Module 1 smaller diameter upto 1.

smaller diameter upto 1.7 mm which makes it comfortable for viewing smaller objects and ranges to a length of Excess penetrant removal

Non destructive testing is a descriptive term used for the examination of materials and components in such a way about 100 to 150 mm Developer application

that allows materials to be examined without changing or destroying their usefulness. ndt or Nde can be used to Indication development

find, size and locate surface and subsurface flaws and defects. Ndt plays a crucial role in everyday life and is Fibroscopes Inspection

necessary to assure safety and reliability. Typical examples are found in aircraft, spacecraft (shuttle), motor It is also known as flexible fibre-optic borescope (or) flexiscopes. A fiberscope is a flexible optical fiber bundle with Clean surface

vehicles, pipelines, bridges, trains, power stations, re fineries, buildings and oil platforms which are all inspected an eyepiece on one end and a lens on the other that is used to examine and inspect small, difficult-to-reach places

using [Link] is a quality assurance management tool which can give impressive results when used correctly. It such as the insides of machines A fiberscope that transfers images from the object site to the display panel using Advantages

requires an understanding of the various methods available, their capabilities and limitations, knowledge of the fibre optics. Fiber optic fibers convey messages in the form of light. While the fiberoptic cables are fragile, the High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected). Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic,

relevant standards and speci fications for performing the tests flexibility of the device is remarkable Fiberscopes are made of fragile glass optical fibers, which can easily get magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected). Rapid inspection of

damaged and degrade the picture quality. large areas and volumes. Suitable for parts with complex shapes. Indications are produced directly on the surface

Objectives of ndt of the part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw. Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
Accident prevention and to reduce costs Telescope: Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

to improve product reliability Telescope is a device which makes the faraway objects to appear much closer .It consists of two lenses called LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

to determine acceptance to a given requirement objective and eyepiece Glass lenses are provided at the refractor telescopes and mirror replaces the glass lenses in Disadvantage Only surface breaking defects can be detected. Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface

to give information on repair criteria case of re flector telescopes. The objective lens (in refractors) (or) primary mirror (in reflectors) collects light from can be inspected. Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects. Metal smearing from machining.

the object and focuses as it to a point. An eyepiece lens takes the light from the focus and magni fies it grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed. The inspector must have direct access to the surface being

Application of ndt inspected. Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity. Multiple process operations must be
Aerospace - testing castings Computer enhanced visual system: performed and controlled. Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is require

Automotive - to test the durability of piston heads. The computer enhanced visual system makes use of a video camera for data collection and a computer (software)

Manufacturing - to test the quality of components before it goes into production. for data analysis Process control system controls the overall inspection process. It provides the commands and PENETRANT MATERIALS COME IN TWO BASIC TYPES

Medical devices - to test the durability and composition of stents. provides the timing signals to control the system wide database. Sensing system provides the illumination source 1- fluorescent penetrants: they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed To ultraviolet radiation.
Military and defense - ballistics testing and analysis. for the part Special purpose sensor system, such as scanning triangulation sensors, may require sophisticated Generally green in colour and they contain dye that glow brightly when exposed to uv lights. It is highly sensitive

optical systems such as scanning mirrors, elliptical mirrors and holographic gratings. Image processing system than visible penetrants and it requires a darkened area for inspection.

Visual inspection gets the input image data from the sensing system. Flaw analysis system examines the areas identified by image 2- visible penetrants; they contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background.

Visual inspection is one of the simplest, fastest and most commonly used non- destructive testing method. As the processing system and determines the part classification based on flaw decision rule. Frame grabber card in the Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is drawn to the

name implies, visual inspection involves the visual observation of test specimen to detect the presence of surface flaw analysis system examines the image which is captured by camera in the image processing system. The glow of the fluorescing indication. However, visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light
discontinuities It may be done by direct viewing (or) with the help of optical instruments such as magnifying software in the computer then analyses the image and makes a decision as whether the object passes or fails in in order to make an inspection.

glasses, mirrors, borescope (or) microscope to inspect closely the subject area the inspection. Depending on the level of automation, task of the inspector is reduced. Penetrants properties/characteristics:

Spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and even Coverage. Be drawn

Visual inspection-lighting sources: Advantages: into surface breaking defects by capillary action. Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the

1 Incandescent lamps.2 fluorescent lamps.3 High intensity discharge lamps. A machine vision system can easily assess object details too small to be seen by the human eye, and inspect them part. Remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and developing steps. Be
Factors affecting visual inspection with greater reliability and lesser error. It can be used to inspect wide range of products. It can work throughout the highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications. Not be harmful to the material being tested or
1. Surface conditions: cleanliness, colour. texture. day and does not get tired. Inspection can be done at a higher speed than human being. Maintains consistency of the inspector

2. Physical conditions: specimen conditions shape. size. temperature. 3. Environmental factors: atmosphere, inspection.

cleanliness. humidity and temperature. safety 4. Physiological factors: physical comfort. health, mental attitude. Developers :

fatigue, test item position. Disadvantages : The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and spread it out on the surface of

Software must be carefully selected and implemented Lighting conditions must be well designed. It follows only the the part so it can be seen by an inspector. Developers used with visible penetrants create a white background so

Optical aids used in visual inspection: rules and does not take real-time decisions. there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and the surrounding background

Mirrors. Magnifying [Link]., Borescopes, Telescopes, Computer enhanced systems. Module 2 Properties of a good developer:

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION (LPI): 1. Material must be absorptive to perform blotting action 2. Must have fine texture 3. Must mask out background
Borescope PRINCIPLES contours and colour 4. Must be easily and evenly applicable 5. Must form light and even coat 6. Must be no

Borescope is an optical instrument which is used to inspect the inside of a narrow tube, bore or chamber. It Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplest ndt methods where its earliest versions (using kerosene fluorescing of developer when fluorescent penetrant is used 7. Penetrant bleeding must easily wet the material
consists of a rigid or flexible tube with an eyepiece at one end and an objective lens on the other end. It consists of and oil mixture) date back to the 19th century. This method is used to reveal surface discontinuities by bleed out of

a complex arrangement of prisms and plain lenses through which the light is passed to obtain a clear image It is a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" Types of developers

available in diameter which ranges from 2,5 to 19 mm and of smaller length, as the length of borescope increases, surface discontinuity by capillary action. After a period of time called the "dwell time", excess surface penetrant is [Link] powder developers. [Link] suspendable developers. 3. Water soluble developers. [Link] -aqueous

brightness of the image decreases due to loss of light removed and a developer applied. This acts as a blotter that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal its developers.

presence

Endoscope: Dry powder developers:

An endoscope is an optical instrument which is used for visual inspection of interior surfaces in tubes, holes or Procedure of liquid penetrant testing Dry developer is characterized by their fluffy nature and low bulk density. Dry developer is loosely held on the part
other hard-to-reach [Link] is same as the borescope but it has a superior optical system and high-intensity light Surface preparation Penetrant application surface by adhesion and the coating layer is very thin and uniform. Dry powder developers can be applied to the test

source. No focusing feature is the one which makes it preferable than borescope. Endoscope are available in Penetrant dwell

material. (1) by dipping parts in a developer container. (li) by placing parts in a dust cabinet where the developer is will appear only slightly different from the background area There are three different methods for removing excess

blown. Penetrant testing method: penetrant, depending on the type of penetrant used.

The commonly used penetrant testing methods are (1) Water washable method. (li)Post emulsi fiable method. A) Solvent removal method B) Water washable method. C) Post emulsi fiable method
Advantages of dry developer. (lii)Solvent removable method

Does not require a liquid bath. APPLICATIONS LPI

Easier to transport than liquid bath. Water washable method: (I) aerospace: Typical components that are checked by this method include turbine, rotor discs and blades, aircraft

In this method as shown in the fig., The materials used are water soluble. After the initial cleaning and drying wheels, castings, forged components and welded assemblies.

Disadvantages of dry developer. process, the penetrant applied shall be a water-based fluid. After the dwell time, the rinse or penetrant removal step (li) automobile: Many automotive parts particular aluminium castings and forging including pistons and cylinder

Air cleaners, facemasks, or respirators may be required. is different for various application methods. Use of large volume of water would require facilities for adequate heads are subjected to this form of quality checks before assembly

Part must be completely dry prior to application draining and disposal of the rinsed water Developer application follows the rinse step. When aqueous developers (lii) railway Liquid penetrant inspection to detect fatigue cracking is also used for the regular in- service examination

are used, there is no need for a drying step prior to the application of the developer. If non-aqueous developer is of the bogie frames of railway locomotives.

Water-suspendable developer : used, the part is dried before the developer application. Development time begins immediately after application of (Iv) tools and dies: Drill pipe, castings and drilling equipment's are inspected by this method.

Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developers particles suspended in water. Water suspendable the dry developer and as soon as wet developer coating dries on the surface of the part. The completion of (V) inspection on reactors and tanks: Tanks, vessels, reactors, piping, dryers and pumps in the chemical, petro-

developers require frequent stirring (or) agitation to keep the particles from settling out of suspension. The solution development step is indicated by the movement of penetrant coming out of the defect has ceased. chemical, food, paper and processing industries use this liquid penetrant inspection

is di fficult to maintain as the powder settles out over time It is applied by dipping, pouring or brushing the solution
onto the test specimen. Advantages: MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI)

(1) higher sensitivity. (li) low cost (economical) (iii) easy removal of excess penetrant (Iv) easily adaptable for both basic principles -In theory,magnetic particle testing has a relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a

Water soluble developers: large surfaces & large quantity of small parts. combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing. For the case
Water-soluble developers are developer particles dissolved in a water solution. Water-soluble developers contain of a bar magnet, the magnetic field is in and around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or
wetting agents, corrosion inhibitors They differ from wet suspended developer since the drying process, the Limitations: enters the magnet is called a pole (magnetic lines of force exit the magnet from north pole and enter from the south

developer particles crystallize out of solution as the water e evaporates. The resulting coating is thick, bright white (1) not portable. (li) requires a darkened area for evaluation. (ii) insensitive to shallow discontinuities. (Iv) water pole).

and readily visible contamination affects the quality of penetrants. (V) under (or) over removal of penetrant possible. Head shot technique :

This technique produces circular magnetization by passing electric current through the part itself. In this technique,

Non-aqueous developers Post-emulsi fiable method : a round bar is held between the heads in a wet horizontal unit. (Wet horizontal unit is a stationary unit in which

. Nonaqueous solvent-based developers are composed of particles of developer suspended in a mixture of volatile Post-emulsi fiable method as shown in the fig. Is a combination of solvent and water based inspections. The longitudinal and circular fields can be produced. The unit has a fixed headstock and sliding tailstock. The part
solvents. These developers are typically packaged in ready-to-use aerosol cans. The suspending solvents of these differences between the post- emulsifiable penetrant method and water washable method are [Link] used. (round bar) can be placed between these, by adjusting the tailstock.) As the current flows from one end to the
developers are carefully selected for their compatibility with penetrants This method is too costly and di fficult to [Link] for an emulsifier. If the solvent based penetrant is used and followed by an emulsifier application, it allows another end of the bar, the magnetic lines of force gets circulated around the bar. This circulation of magnetic flux
apply in the large areas. the remaining process to follow the water washable path. Advantage of this method is that solvent penetrants that around the bar is known as the circular magnetism and the technique is called as the head shot technique. The

may be required for some parts may be removed by water. strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed through the component. One
Dwell time: major disadvantage of head shot technique is that, it produces beating and arcing at the juncture. This is due to the

Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. The dwell time is Advantages: passage of high current through small contact area. Therefore, to avoid over heating and arcing. the contact faces

important because it allows the penetrant the time necessary to seep or be drawn into a defect. 1. Highly sensitive to fine flaws. 2. Adaptable for high volume testing. 3. Not easily affected by acids. on the heads should be made flexible

Interpretation of results: Limitations: Coil shot technique:

The indication plays a major role in reliability of penetrant testing on interpreting the indications & results there are 1. Not portable. 2. Not effective for parts with intricate shape. [Link] fication time must be closely controlled. This technique produces longitudinal magnetization, by placing component longitudinally within a current carrying

several key features are noted. coil. As current flux through the coil, the flux will be generated in the component, creating perpendicular to the
[Link] must enter the discontinuity/ defect in order to form an indication. So, it is important to allow su fficient Solvent-removable method: magnetic lines of force f to the length of the part). This method of the transverse direction, longitudinal direction of

time so the penetrant can fill the defect. The defect must be clean and free of foreign materials so that penetrant is It is an oil-based inspection process. After the preliminary processes like precleaning, drying, penetrant application, the component is known as longitudinal magnetism. The major advantage is that they will not cause thermal

free to enter. the penetrant is removed by wiping action using a solvent dipped cloth. Here the non-aqueous developer is used for damage to component, since the current does not flow through it
2. Clean cracks are generally easy to detect. But some uncontaminated surface opening which are very fine is developer action. This method is most suitable for small parts and onsite applications due to its portability.

di fficult to detect. Advantages : Central conductor technique:

3. If all penetrant is washed out of a defect, an indication cannot be formed. During the washing (or) rinsing 1. Used for spot examinations on large parts [Link] when water removal is not feasible. [Link] using non- Central conductor technique is also called as the threaded bar technique. This technique produces circular

operation, prior to development it is possible that the penetrant will be removed from the defect as well as from the aqueous developer, no-need of drying time. magnetization and can be used to inspect both the inside and outside of the component objects such as tubes,

surface Limitations: ducts car be inspected using this technique. The threading bar, which is placed inside the component, is made up of

4, Smaller the defect, the longer the penetrating time. Fine cracks like apertures require a longer penetrating time 1. Limited to smaller surfaces. [Link] environment is required. 3. Background indications may be generated. 4. a good conductor such as copper and aluminum as the current flows through the bar, the resultant flux field will be
than defects such as pores Sensitivity can be reduced if excessive remover is applied generates surrounding the test object. This flux field will be at right angles to the current: flow but the defects are
.5. When the dwell time is more, we can get good indication. On the other hand, if the dwell time is less, it re flects on shown in the direction parallel to the current flow. A big advantage is that the flux flows on both the inner as well as
indication with less clarity. Removal of excess penetrant: the outer surface of the tube, so that internal defects can be found. Also, there is a less risk of burning the

6. Visible penetrant type developer when applied on the test surface, bright red indications will appear where there In this step excess amount of penetrant is removed from the surface of the specimen. Care must be exercised so component as the current flows through the threading bar
are surface defects. If no red indications there are no surface defects. that neither insu fficient cleaning nor over cleaning is done Excess cleaning may remove penetrant from the upper
7 Fluorescent penetrant type developers, when applied on the test surface, the defects will show up as a brilliant region of the defect with the result that the developer does not reach the penetrant and no defect is indicated. On PIE GAGE

yellow-green colour and the surface area will appear deep blue colour. the other hand insu fficient cleaning will leave a background of penetrant on the surface with the result that defect
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight Sections by non-ferromagnetic north poles or two south poles are kept close together, they will repel each another. 3. Magnetic field: the magnetic Large size specimen can be inspected in short duration.

material (such as copper). The divisions serve as arti ficial Defects that radiate out in different directions from the field is the area around a magnet in which the magnetic forces are observable. 4. Permeability permeability is the Very cheap & has high speed of operation.

center. The sections are furnace Brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up and ease with which a material can be magnetised. It is expressed with the symbol " 5. Flux density: flux density is

the test Piece is magnetized. After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications Provide the defined as the number of lines of force per unit area. Flux density is measured in gauss. It is represented with the Limitations of ultrasonic testing:

inspector the orientation of the magnetic field symbol "b" [Link]: the ability of a coil to retain some of its magnetism within the core after the magnetisation Surface must be accessible and smooth. Complex geometries are di fficult to inspect. Reference standards are
process has stopped is known as retentivity required for both equipment calibration and the characterization of flaws. Not suitable for coarse grained surfaces
DRY PARTICLE INSPECTION Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected

In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test object as the item is Ferromagnetic materials

magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough surfaces. When an They have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic Application of ultrasonic testing

electromagnetic yoke is used, the ac or half wave de current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed -Testing ferrous and non-ferrous pipes, rods and bars. Detecting corrosion in various petroleum and gas supply

mobility to the powder. The primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and rough as cast surfaces. Examples-iron, nickel, cobalt lines. Testing welds in pressure vessels, pipes, structure, bridges, aircrafts etc Fatigue detection in welds and boilers

Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks. Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed components. Inspecting large casting, forgings, rail

Paramagnetic materials and rolled steel sections.

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles They have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic
Prepare the part surface field, and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed Examples of Modes of wave propagation -

Apply the magnetizing force paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium Based on the mode of vibration of the particles of the medium with respect to the direction of propagation of the

Applying dry magnetic particles waves,

Advantages Diamagnetic materials ultrasonic waves are classi fied as follows

Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw. material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Examples of diamagnetic [Link] waves. 2 Longitudinal waves. [Link] waves. [Link] waves

Mpi does not require very stringent pre-cleaning operation. materials include copper, silver, gold [Link] waves:

Portable low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)Fast and relatively simple ndt In the transverse or shear waves, particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagation.

method. INTERPRETATON OF MPI Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not effectively

Magnetic particle inspection is a simple ndi method used to detect cracks at the surface of ferromagnetic materials propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Transverse wave motion is that wave motion in which particles

Disadvantages such as steels and nickel-based alloys. The inspection process begins with the magnetisation of the component. of the medium execute shm (simple harmonic motion) about their mean positions in a direction perpendicular to

Only surface and near surface defects can be detected. The surface is then coated with small magnetic particles, which is usually a dry or wet suspension of iron filings. the direction of propagation of the wave, Such waves are called transverse waves.

Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials. Surface cracks or corrosion pits create a flux leakage field in the magnetised component, as shown in fig. 23.10. Examples of transverse waves are waves produced by plucked strings of veena ,guitar or violin and electromagnetic

Large currents are required to produce strong magnetic field The magnetic particles are attracted to the flux leakage and thereby cluster at the crack. This cluster of particles is waves.

Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected. easier to see than the actual crack, and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

Parts are often required to be demagnetised, which may be di fficult. 2 Longitudinal waves.

The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected. Limitations of magnetic particle inspection In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave propagation. Since

Cannot inspect non- ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or most stainless steels Inspection of large compression and expansion forces are active in these waves, they are also called pressure or compression waves.

Wet suspension inspection parts may require use of equipment with special power requirements. Some parts may require removal of coating or They are also sometimes called density waves because material density fluctuates as the wave moves.
Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more commonly known as wet magnetic particle inspection, involves plating to achieve desired inspection sensitivity Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum Compression waves can be generated in gases, liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the

applying the particles while they are suspended in a liquid carrier A wet inspection has several advantages over a depth sensitivity is approximately 0.6" (under ideal conditions). Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often atomic structure by a series of compressions and expansion movements.

dry inspection. First, all of the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform necessary Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important
layer of particles Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which [Link] waves

allows enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is Module 4 Surface (or rayleigh) waves travel at the surface of a relatively thick solid material penetrating to a depth of one

considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the Ultrasonic testing wavelength. A surface wave is a combination of both a longitudinal and transverse motion which results in an

particles (which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and lose mobility, rendering (principle) A typical ultrasonic inspection system consistsof several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, elliptical motion as shown in the image. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the solid. As

them less effective than dry powders under these conditions transducer and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage ultrasonic the depth of an individual atom from the surface increases, the width of its elliptical motion decreases. Rayleigh

energy. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency energy. The sound energy is introduced and waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects (and other surface features) and they follow the

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity in the wave path, part of the surface around curves.

Prepare the part surface energy will be re flected back from the surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical signal by the
Apply the suspension transducer, and it is displayed on a screen Signal travel time can be directlyrelated to the distance that the signal [Link] waves.

Apply the magnetizing force travelled From the signal, information about the re flector flaw location, size, and orientation and other features can Plate (or lamb) waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be generated in materials a few

Inspect for indications be obtained wavelengths thick (thin plates). Lamb waves are complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to the test

surface throughout the thickness of the material.

Important terminologies Advantages of ultrasonic inspection

1. Polarity in magnetism, polarity refers to the orientation of north and south poles in space. 2. Magnetic force: Sensitive to both surface and sub-surface discontinuities, Snell's law

magnetic force is a force of attraction or repulsion that one body has upon another. For example: when the north Depth of penetration for flaw detection is superior to other ndt methods. The relationship between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the velocity of the waves, when sound

pole of a magnetized rod is placed closely to the south pole of another, they attract one another. Conversely, if two Small discontinuities can be detected waves are travelling between two materials, is explained through snell's law.

sound waves at an angle into the material, and the receiver picking up diffracted signals. With an undamaged item, 2. Double wall single image (DWSI) techniques:

Piezoelectric transducer the signals picked up by the receiver probe are from two waves - one wave that travels along the surface (lateral Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to permit the use of an internal source

The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations wave) and one that re flects off the far wall (back wall reflection) If there is a flaw, such as crack, there is a then the double wall, single image (dwsi) technique is [Link] dwsi method, both the source and the film are kept
back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing.A piezo-electric crystal generates electricity when it is diffraction of the ultrasound pulse from the tips of the crack. By measuring the time of flight of the pulse, the depth outside the film, but on opposite sides of it. LE. The source is kept very close to the outside surface of the pipe and
vibrated mechanically. When electric pulse is applied to piezo electric crystal, it produces high frequency ultrasonic of the crack can be calculated by trigonometry. Time of flight diffraction is mainly used for weld inspection. Time of the film is kept on the other outer side of the pipe. A powerful radiographic source penetrates both the walls of the
waves due to its vibrations Piezo electric material is mounted at the front end of transducer. When an electric field flight diffraction (tofd) is one of the most reliable non destructive testing methods in testing welds for both pre- pipe and then the image of the weld is formed on the film In this method, only the film side weld is exposed and it

is applied across the piezo electric material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, service and in-service inspection requires a number of exposures to cover the whole length of the weld. Further, the source is far away from the film

resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules and hence the image is extremity poor in sharpness. When compared with swsi, this method is very poor in

will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as [Link] addition, a Modes of display: sensitivity as it requires an extra absorption of radiation.

permanently -polarized material such as quartz (sio2) or barium titanate (batio3) will produce an electric field when In ultrasonic testing, the ultrasonic signals are transferred into the ert screen to obtain the image of the defects. The

the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the presentation of the image of defects in the crt screen are of different types 3. Double wall double image (DWDI) technique:

piezoelectric effect. The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the transducer. A 1.A-scan 2. B-scan 3. C-scan In dwdi method, the source and film are kept, again on opposite sides and outside the pipe. Here, the source and the

thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness. Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to film are displaced so that the radiation passes obliquely through the pipe. By offsetting the source from the weld
a thickness that is 1/2 the desired radiated wavelength. A-scan is one of the simplest method of displaying the results of ultrasonic testing. Here the time of flight of the centre line and using a long source to film distance it is possible to project an image onto the film of both the upper

pulse is represented in x-axis and the amplitude of the echoes are represented in y-axis. The a-scan shows the size and the lower parts of the weld as shown Requires min. Of two exposures, perpendicular to each other, to cover the

Advantages and the position of defect under the probe. Generally, the probe is moved over the test specimen in a systematic entire circumference

Compact. Simple in construction. Offers high output. Has high frequency manner. The probe sends pulses of ultrasonic energy into the material. From this, a certain amount of ultrasonic

Disadvantages: energy is re flected at the top and bottom faces of the material. The echoes from the top and bottom faces give the X RAY SOURCE –
Di fficult to get required shape of piezo electric element Additional circuits are needed to reduce acoustic initial and back wall peaks on the crt. The source of radiation of x ray is an x ray tube. The x ray tube receive electrical energy and converts into two terms

impedance. i.E. X-radiation and heat. The heat is generally considered as an undesirable by-product. Therefore x ray tubes are

2. B-scan presents a two dimensional image of a stationary specimen. Here, the dimension of the specimen is designed and constructed to Maximize x ray production and to dissipate heat as rapidly as possible.X ray tube

Testing techniques displayed in the x-axis, while the travel of the ultrasonic pulse in the specimen is displayed in the [Link] this scan, consists of a glass bulb under vacuum enclosing a positive electrode called anode and a negative electrode called

[Link] testing techniques are used for direct contact inspections, and are manipulated manually. As the name the ultrasonic probe is moved along a line on the top face of the material. This scan shows the re flection of cathode.

suggests, this transducer has direct contact with test specimen They have elements protected in a rugged casing to ultrasonic pulse energy from the top and bottom faces of the testing material, also from the defects as the

withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers are designed in such a manner so that it is ultrasonic probe moves along a line of the surface of the material. The b-scan presents the cross sectional view of Advantages of real time radiography:

easy to grip and move along a surface. Coupling materials of water, grease, oil, or commercial materials are used to the material along a line and provides a depth of flaw from the surface of the material and also the length of flaw [Link] time radiography can take place at high speed i.E., It provides immediate viewing of the objects for defects.

remove the air gap between the transducer and the component being inspected. along the line of movement of the probe [Link] to study moving parts in action.

[Link] cost for inspection.

Pulse - echo method: 3 C-scan display is the best method to display the flaw depth In order to determine the accurate depth of the flaw,
Unlike transmission method, here only one transducer is used. This transducer acts as both transmitter & receiver the probe is moved on the test specimen. The c-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size Disadvantages of real time radiography:

(ie.) It sends out a pulse of energy and the same receives it. The transmitted sound waves re flects due to the of test specimen C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data19 acquisition system, such as a [Link] cost

presence of discontinuities at the surface of the test specimen. The amount of re flected wave is displayed with computer controlled immersion scanning system In this scan, the ultrasonic probe is swept continuously line by line 2. Not portable

respect to time, which provides the information about the size and the location of features that re flect the sound. on the complete top face. This scan produces a plan view of the material [Link] of equipments is very high cabinet is required to keep exposure to radiation within regulations.

Resonance testing technique: Module 5 PROPERTIES OF X RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS-SIMILARITIES

This system differs from the pulse method in that the frequency of transmission is, or can be continuously varied. INSPECTION TECHNIQUES IN RADIOGRAPHY They are invisible and travel at the speed of the ligh-They propagate in a straight line and pass through space

The resonance method is principally used for thickness measurements when the two sides of the material being 1 Single wall single image (SWSI) technique:MThis technique is applicable in case when the material to be without transference of matter. They are not affected by electric and magnetic field-They are capable of ionizing
tested are smooth and parallel. The point at which the frequency matches the resonance point of the material being inspected is in the form of cylinders, e.G: pipes, shells etc. There are two ways to do the inspection. They are gases and also changes the electrical properties of solids and liquids They are capable of blackening photographic

tested is the thickness determining factor If the frequency of an ultrasonic wave is such that its wavelength is twice 1. To keep the radiographic source outside and the film inside - flat technique film-They can damage and kill living cells and produce genetic mutation They exhibit wave properties and are
the thickness of a specimen (fundamental frequency), then the re flected wave will arrive back at the transducer in [Link] keep the radiographic source inside and the film outside - panoramic technique. reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized

the same phase as the original transmission so that strengthening of the signal, or a resonance, will occur. If the

frequency is increased so that three times the wavelength equals four times the thickness, then the re flected signal SWSI flat technique: PROPERTIES OF X RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS DIFFERENCES

will return completely out of phase with the transmitted signal and cancellation will occur. Further increase of the In single wall single image flat technique, the radioactive source is kept outside the pipe and the film is kept inside The key difference is the source: x-rays are emitted by the electrons outside the nucleus, and gamma rays are

frequency, so that the wavelength is equal to the thickness again, gives a re flected signal in phase with the the pipe. In this technique, the density of the film reduces from centre to outside due to the increase in thickness of emitted by the excited nucleus itself. The gamma rays' wavelength is smaller than that of the x-rays". Gamma-ray

transmitted signal and resonance occurs once [Link] starting at the fundamental frequency and gradually the weld penetrated from centre to outside. photons have the highest energy in the emr spectrum and their waves have the shortest wavelength-Gamma rays

increasing the frequency, the successive cancellations and resonances can be noted and the readings used to SWSI panoramic technique: are a lot more dangerous and hazardous to human health than x-rays. Moreover gamma rays are the highly

check the fundamental frequency reading. The oscillator circuit contains a motor driven capacitor which changes In single wall single image panoramic technique. the source is kept inside the pipe and the film cassettes are placed penetrating and highly energetic ionizing radiation Since there wavelength of gamma ray is very small, they have an

the frequency of the oscillator. outside the pipe. The source can be fixed in two ways, namely at the centre and off centre. When the source is at the ability to penetrate through any gap even if it is a sub-atomic gap

centre and if it emits radiation in all directions, the total circumferential weld is exposed at one exposure. On the

Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) other hand, if the source is off centre, it requires more energy to penetrate the weld thickness and hence it requires Radiographic film
Time of flight diffraction (toid) inspection is an ultrasonic technique which allows for the location and sizing of two or three exposures The cross-sectional structure and components of the radiographic film are shown in fig. It comprises four basic
defects. Two probes are used in a transmitter-receiver arrangement, with the transmitter introducing ultrasonic components.
 PROBES USED IN EDDY CURRENT TESTING indications can result from edge effects and parts geometry.

(A) A plastic base, made of clear, transparent cellulose acetate - acts as asupport for the emulsion but does not Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents and sense changes in

contribute to the final image (B)A thin layer of adhesive - fixes the emulsion to the base (C)The emulsion on both the eddy current field. As, ac is passed through the coil, this sets up an expanding and collapsing magnetic field in Applications of eddy current testing:

sides of the base - this consists of silver halide (usually bromide) crystals embedded in a gelatin matrix. The x-ray and around the coil. When the probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field 1. Detection of discontinuities/ surface breaking cracks 2 Conductivity measurement 3 Inspection of tube. 4

photons sensitize the silver halide crystals that they strike and these sensitized silver halide crystals are later generates eddy currents within the material. The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this Thickness measurement. 5. Weld testing

reduced to visible black metallic silver in the developer (D) Protective layer of clear gelatin to shield the emulsion appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field
from mechanical damage that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the Depth of penetration

absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much information can be gained about the test material. Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They
REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy
Real-time radiography (tr), or real-time radioscopy, is a nondestructive test method whereby an image is produced Differential probes currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from

electronically, rather than on film, so that very little lag time occurs between the item being exposed to radiation and Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, though they could be wound in addition with the coil Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect. The

the resulting [Link] time radiography (mr) also known as fluoroscopy, is a technique in which the x-ray similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test sample, there is no differential signal developed flowing in the test object at any depth produce magnetic fields which
skin effect arises when the eddy currents

radiation is converted into light by using a fluorescent screen in the place of the fi[Link] this method, the radiation between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material. However, when one coil is over a defect and the field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth
oppose the primary

after passing through the material is recorded on the fluorescent screen. The image of the test piece which is other is over good material, a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being very sensitive to field, thereby
increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic

obtained by the fluorescent screen, is received by the cctv camera and is then amplified using the amplification defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature variations. weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents. The depth that eddy currents

circuit associated with the camera. The amplified circuit is then processed by the computer. The processed image, penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the excitation current and the electrical conductivity and

is then displayed on the monitor. The monitor is operated by means of a remote from the x-ray source to avoid the Lift-off magnetic permeability of the specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and

exposure to radiation. The image obtained using the fluoroscopy method is usually faint and hence the sensitivity of The distance between a surface coil and the test surface is called as proximity or lift off. Since flux density increasing conductivity and magnetic permeability.

theflaw (defect) characterisation is very poor Therefore, to improve the quality of image, one should employ the decreases exponentially with distance from the test coil, the amount of lift off or separation between the coil and

image intensifier equipment. test specimen has a signi ficant effect on sensitivity. The closer the coupling between coil and test specimen, the Relation between frequency and depth of penetration

denser the eddy current field that can be developed, and thus more sensitive to any material variable. As the eddy
Advantages of real time radiography: current coil is lifted away from the test -piece, less and less of the magnetic flux reaches the test-piece, until at The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a material is a critical [Link] example, in the case of tube

[Link] time radiography can take place at high speed i.E.. It provides immediate viewing of the objects for defects some distance the magnetic flux created by the coil fails to reach the test-piece altogether this is called the lift-off inspection, if the eddy currents do not penetrate the wall thickness of the tube, then it is possible to miss the

[Link] cost for inspection. distance defects. The depth of penetration of eddy current can be found by the relation Equation shows that higher the

[Link] to study moving parts in action. permeability, lower is the depth of penetration. Since relative permeabilities of ferromagnetic materials are of 500 to

Edge effect 2000, eddy currents in these materials are concentrated at the surface. Subsurface defects are not detectable in

Disadvantages of real time radiography: Edge effect is a phenomenon that occurs when an inspection coil is at the end of the test piece. As an inspection ferromagnetic materials. The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 37% of the surface density, is

[Link] cost of equipments is very high. coil approaches the edge of a part being inspected, the eddy currents are distorted as they cannot flow beyond the called the standard depth of penetration (d). Higher the frequency, lower the depth of penetration. Thus a frequency

[Link] portable edges of the test-piece. This results in a non-relevant indication known as the edge effect. This effect needs to be must be chosen which permits penetration to the depth upto which defects are to be found. For general tube

[Link] cabinet is required to keep exposure to radiation within regulations avoided and, to inspect closer to the edge, a smaller diameter coil may be used inspection, the frequency used is often the frequency at which the standard depth of penetration is equal to the wall

thickness of the tube. This is given by the equation . ... ABHAYMUFLIh ...

RADIOGRAPHY TESTING Fill factor

Radiography testing is one of the most widely used ndt techniques Radiographic testing (t) is a non-destructive Fill factor is a measure of how well the test piece fills the coil in case of external encircling probes. Fill factor is the
testing (ndt) method which uses either x-rays or gamma rays to examine the internal structure of manufactured ratio of the cross sectional area of the test piece and area of the coil section. It is necessary that the coil wires be

components identifying any flaws or defects. as close as possible to the test piece, in order to have a greater response potential to cracks. Fill factor should be as

Advantages near as unity.

Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected. Signi ficant variations in composition can be detected. It
has a very few material limitations. Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not Impedance plane diagram

required) Very minimal or no part preparation is required. Electrical impedance (z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to an alternating current. Impedance,

Disadvantages measured in ohms, may include resistance (r), inductive reactance (), and capacitive reactance ( )Eddy current

Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel. High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure circuits usually have only and () components As, the resistance component and the reactance component are not in

and interpretation. The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources) •The process is generally phase, so vector addition must be used to relate them with [Link] an eddy current circuit with resistance

slow Highly directional and inductive reactance components, the total impedance is calculated using the following equation.

EDDY CURRENT TESTING Advantages of eddy current testing:

Principle of eddy current testing Ee testing works on the principles of electromagnetic induction In this technique, a High speed testing. Discontinuities at or near surface can be reliably detected. This technique can be automated. •

coil (also called probe or sensor) is excited with sinusoidal alternating current (frequency, f. 50 hz-5 mhz, 100 ma) It can detect flaws through surface coatings. No physical contact required + Low costs, Portable Complex shape
Following the ampere's law, this current generates primary magnetic field in the vicinity of the coil. When an can be inspected.

electrically conducting material is brought close to this coil, eddy currents are induced in the material according to

the faraday's law. These eddy currents also generate a secondary magnetic field, but in the opposite direction to the Disadvantages of eddy current testing:

primary magnetic field and this field in turn, changes the coil impedance, z. Limited penetration into test piece. Only suitable for testing conductive materials Discontinuities are qualitative not

quantitative indications. Not suitable for large areas Highly skilled persons are required to perform inspection. False