avail-
width of the front and top views is approximately
152 mm 16–; 25.4 mm = 1–2, and the width of the
able. Beginners may find it convenient to use a 45°

working space is approximately 266 mm A 10 12 – B .

miter line to project dimensions between top and side
views (Fig. 7c). Note that the right-side view may be
As shown in Fig. 6b, subtract 152 mm from 266 moved to the right or left, or the top view may be
mm and divide the result by 2 to get the value of moved upward or downward, by shifting the 45° line
space A. To set off the spaces, place the scale hori- accordingly. It is not necessary to draw continuous lines
zontally along the bottom of the sheet and make between the top and side views via the miter line.
short vertical marks. Instead, make short dashes across the miter line and
The depth of the top view is approximately 64
mm A 2 12 – B and the height of the front view is 45
project from these.

mm A 1 34 – B , while the height of the working space is

The 45° miter-line method is also convenient for
transferring a large number of points, as when plotting
194 mm A 7 58 – B . Assume a space C—say, 25 mm a curve (see Fig. 35).
11–2—between views that will look well and that
will provide sufficient space for dimensions, if any.
Add 64 mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, subtract the 6 n PROJECTING A THIRD VIEW
total from 194 mm, and divide the result by 2 to Figure 8a is a pictorial drawing of an object that has
get the value of space B. To set off the spaces, place three necessary views. Each corner of the object is num-
the scale vertically along the left side of the sheet bered. Figure 8I shows the top and front views, with
with the full-size scale on the left, and make short each corner properly numbered. If a point is visible in a
marks perpendicular to the scale. given view, the number is placed outside the corner, but
2. Locate center lines from spacing marks (Fig. if the point is hidden, the numeral is placed inside the
6II). Construct arcs and circles lightly. corner. For example, in Fig. 8I, point 1 is visible in both
3. Draw horizontal and then vertical construction views and the number is therefore placed outside the
lines in the order shown (Fig. 6III). Allow con- corners in both views. However, point 2 is visible in the
struction lines to cross at corners. top view and the number is placed outside, while in the
4. Add hidden lines and heavy in all final lines, clean- front view it is hidden and is placed inside.
cut and dark (Fig. 6IV). This system, in which points are identified by the
same numbers in all views, is useful in projecting known
5 n TRANSFERRING DEPTH DIMENSIONS points in two views to unknown positions in a third view.
Note that this numbering system assigns the same num-
Since all depth dimensions in the top and side views ber to a given point in all views and should not be con-
must correspond point for point, accurate methods of fused with the system used in Fig. 23 and elsewhere, in
transferring these distances must be used. which a point has different numbers in each view.

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 Multiview Projection

Before starting to project the right-side view in Fig.

8, try to visualize the view as seen in the direction of
the arrow in Fig. 8a. Then construct the right-side view
point by point, using a hard pencil and very light lines.
As shown in Fig. 8I, locate point 1 in the side
view by projecting from point 1 in the top view and
point 1 in the front view. In Fig. 8II, project points 2,
3, and 4 in a similar manner to complete the vertical
end surface of the object. In Fig. 8III, project points 5
and 6 to complete the side view of the inclined surface
5–6–2–1. This completes the right-side view, since
invisible points 9, 10, 8, and 7 are directly behind visi-
ble corners 5, 6, 4, and 3, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 8IV, the drawing is completed
by heavying in the lines in the right-side view.

7 n THREE-VIEW INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING

The complete structure of some objects, such as that in
Fig. 9a, requires three views.
To draw (full size with instruments on Layout
A–2), the necessary views of the V-block in Fig. 9a, do
the following:

1. Determine the spacing of the views (Fig. 9I). The

width of the front view is 108 mm and the depth of
the side view is 58 mm, while the width of the
working space is 266 mm. Assume a space C
between views (say, 32 mm) that will look well and
will allow sufficient space for dimensions, if any.
As shown in Fig. 9b, add 108 mm, 32 mm,
and 58 mm, subtract the total from 266 mm, and
divide the result by 2 to get the value of space A.
To set off these horizontal spacing measurements,
place the scale along the bottom of the sheet and
make short vertical marks.
The depth of the top view is 58 mm and the
height of the front view is 45 mm, while the height
of the working space is 194 mm. Assume a space D
between views (say, 25 mm). As explained in §8,
space D need not be the same as space C. Add 58
mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, subtract the total from
194 mm, and divide the result by 2 to get the value
of space B. To set off these vertical spacing mea-
surements, place the scale along the left side of the
sheet with the scale used on the left, and make
short marks perpendicular to the scale. Allow
space for written dimensions, if required.
2. Locate the center lines from the spacing marks
(Fig. 9II). Construct lightly the arcs and circles.
n FIGURE 8 n Use of Numbers. 3. Draw horizontal, then vertical, then inclined con-
struction lines, in the order shown (Fig. 9III).

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 9 n Three-View Instrumental Drawing (Dimensions in Millimeters).

Allow construction lines to cross at the corners. 9 n PARTIAL VIEWS

Do not complete one view at a time; construct the A view may not need to be complete but may show only
views simultaneously. A convenient method for what is necessary for the clear description of the object
transferring the hole diameter from the top view (Fig. 11). Such a view is a partial view. A break line may
to the side view is to use the compass with the be used to limit the partial view (Fig. 11a); the contour
same setting used for drawing the hole. of the part shown may limit the view (Fig. 11b); if sym-
4. Add hidden lines and heavy in all final lines, clean- metrical, a half-view may be drawn on one side of the
cut and dark (Fig. 9IV). center line (Fig. 11c); or a partial view, “broken out,”
may be drawn (Fig. 11d). The half view shown in Figs.
11c and 11d should be the near side, as shown.
8 n ALTERNATE POSITIONS OF VIEWS Do not place a break line where it will coincide
If three views of a wide, flat object are drawn using the with a visible or hidden line.
conventional arrangement of views, a large wasted Occasionally the distinctive features of an object
space is left on the paper (Fig. 10a). In such cases, the are on opposite sides. In either complete side view there
profile plane may be considered hinged to the horizon- will be a considerable overlapping of shapes. In such
tal plane instead of the frontal plane (Fig. 10b). This cases two side views are often the best solution (Fig.
places the side view beside the top view, which results 12). The views are partial views, and in both, certain
in better spacing and sometimes makes the use of a visible and invisible lines have been omitted for clarity.
reduced scale unnecessary.
It is also permissible in extreme circumstances to
place the side view across horizontally from the bottom 10 n REVOLUTION CONVENTIONS
view. In this case the profile plane is considered hinged Regular multiview projections are sometimes awk-
to the bottom plane of projection. Similarly, the rear ward, confusing, or actually misleading. For example,
view may be placed directly above the top view or Fig. 13a shows an object that has three triangular ribs,
under the bottom view, if necessary. As a result, the three holes equally spaced in the base, and a keyway.
rear plane is considered hinged to the horizontal or The right-side view (Fig. 13b) is a regular projection
bottom plane, as the case may be, and then rotated into and is not recommended. The lower ribs appear in a
coincidence with the frontal plane.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 10 n Position of Side View.

n FIGURE 11 n Partial Views.

n FIGURE 12 n Incomplete Side Views.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 13 n Revolution Conventions.

foreshortened position, the holes do not appear in their Revolutions of the type discussed here are fre-
true relation to the rim of the base, and the keyway is quently used in connection with sectioning. Such sec-
projected as a confusion of hidden lines. tional views are called aligned sections.
The conventional method shown in Fig. 13c is
preferred, not only because it is simpler to read, but 11 n REMOVED VIEWS
also because it requires less drafting time. Each of the
A removed view is a complete or partial view removed to
features mentioned has been revolved in the front view
another place on the sheet so that it no longer is in direct
to lie along the vertical center line, from where it is pro-
projection with any other view (Fig. 15). Such a view may
jected to the correct side view (Fig. 13c).
be used to show some feature of the object more clearly,
Figures 13d and 13e show regular views of a
possibly to a larger scale, or to save drawing a complete
flange with many small holes. The hidden holes in Fig.
regular view. A viewing-plane line is used to indicate the
13e are confusing and take unnecessary time to draw.
part being viewed; the arrows at the corners show the
The preferred representation in Fig. 13f shows the
direction of sight. The removed views should be labeled
holes revolved, and the drawing is clear.
VIEW A–A or VIEW B–B and so on; the letters refer to those
Another example is given in Fig. 14. As shown in
placed at the corners of the viewing-plane line.
Fig. 14a, a regular projection produces a confusing fore-
shortening of the inclined arm. To preserve the appear-
ance of symmetry about the common center, the lower 12 n VISUALIZATION
arm is revolved to line up vertically in the front view so The ability to visualize or think in
that it projects true length in the side view (Fig. 14b). three dimensions is one of the most important abili-

n FIGURE 14 n Revolution Conventions.

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 Multiview Projection

13 n VISUALIZING THE VIEWS

Figure 16 illustrates a method of reading drawings
that is essentially the reverse of the mental process
used in obtaining the views by projection. The given
views of an angle bracket are shown in Fig. 16a.

1. The front view (Fig. 16I) shows that the object is

L-shaped, the height and width of the object, and
the thickness of the members. The meaning of the
hidden and center lines is not yet clear; nor do we
yet know the depth of the object.
2. The top view (Fig. 16II) tells us that the horizon-
tal member is rounded at the right end and has a
n FIGURE 15 n Removed View.
round hole. Some kind of slot is indicated at the
left end. The depth and width of the object are
shown.
ties of successful engineers, designers, and scientists.
3. The right-side view (Fig. 16III) tells us that the
In practice, this means the ability to study the views
left end of the object has rounded corners at the
of an object and to form a mental picture of it—to
top and has an open-end slot in a vertical position.
visualize its three-dimensional shape. To the designer
The height and depth of the object are shown.
it means the ability to synthesize, or form, a mental
picture before the object even exists and the ability
Thus, each view provides certain definite informa-
to express this image in terms of views. The engineer
tion regarding the shape of the object. All views must
is the master planner in the construction of new
be considered to visualize the object completely.
equipment, structures, or processes. The ability to
visualize and to use the graphic language as a means
of communication or recording of mental images is
indispensable. 14 n MODELS
Even experienced engineers and designers cannot One of the best aids to visualization is an actual model
look at a multiview drawing and instantly visualize the of the object. Such a model need not be made accurate-
object represented (except for the simplest shapes) any ly to scale and may be made of any convenient materi-
more than we can grasp the ideas on a book page al, such as modeling clay, soap, wood, styrofoam, or any
merely at a glance. It is necessary to study the drawing, material that can easily be shaped, carved, or cut.
to read the lines in a logical way, and to piece together A typical example of the use of soap or clay models
the little things until a clear idea of the whole emerges. is shown in Fig. 17. Three views of an object are given
How this is done is described in §§8–32. in Fig. 17a, and the student is to supply a missing line.

n FIGURE 16 n Visualizing from Given Views.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 17 n Use of Model to Aid Visualization.

n FIGURE 18 n Soap Models.

The model is carved as shown in Figs. 17I–17III. The the plane of projection to which it is parallel (see §8).
“missing” line discovered in the process is added to the If a plane surface is perpendicular to a plane of
drawing (Fig. 17b). projection, it appears as a line or edge view (EV) (Fig.
Some typical examples of soap models are shown 19a). If it is parallel, it appears as a true size (TS) sur-
in Fig. 18. face (Fig. 19b). If it is situated at an angle, it appears
as a foreshortened (FS) surface (Fig. 19c). Thus, a
plane surface always projects as a line or a surface.
15 n SURFACES, EDGES, AND CORNERS The intersection of two plane surfaces produces an
To analyze and synthesize multiview projections, the edge, or a straight line. Such a line is common to both
component elements that make up most solids must be surfaces and forms a boundary line for each. If an edge
considered. A surface (plane) may be bounded by is perpendicular to a plane of projection, it appears as a
straight lines, curves, or a combination of them. A sur- point (Fig. 20a); otherwise it appears as a line, as in
face may be frontal, horizontal, or profile, according to Figs.20b and 20c. If it is parallel to the plane of pro-

n FIGURE 19 n Projections of Surfaces.

166
 Multiview Projection

A CAD Solid Model and Several Surface Projections. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

jection, it shows true length (Fig. 20b); if not parallel, 16 n ADJACENT AREAS
it appears foreshortened (Fig. 20c). Thus, a straight
line always projects as a straight line or as a point. A line Consider the top view in Fig. 21a. Lines divide the
may be frontal, horizontal, or profile, according to the view into three areas. Each area must represent a sur-
plane of projection to which it is parallel. face at a different level. Surface A may be high and sur-
A corner, or point, is the common intersection of faces B and C lower (Fig. 21b). Or B may be lower
three or more surfaces or edges. A point appears as a than C (Fig. 21c). Or B may be highest, with C and A
point in every view. each lower (Fig. 21d). Or one or more surfaces may

n FIGURE 20 n Projections of Lines.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 21 n Adjacent Areas.

n FIGURE 22 n Similar Shapes.

be inclined (Fig. 21e). Or one or more surfaces may Evidently, line 11–15 in the front view is the edge view of
be cylindrical (Fig. 21f), and so on. No two adjacent the L-shaped surface.
areas can lie in the same plane. Surface 11–13–12 in the front view is triangular in
The same reasoning can apply, of course, to the shape, but no corresponding triangles appear in either
adjacent areas in any given view. Since an area (sur- the top or the side view. We note that point 12 lines up
face) in a view can be interpreted in several different with 8 and 4 and that point 13 lines up with 6 and 9.
ways, other views must be observed to determine However, surface 11–13–12 of the front view cannot
which interpretation is correct. be the same as surface 4–6–9–8 in the top view because
the former has three sides and the latter has four. Obvi-
17 n SIMILAR SHAPES OF SURFACES ously, the triangular surface appears as line 4–6 in the
top view and as line 16–19 in the side view.
If a surface is viewed from several different positions, it Surface 12–13–15–14 in the front view is trape-
will in each case been seen to have a certain number of zoidal in shape. But there are no trapezoids in the top and
sides and to have a certain characteristic shape. An side views, so the surface evidently appears in the top
L-shaped surface (Fig. 22a) will appear as an L-shaped view as line 7–10 and in the side view as line 18–20.
figure in every view in which it does not appear as a line. The remaining surfaces can be identified in the same
A T-shaped surface (Fig. 22b), a U-shaped surface (Fig. manner, where it will be seen that the object is bounded
22c), or a hexagonal surface (Fig. 22d) will in each case by seven plane surfaces, two of which are rectangular,
have the same number of sides and the same characteris- two triangular, two L-shaped, and one trapezoidal.
tic shape in every view in which it appears as a surface.
This repetition of shapes is one of our best meth-
ods for analyzing views. n FIGURE 23 n Reading a Drawing.

18 n READING A DRAWING
Suppose we want to visualize the object shown by
three views in Fig. 23. Since no lines are curved, we
know that the object is made up of plane surfaces.
Surface 2–3–10–9–6–5 in the top view is an L-shaped
surface of six sides. It appears in the side view at
16–17–21–20–18–19 and is L-shaped and six-sided. No
such shape appears in the front view, but we note that
points 2 and 5 line up with 11 in the front view, points 6
and 9 line up with 13, and points 3 and 10 line up with 15.

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 Multiview Projection

Note that the numbering system used in Fig. 23 is 17–18–20–19, as line 3–7 in the top view, and as line
different from that in Fig. 8 in that different numbers 10–13 in the front view. Normal surface C, an inverted
are used for all points and there is no significance in a T-shaped surface, is parallel to the frontal plane and
point being inside or outside a corner. appears true size in the front view at
9–10–13–14–16–15–11–12, as line 5–8 in the top
view, and as line 17–21 in the side view.
19 n NORMAL SURFACES All other surfaces of the object may be visualized
A normal surface is a plane surface that is parallel to a in a similar manner. In the four stages of Fig. 24,
plane of projection. It appears in true size and shape on observe carefully the changes in the views produced
the plane to which it is parallel, and as a vertical or a by the machining operations, including the introduc-
horizontal line on adjacent planes of projection. tion of new surfaces, new visible edges, and hidden
In Fig. 24 four stages in machining a block of edges and the dropping out of certain lines as the
steel to produce the final tool block in Fig 24IV are result of a new cut.
shown. All surfaces are normal surfaces. In Fig. 24I, The top view in Fig. 24I is cut by lines 2–6 and
normal surface A is parallel to the horizontal plane 3–7, which means that there are three surfaces,
and appears true size in the top view at 2–3–7–6, as 1–2–6–5, 2–3–7–6, and 3–4–8–7. In the front view, sur-
line 9–10 in the front view, and as line 17–18 in the face 9–10 is seen to be the highest, and surfaces 11–12
side view. Normal surface B is parallel to the profile and 13–14 are at the same lower level. In the side view,
plane and appears true size in the side view at both of these latter surfaces appear as one line 19–20.

n FIGURE 24 n Machining a Tool Block—Normal Surfaces and Edges.

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 Multiview Projection

Surface 11–12 might appear as a hidden line in the side 21 n INCLINED SURFACES
view, but surface 13–14 appears as a visible line 19–20, An inclined surface is a plane surface that is perpen-
which covers up the hidden line and takes precedence dicular to one plane of projection but inclined to adja-
over it. cent planes. An inclined surface projects as a straight
line on the plane to which it is perpendicular; it appears
foreshortened (FS) on planes to which it is inclined,
20 n NORMAL EDGES with the degree of foreshortening being proportional
A normal edge is a line that is perpendicular to a plane to the angle of inclination.
of projection. It appears as a point on the plane of pro- Figure 25 shows four stages in machining a locat-
jection to which it is perpendicular and as a line in true ing finger, producing several inclined surfaces. In Fig.
length on adjacent planes of projection. In Fig. 24I, 25I, inclined surface A is perpendicular to the hori-
edge D is perpendicular to the profile plane of projec- zontal plane of projection and appears as line 5–3 in
tion and appears as point 17 in the side view. It is par- the top view. It is shown as a foreshortened surface in
allel to the frontal and horizontal planes of projection the front view at 7–8–11–10 and in the side view at
and is shown true length at 9–10 in the front view and 12–13–16–15. Note that the surface is more foreshort-
6–7 in the top view. Edges E and F are perpendicular, ened in the side view than in the front view because the
respectively, to the frontal and horizontal planes of plane makes a greater angle with the profile plane of
projection, and their views may be similarly analyzed. projection than with the frontal plane of projection.

n FIGURE 25 n Machining a Locating Finger—Inclined Surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

In Fig. 25III, edge 23–24 in the front view is in the top view at 5–3. It is foreshortened in the front
the edge view of an inclined surface that appears in view at 7–8 and in the side view at 12–13. Note that
the top view as 21–2–3–22 and in the side view as plane A produces two normal edges and two inclined
25–14–27–26. Note that 25–14 is equal in length to edges.
21–22 and that the surface has the same number of In Figs. 25III and 25IV, some of the sloping
sides (four) in both views in which it appears as a lines are not inclined lines. In Fig. 25III, the edge that
surface. appears in the top view at 21–22, in the front view at
In Fig. 25IV, edge 29–23 in the front view is the 23–24, and in the side view at 14–27 is an inclined line.
edge view of an inclined surface that appears in the top However, the edge that appears in the top view at
view as visible surface 1–21–22–5–18 and in the side 22–23, in the front view at 23–24, and in the side view
view as invisible surface 25–14–32–31–30. While the at 25–26 is not an inclined line by the definition given
surface does not appear true size in any view, it does here. Actually, it is an oblique line (see §8).
have the same characteristic shape and the same num-
ber of sides (five) in the views in which it appears as a
surface.
23 n OBLIQUE SURFACES
To obtain the true size of an inclined surface, it is
necessary to construct an auxiliary view or to revolve An oblique surface is a plane that is oblique to all
the surface until it is parallel to a plane of projection. planes of projection. Since it is not perpendicular to
any plane, it cannot appear as a line in any view. Since it
is not parallel to any plane, it cannot appear true size in
22 n INCLINED EDGES any view. Thus, an oblique surface always appears as a
An inclined edge is a line that is parallel to a plane of foreshortened surface in all three views.
projection but inclined to adjacent planes. It appears In Fig. 26II, oblique surface C appears in the top
true length on the plane to which it is parallel and fore- view at 25–3–6–26 and in the front view at
shortened on adjacent planes, with the degree of fore- 29–8–31–30. What are its numbers in the side view?
shortening being proportional to the angle of Note that any surface appearing as a line in any view
inclination. The true-length view of an inclined line is cannot be an oblique surface. How many inclined sur-
always inclined, while the foreshortened views are faces are there? How many normal surfaces?
either vertical or horizontal lines.