RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY

P.M.B 5080, NKPOLU-OROWORUKWO,

PORT-HARCOURT

DATA PROCESSING
&
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

 DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 LEVEL: 200
 COURSE: COMPUTING AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
 LECTURER: DR. MISSION FRANKLIN
 DATE: 10th FEBRUARY, 2025
 GROUP: G

CONTRIBUTORS
 MICHAEL SAVIOUR DE.2023-3892  MARVELLOUS IHEMJIRIKA CHINEMEREM DE.2023-2878
 MICHAEL IHENAYI ALOZIE  MONDAY EXCELLENT SOMTOCHUKWU DE.2023-3798
DE.2023-3725  NJOBUANWU GODFREY ORONDA DE.2023-3866
 MBAMA ADVISER DE.2023-3795  NNENANYA EMMANUEL UGOCHUKWU DE.2023-3701
 MARTINS BETTY DE.2023-3874  NWANEZI EMMANUEL CHUKWUKA DE.2023-3746
 MARGARET KPALAP DE.2023-3877  NWAOBUM JOSEPH CHINAZAEKPERE DE.2023-3846
 MAXWELL-LEH NUALE DE.2023-3837  NDUBUISI KELVIN ONYEDIKACHI DE.2023-3841
 NOBLE EMMANUEL DE.2023-3833  NLERUM PROSPER PRAYER DE.2023-3755
 MICHELL MANJO DE.2023-3710  MICHAEL PRECIOUS IZUCHUKWU DE.2023-3879

@rsu/cse/G/3892
 AIM

This paper describes the processes involved in data processing, highlighting

relevant tools used. Additionally, it explains how computer organization can
enhance effective data processing.

RELEVANT SECTIONS

 DATA PROCESSING

 STAGES OF PROCESSING DATA

 DATA COLLECTION AND VALIDATION

 DATA RECORDING

 SORTING

 CLASSIFICATION

 STORAGE

 ANALYSIS

 REPORTING

 DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

 TOOLS FOR PROCESSING DATA

 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DATA PROCESSING AND COMPUTER

ORGANISATION

(Edited by Michael Saviour)

 INTRODUCTION

Data is a property of facts and statistics collated in a measure in which can be

extracted, modified, analyzed and interpreted. It quantifies and qualifies physical
and abstract properties, acquired through observations and experiments, into
distinct and predictable representations. It can be visualized as symbols, figures,
numbers, alphabets, graphs or recordings of the interactive characteristics of the
physical world, such as sound, light, etc.

In order to fully understand the purpose of processing and organizing data, we

need a model that can describe the manipulation of data at a low level. An
example of such model is the computer. In the computer, series of 1s and 0s
form the fundamentals of its data structure. These are used to construct
instructions that could be executed to guarantee the working of certain
operations. An overview of these processes begins with the supply of alternating
electronic and magnetic signals from specific designed circuits. These circuits
can recognize and directly execute a limited set of instructions into which all of
its programs must be converted to before they can be executed. These
instructions are rarely much complicated than adding numbers, asserting the
state of a number (1 or 0), as well as copying a piece of data from part of a
computer’s memory to another. Imperatively, they have to assume a specific
order, pre-defined method of access and organization. Specifically, digital
computers rely on proper and efficient processing of data. At its lowest level, the
digital logic level, it manipulates objects commonly known as gates. Each gates
has one or more digital inputs (signals) and compute as output some simple
function of these inputs, such as AND or OR. A small number of gates can be
combined to form a 1-bit memory. A bit is the smallest unit of data operatable by
the computer. The 1-bit can be combined in groups, for example 16, 32, or 64 to
form registers. Each registers can hold a single binary to some maximum. Gates
can be combined to form the main computing engine itself. At the micro-
architectural level, there are several collections of registers that form a local
memory as well as a circuit called the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). These registers
are connected to the ALU to form a data path, over which data flow. The basic
operation of the data path consist of selecting one or more registers, having the
ALU, operate on them and storing the result back in some registers.

Other processes including hardware and software intrinsic are subsequently

followed to ensure a proper, systematic functionality of the computer. Further
description of these processes would require a comprehensive explanation which
may rather introduce more complexity to this paper. However, what should be
noted is that the design and implementation of the computer is done in a highly
processed and organized manner. This places a foundation on how data should
be processed within the computer.

Besides the computer, there is plethora of areas which depends on efficient

processing of data in other to establish effective works in some of its activities.
For example, in the medical field, researches are done to identify a common
disease and to conclude the symptoms that may be observed when an individual
is contracted with such disease. The results and conclusions from these
researches are presented as collection of data, which is further processed
through heavy analysis, testing and reproduction in other to ascertain possible
biological causes, and proceed with a procedural diagnostics and treatment for
the disease.

Essentially, data is considered as the inner layer of communication, therefore the

efficiency in its processing is a requirement in its area of concern. (Edited by Michael Saviour)
1.0 DATA PROCESSING

As stated earlier in our introduction, data is a distinct piece of information that

can be modified to express diverse physical or abstract properties. It can be
measured, recorded, reported as well as visualized in several ways. It is
important to understand that data is a raw fact, meaning it is neither edited nor
structured. In this state, it lacks cohesion and may contain a lot of garbage and
errors. This unstructured fact has to be collected, extracted, corrected and
modified in other to be useful. Data processing is the activity of converting these
disorganized, error-prone facts into a structured and useful form that is easy to
read and visualize. This form is commonly referred to as information. It is
commonly performed in stages, and until a complete processing, the data in each
stage may still be considered raw.

RAW SOURCE COLLECTED DATA

PROCESSING
(Edited by Michael Saviour)

INFORMATION

Processed data is the external layer of communication. Its use, ensures data-
backed decision-making and provide unique insights that can benefit
organizations in many ways, for example, business intelligence analysts can
extract useful and accurate information about the condition of their business
from raw data such as audience interest, sales figures, marketing campaign
performance, and overall productivity; expert researchers or scholars could
conclude or determine the genuity or possible outcomes of their study cases
through the acquisition of related information on such subject.
1.1 STAGES OF PROCESSING DATA

Until lately, we have postponed the discussion of how data can be transformed
from an ill-organized form to a structured and filtered form. In this section, we
shall consider the various stages/activities that raw data undergoes in other to
be considered processed. Because of the unstructured nature of Data, a wide
range of processing approaches could be applied. We shall however, limit the
scope of this paper to the basic activities that will guarantee an effective
processing of data for general purposes.

1.1.1 DATA COLLECTION AND VALIDATION

Data collection or data gathering is the process of gathering

and measuring information on targeted variables in an established system, which
then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. It is a
methodical process of gathering and evaluating accurate information from
sources.

The collection of data is the first reasonable procedure in data processing.

Required data has to be collated in bits before any kind of processing must take
place. It is worth mentioning that data may exist as different types, and each of
these types may require specific method of extraction and collation. Some of
these types include discrete and continuous data, ordinal, nominal, ratio and
interval data. Specific information about a person or a group of people may first
be represented in any of these types, for example, in a typical survey form, age
may be represented as numbers; name, address and occupation may be
represented as strings of characters. Data may be obtained from various sources,
some of which include interviews, surveys, online articles, books or
documentations, recording devices, downloadable materials, sensors in the
environment, etc.
Data collection can be mainly classified into primary and secondary aspects. The
primary aspect involves the collection of original data directly from the source.
This usually involves the use of specific techniques such as observations,
experiments, surveys and interviews. The secondary aspect involves the use of
pre-existing data originating from pubic sources, accessible databases,
depreciated researches or institutional records in order to further a related
research, test new hypothesis or determine certain factors related to an event.

During the collection process, the extracted data may be faulty and erroneous. It
might also lack consistency in structure and format, especially when it’s been
obtained from different sources. Therefore, there is a need for verification of the
data in order to eliminate useless and erroneous input. This ensures accurate,
high quality and consistent outcomes.

1.1.2 DATA RECORDING

After the collection of data, it must as well be recorded for further access and
processing. This entails that the data is represented in a form that can be
recognized and processed by humans or machines. According to an article by
Science-direct, Data recording is the production of measured variable information
either automatically at set intervals or on demand. This is required because
further execution of the successive stages of data processing from this point,
depends on data being available in a feasible form, which means that it must be
practically available and modifiable during each processing stage. An easy and
achievable way of ensuring this is by preserving and documenting the data
concurrently with its collection.

There are several methods through which recording of data can be accomplished.
It can be achieved manually with the use of pen and papers, typewriters;
mechanically, using devices like typewriters, mechanical printers or other
mechanical processing systems; also through the use of specialized electronic
devices with the capabilities of performing efficient data accounting and
organization, real-time signaling, batching, etc.

1.1.3 DATA SORTING

Sorting is the method of arranging data in a specific order. It is done by ordering

or categorizing items sequentially based on some certain relationship/properties
that exist amongst them. Such properties could either be type, size, name, time
of access/modification, group, and so on. The possibility of sorting is guaranteed
only when the data is of similar nature, and its efficiency depends strictly on the
method of sorting used. Sorting makes transformed data comprehensible and
relatable; hence, it is the first level of organization. The computer is one of the
devices that assist in the proficient sorting/organization of data. It may store
data in structures such as arrays, linked list, maps, trees and graphs, and sorts
them using highly efficient algorithms such as insert sort, quick sort, bubble sort
and newer, faster sorting algorithms like the radix sort. These algorithms are well
optimized; require minimal system resources whilst exploiting the full capacity of
the processor. Sorting algorithms may be combined to handle special cases, for
example, in sorting an array of data, the quick sort may be combined with an
insertion sort for cases where the data is almost in a sorted order. This reduces
the quadratic time complexity of sorting an almost sorted array of data using
quick-sort to an efficient linear logarithmic function. Other methods of sorting
discovered by humans all serve the purpose of putting data in a specific pattern.

Edited by Michael Saviour

 COLLECTING

RECORDING

SORTING

DATA PROCESSING CLASSIFYING

STORING

(Edited by Michael Saviour)

ANALYZING

INFORMATION REPORTING

1.1.4 DATA CLASSIFICATION.

One of the contributors of this paper, Marvelous, clarified that there is a

distinction between sorting and classification. He stated that sorting involves
arranging objects in order of their increasing or decreasing similarities while
classification is a property of organization based on classes or groups of pre-
defined traits. That is, certain characteristics are attributed to entities in groups
or sets rather than doing so singularly to the items of that constitute such
entities. Since data can assume the representable state of any object/entity, it is
safe to apply this logic to the definition of data classification. Therefore, data
classification is the process of organizing raw data into meaningful categories
based on shared characteristics or attributes. Data classification permits the
addressing of data by certain characteristics which is also shared by other
related data. It allows bulk structuring and organization of data, explicitly
implying that large data could be quickly condensed to the specific requirements,
which are easily extractable and analyzed. This can be done on the basis of
chronology, quantity, quality, physiology or geography. The classification of data
could be structural, non-structural or semi-structural: structural in sense that
the data is organized with a standard basis or format in place; non-structural
when the data is classified with no pre-defined standard or format and semi-
structural when the data is partially organized using a flexible scheme or format.

1.1.5 DATA STORAGE AND RETRIVAL

We laid emphasis on the importance of preserving data when we discussed about

data recording. Preserving data requires a methodical approach involving several
techniques, tools and devices. Data storage is the process of recording
transformed data in a storage medium. Data can be stored as handwriting,
recording (phonological), in databases or in devices such as optical-drives,
magnetic tapes, memory boards and so on. Some services provide an on-site or
remote (clouds) data storage medium. These mediums may be different in types
but all serve this same purpose, which is to preserve the integrity of the data
stored in it. It is also necessary that the stored data can to easily located and
retrieved at any point, making them available for use by other processing
activities.
(Edited by Michael Saviour)

1.1.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND SUMMARIZATION

According to Wikipedia, data analysis is the process of inspecting, cleansing,

transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information,
informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. This definition explicitly
connotes a procedure that actively and strategetically exploits data in order to
extract and transform it into meaningful information that is useful for decision-
making by users or organizations. In the course of analysis, the data is divided
into separate experimental units, which then undergoes thorough examination.
The process of data analysis is quite broad and complex, however this complexity
revolves around the use of descriptive, predictive, diagnostic and prescriptive
techniques to evaluate inputs and produce necessary outputs of importance.

Data analysis uses heavy computing to modulate data; therefore, various

advance mathematical models and statistical theories are applied to resolve this
process. Several tools are often used, mostly mathematical and computing
softwares such as ELKI (data mining framework in Java with data mining
oriented visualization functions), SciPy (Python library for scientific research),
DevInfo, Panda, ROOT (C++ data analysis framework developed by CERN), etc;
algorithms such as linear and logistic regression, decision trees, K-means
clustering, Naïve Bayes and many others.

Data may further be summarized in order to maintain concise obtainable

information.

1.1.7 DATA REPORTING

The purpose of processing data is so that it can be interpreted and

communicated to people/things of interest. It involves the act of transferring,
interpreting and communicating processed data (information) to a specific
targeted audience.

(Edited by Michael Saviour)

 Section contributors: Mbama Adviser, Martins Betty, Margaret Kpalap, Maxwell-leh Nuale, Nlerum
Prosper Prayer, Noble Emmanuel, Marvellous Ihemjirika Chinemerem.
 Signatures: ____________, ____________, _______________, ____________, _____________,
___________, ______________
2.0 DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Data processing is a dynamic process. This implies that the processing of data
into information is a non-stop process. As long as available streams of data
are provided as inputs, there is an expectation of acquiring generated outputs.
This exemplifies the principle of GIGO (garbage in, garbage out). The more
data that comes into the system, the more data that is processed, and goes
out of the system, vice-versa. For example, a company may maintain a record
of data of its staffs. On certain occasions the company may decide to withdraw
or employ some staffs, or some may decide to resign or retire on their own
accord. In all cases, there is either loss or addition of data. The information of
the withdrawn staffs is expected to be removed from the company’s record
database and that of the newly employed must be added to the record. This
requires frequent update and validation of the record to ensure that data
integrity is maintained. These collection/removal, validation, update and
maintenance of staff’s information, is simply data processing. Regardless of
the infinite amount of changes required to maintain an updated record, the
steps in processing still remains unchanged. It only cycles through the process
for different inputs.

Therefore, the repetitive nature of data processing is best described in terms of

a processing cycle; sequence of procedures or steps required to perform task
repetitively. A processing cycle involves origination (first intake of data), input,
processing, output (desired end product) and storage. This is best visualized in
the figure below. Observe that the procedural cycle involves processing and
storing. The origination and input supplies the system with raw data which it
uses to work. The end product is a well-processed output.
 ORIGIINATION INPUT

STORE PROCESS

OUTPUT

3.0 DATA PROCESSING TOOLS

Several tools and technique can be applied to facilitate the generation of

information through data processing. In the section, we will briefly consider some
of these tools and their featured application to the processing of data.

3.1 APACHE SPARK

An original documentation of Apache Spark from their website, spark.apche.org,
describes the software as a multi-language engine for executing data engineering,
data science, and machine learning on single node machines or clusters.
It unifies the processing of data in batches and real-time streaming interfacing
with different programming languages such as Python, SQL, Java and R. Its key
features include batch/streaming data, SQL analytics, exploratory data analysis,
machine learning and many others.
3.2 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)
This is a domain-specific language used to manage data, especially in relational
database management system (RDBMS). It is the standard language as approved
by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International
Organization for standardization (ISO). It can retrieve, insert, update, delete or
create records in a database. It also allows the creation of new record views, as
well as setting permissions on specific record/field of data in a database.

3.3 MICROSOFT EXCEL

Microsoft Excel is a versatile spreadsheet software developed by Microsoft. It is
used for data entry and management, charts and graphs, and project
management.

Other tools that are worth mentioning are Python (a versatile scripting
language for data analysis, manipulation, and machine learning), Avast (a
security software that ensures safety and data integrity within a system),
Talend, SAS, and Rivery.

 Section contributors: Mejeh Tochukwu Ikechukwu, Monday Excellent Somtochukwu, Njobuanwu

Godfrey Oronda , Nnenanya Emmanuel Ugochukwu,Nwanezi Emmanuel Chukwuka, Nwaobam Joseph
Chinazaekpere
 Signatures: ____________, ____________, _______________, ____________, _____________,
___________, ______________
4.0 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

A computer is an electronic machine that stores and processes data. It is a

programmable device that can automatically carry out sequences of arithmetic or
logical operations. These operations are known as programs.

Organization is the collection of objects/entities, in a regular, structural and

defined manner.