Modular group

In mathematics, the modular group is the projective special linear group PSL(2, Z) of 2 × 2 matrices with integer
coefficients and determinant 1. The matrices A and −A are identified. The modular group acts on the upper-half of the
complex plane by fractional linear transformations, and the name "modular group" comes from the relation to moduli
spaces and not from modular arithmetic.

Contents
Definition
Finding elements
Number-theoretic properties
Group-theoretic properties
Presentation
Braid group
Quotients
Presenting as a matrix group
Relationship to hyperbolic geometry
Tessellation of the hyperbolic plane
Congruence subgroups
Dyadic monoid
Maps of the torus
Hecke groups
History
See also
References

Definition
The modular group Γ is the group of linear fractional transformations of the upper half of the complex plane, which
have the form

where a , b , c, d are integers, and ad − bc = 1 . The group operation is function composition.

This group of transformations is isomorphic to the projective special linear group PSL(2, Z), which is the quotient of
the 2-dimensional special linear group SL(2, Z) over the integers by its center {I, −I}. In other words, PSL(2, Z)
consists of all matrices

where a , b , c, d are integers, ad − bc = 1 , and pairs of matrices A and −A are considered to be identical. The group
operation is the usual multiplication of matrices.
Some authors define the modular group to be PSL(2, Z), and still others define the modular group to be the larger
group SL(2, Z).

Some mathematical relations require the consideration of the group GL(2, Z) of matrices with determinant plus or
minus one. (SL(2, Z) is a subgroup of this group.) Similarly, PGL(2, Z) is the quotient group GL(2, Z)/{I, −I}.
A 2 × 2 matrix with unit determinant is a symplectic matrix, and thus SL(2, Z) = Sp(2, Z), the symplectic group of
2 × 2 matrices.

Finding elements

To find an explicit matrix

in SL(2, Z), begin with two coprime integers , and solve the determinant equation

(Notice the determinant equation forces to be coprime since otherwise there would be a factor such that ,
, hence

would have no integer solutions.) For example, if then the determinant equation reads

then taking and gives , hence

is a matrix. Then, using the projection, these matrices define elements in PSL(2, Z).

Number-theoretic properties
The unit determinant of

implies that the fractions a , a , c , b are all irreducible, that is having no common factors (provided the denominators
b c d d
p
are non-zero, of course). More generally, if is an irreducible fraction, then
q
is also irreducible (again, provided the denominator be non-zero). Any pair of irreducible fractions can be connected in
p r
this way; that is, for any pair q and s of irreducible fractions, there exist elements

such that

Elements of the modular group provide a symmetry on the two-dimensional lattice. Let ω1 and ω2 be two complex
numbers whose ratio is not real. Then the set of points

is a lattice of parallelograms on the plane. A different pair of vectors α1 and α2 will generate exactly the same lattice if
and only if

for some matrix in GL(2, Z). It is for this reason that doubly periodic functions, such as elliptic functions, possess a
modular group symmetry.

The action of the modular group on the rational numbers can most easily be understood by envisioning a square grid,
p
with grid point (p, q) corresponding to the fraction q (see Euclid's orchard). An irreducible fraction is one that is
visible from the origin; the action of the modular group on a fraction never takes a visible (irreducible) to a hidden
(reducible) one, and vice versa.

Note that any member of the modular group maps the projectively extended real line one-to-one to itself, and
furthermore bijectively maps the projectively extended rational line (the rationals with infinity) to itself, the irrationals to
the irrationals, the transcendental numbers to the transcendental numbers, the non-real numbers to the non-real numbers,
the upper half-plane to the upper half-plane, et cetera.

p p
If qn−1 and qn are two successive convergents of a continued fraction, then the matrix
n−1 n

a
belongs to GL(2, Z). In particular, if bc − ad = 1 for positive integers a , b , c, d with a < b and c < d then
b and
c
d will be neighbours in the Farey sequence of order max(b, d). Important special cases of continued fraction
convergents include the Fibonacci numbers and solutions to Pell's equation. In both cases, the numbers can be arranged
to form a semigroup subset of the modular group.

Group-theoretic properties

Presentation

The modular group can be shown to be generated by the two transformations

so that every element in the modular group can be represented (in a non-unique way) by the composition of powers of
S and T. Geometrically, S represents inversion in the unit circle followed by reflection with respect to the imaginary
axis, while T represents a unit translation to the right.

The generators S and T obey the relations S 2 = 1 and (ST)3 = 1 . It can be shown [1] that these are a complete set of
relations, so the modular group has the presentation:

This presentation describes the modular group as the rotational triangle group D(2, 3, ∞) (infinity as there is no
relation on T ), and it thus maps onto all triangle groups (2, 3, n) by adding the relation T n = 1 , which occurs for
instance in the congruence subgroup Γ(n).

Using the generators S and ST instead of S and T , this shows that the modular group is isomorphic to the free product
of the cyclic groups C2 and C3:

The action of T : z ↦ z + 1 on H 1
The action of S : z ↦ − z on H

Braid group

The braid group B3 is the universal central extension

of the modular group, with these sitting as lattices
inside the (topological) universal covering group
SL2(R) → PSL2(R). Further, the modular group
has a trivial center, and thus the modular group is
isomorphic to the quotient group of B3 modulo its
center; equivalently, to the group of inner
automorphisms of B3. The braid group B3 is the universal central extension of the
modular group.
The braid group B3 in turn is isomorphic to the knot
group of the trefoil knot.

Quotients
The quotients by congruence subgroups are of significant interest.

Other important quotients are the (2, 3, n) triangle groups, which correspond geometrically to descending to a
cylinder, quotienting the x coordinate modulo n , as T n = (z ↦ z+n). (2, 3, 5) is the group of icosahedral symmetry,
and the (2, 3, 7) triangle group (and associated tiling) is the cover for all Hurwitz surfaces.

Presenting as a matrix group

The group can be generated by the two matrices[2]

since

The projection turns these matrices into generators of , with relations similar to the
group presentation.

Relationship to hyperbolic geometry

The modular group is important because it forms a subgroup of the group of isometries of the hyperbolic plane. If we
consider the upper half-plane model H of hyperbolic plane geometry, then the group of all orientation-preserving
isometries of H consists of all Möbius transformations of the form

where a , b , c, d are real numbers. In terms of projective coordinates, the group PSL(2, R) acts on the upper half-
plane H by projectivity:

This action is faithful. Since PSL(2, Z) is a subgroup of PSL(2, R), the modular group is a subgroup of the group
of orientation-preserving isometries of H.[3]

Tessellation of the hyperbolic plane

The modular group Γ acts on H as a discrete

subgroup of PSL(2, R), that is, for each z in H
we can find a neighbourhood of z which does not
contain any other element of the orbit of z. This
also means that we can construct fundamental
domains, which (roughly) contain exactly one
representative from the orbit of every z in H. (Care
is needed on the boundary of the domain.)

There are many ways of constructing a

A typical fundamental domain for the action of Γ on the upper half-
fundamental domain, but a common choice is the plane.
region
 1 1
bounded by the vertical lines Re(z) = 2 and Re(z) = − 2 , and the circle |z| = 1 . This region is a hyperbolic triangle.
1 √3 1 √3 π
It has vertices at 2 + i 2 and − 2 + i 2 , where the angle between its sides is 3 , and a third vertex at infinity, where
the angle between its sides is 0.

By transforming this region in turn by each of the elements of the modular group, a regular tessellation of the hyperbolic
plane by congruent hyperbolic triangles known as the V6.6.∞ Infinite-order triangular tiling is created. Note that each
such triangle has one vertex either at infinity or on the real axis Im(z) = 0 . This tiling can be extended to the Poincaré
disk, where every hyperbolic triangle has one vertex on the boundary of the disk. The tiling of the Poincaré disk is
given in a natural way by the J-invariant, which is invariant under the modular group, and attains every complex
number once in each triangle of these regions.

This tessellation can be refined slightly, dividing each region into two halves (conventionally colored black and white),
by adding an orientation-reversing map; the colors then correspond to orientation of the domain. Adding in
(x, y) ↦ (−x, y) and taking the right half of the region R (where Re(z) ≥ 0) yields the usual tessellation. This
tessellation first appears in print in (Klein & 1878/79a),[4] where it is credited to Richard Dedekind, in reference to
(Dedekind 1877).[4][5]

The map of groups (2, 3, ∞) → (2, 3, n) (from modular group to triangle

group) can be visualized in terms of this tiling (yielding a tiling on the modular
curve), as depicted in the video at right.

Visualization of the map

(2, 3, ∞) → (2, 3, 7) by morphing
the associated tilings.[6]

Paracompact uniform tilings in [∞,3] family

Symmetry: [∞,3], (*∞32) [∞,3]+ [1+,∞,3] [∞,3+]

(∞32) (*∞33) (3*∞)

=
= = = or = =

or

{∞,3} t{∞,3} r{∞,3} t{3,∞} {3,∞} rr{∞,3} tr{∞,3} sr{∞,3} h{∞,3} h2{∞,3} s{3,∞}

Uniform duals

V∞3 V3.∞.∞ V(3.∞)2 V6.6.∞ V3∞ V4.3.4.∞ V4.6.∞ V3.3.3.3.∞ V(3.∞)3 V3.3.3.3.3.∞
Congruence subgroups
Important subgroups of the modular group Γ, called congruence subgroups, are given by imposing congruence
relations on the associated matrices.

There is a natural homomorphism SL(2, Z) → SL(2, Z/NZ) given by reducing the entries modulo N. This induces
a homomorphism on the modular group PSL(2, Z) → PSL(2, Z/NZ). The kernel of this homomorphism is called
the principal congruence subgroup of level N, denoted Γ(N). We have the following short exact sequence:

Being the kernel of a homomorphism Γ(N) is a normal subgroup of the modular group Γ. The group Γ(N) is given as
the set of all modular transformations

for which a ≡ d ≡ ±1 (mod N) and b ≡ c ≡ 0 (mod N).

It is easy to show that the trace of a matrix representing an element of Γ(N) cannot be −1, 0, or 1, so these subgroups
are torsion-free groups. (There are other torsion-free subgroups.)

The principal congruence subgroup of level 2, Γ(2), is also called the modular group Λ. Since PSL(2, Z/2Z) is
isomorphic to S 3, Λ is a subgroup of index 6. The group Λ consists of all modular transformations for which a and d
are odd and b and c are even.

Another important family of congruence subgroups are the modular group Γ0(N) defined as the set of all modular
transformations for which c ≡ 0 (mod N), or equivalently, as the subgroup whose matrices become upper triangular
upon reduction modulo N. Note that Γ(N) is a subgroup of Γ0(N). The modular curves associated with these groups
are an aspect of monstrous moonshine – for a prime number p , the modular curve of the normalizer is genus zero if and
only if p divides the order of the monster group, or equivalently, if p is a supersingular prime.

Dyadic monoid
One important subset of the modular group is the dyadic monoid, which is the monoid of all strings of the form
ST kST mST n... for positive integers k, m, n,.... This monoid occurs naturally in the study of fractal curves, and
describes the self-similarity symmetries of the Cantor function, Minkowski's question mark function, and the Koch
snowflake, each being a special case of the general de Rham curve. The monoid also has higher-dimensional linear
representations; for example, the N = 3 representation can be understood to describe the self-symmetry of the
blancmange curve.

Maps of the torus

The group GL(2, Z) is the linear maps preserving the standard lattice Z2, and SL(2, Z) is the orientation-preserving
maps preserving this lattice; they thus descend to self-homeomorphisms of the torus (SL mapping to orientation-
preserving maps), and in fact map isomorphically to the (extended) mapping class group of the torus, meaning that
every self-homeomorphism of the torus is isotopic to a map of this form. The algebraic properties of a matrix as an
element of GL(2, Z) correspond to the dynamics of the induced map of the torus.

Hecke groups
The modular group can be generalized to the Hecke groups, named for Erich Hecke, and defined as follows.[7]

The Hecke group Hq with q ≥ 3 , is the discrete group generated by

 π
where λq = 2 cos q . For small values of q ≥ 3 , one has:

The modular group Γ is isomorphic to H3 and they share properties and applications – for example, just as one has the
free product of cyclic groups

more generally one has

which corresponds to the triangle group (2, q, ∞). There is similarly a notion of principal congruence subgroups
associated to principal ideals in Z[λ].

History
The modular group and its subgroups were first studied in detail by Richard Dedekind and by Felix Klein as part of his
Erlangen programme in the 1870s. However, the closely related elliptic functions were studied by Joseph Louis
Lagrange in 1785, and further results on elliptic functions were published by Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi and Niels
Henrik Abel in 1827.

See also
Bianchi group Minkowski's question-mark function
Classical modular curve Möbius transformation
Fuchsian group Modular curve
J-invariant Modular form
Kleinian group Poincaré half-plane model
Mapping class group Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane

References
1. Alperin, Roger C. (April 1993). "PSL2(Z) = Z2 ∗ Z3". Amer. Math. Monthly. 100 (4): 385–386.
doi:10.2307/2324963 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2324963). JSTOR 2324963 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2324963).
2. Conrad, Keith. "SL(2,Z)" (https://kconrad.math.uconn.edu/blurbs/grouptheory/SL(2,Z).pdf) (PDF).
3. McCreary, Paul R.; Murphy, Teri Jo; Carter, Christian. "The Modular Group" (https://www.mathematica-jo
urnal.com/issue/v9i3/contents/ModularGroup/ModularGroup.pdf) (PDF). The Mathematica Journal. 9
(3).
4. Le Bruyn, Lieven (22 April 2008), Dedekind or Klein? (http://www.neverendingbooks.org/dedekind-or-kl
ein)
5. Stillwell, John (January 2001). "Modular Miracles". The American Mathematical Monthly. 108 (1): 70–
76. doi:10.2307/2695682 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2695682). ISSN 0002-9890 (https://www.worldcat.
 org/issn/0002-9890). JSTOR 2695682 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2695682).
6. Westendorp, Gerard. "Platonic tessellations of Riemann surfaces" (http://www.xs4all.nl/~westy31/Geom
etry/Geometry.html#Modular). www.xs4all.nl.
7. Rosenberger, Gerhard; Fine, Benjamin; Gaglione, Anthony M.; Spellman, Dennis. Combinatorial Group
Theory, Discrete Groups, and Number Theory (https://books.google.com/books?id=5Unmxs7yeHwC&p
g=PA65). p. 65.
Apostol, Tom M. (1990). Modular Functions and Dirichlet Series in Number Theory (2nd ed.). New York:
Springer. ch. 2. ISBN 0-387-97127-0.
Klein, Felix (1878–1879), "Über die Transformation der elliptischen Funktionen und die Auflösung der
Gleichungen fünften Grades (On the transformation of elliptic functions and ...)" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20110719181924/http://mathdoc.emath.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_KLEIN__3), Math. Annalen, 14:
13–75, doi:10.1007/BF02297507 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02297507), archived from the original
(http://mathdoc.emath.fr/cgi-bin/oetoc?id=OE_KLEIN__3) on 19 July 2011, retrieved 3 June 2010
Dedekind, Richard (September 1877), "Schreiben an Herrn Borchardt über die Theorie der elliptische
Modul-Functionen", Crelle's Journal, 83: 265–292.

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