12/5/2022

Solar Energy
3ME4-05: Renewable Energy Systems

Dr. Tarun Kumar Aseri

Asst. Prof.
Mechanical Engineering Department
Engineering College Ajmer
Email: tarunaseri[at]ecajmer.ac.in
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Syllabus

• Solar radiation, solar radiation geometry, solar radiation on tilted

surface. Solar energy collector. Flat- plate collector, concentrating

collector - parabolic and heliostat. Solar pond. Basic solar power

plant. Solar cell, solar cell array, basic photo-voltaic power

generating system.

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Learning Outcomes
Solar Radiation and its Different Angles

Types of Solar Collectors

About Solar Photovoltaic

Solar Power Plants

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Introduction
• The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

• When absorbed by a body, it increases its temperature. It provides the

energy needed to sustain life in our solar system.

• It is a clean, inexhaustible, abundantly and universally available

renewable energy source.

• Major drawbacks of solar energy are: it is a dilute form of energy, which

is available intermittently, uncertainly and not steadily and continuously.
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Introduction
• The energy output of sun is 2.8×1023kW.
• The energy reaching the earth is 1.5 × 1018 kWh/year.
• Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways:
1. by collecting the radiant heat and using it in a thermal system or
2. by collecting and converting it directly to electrical energy
using Photovoltaic system.
• Various sources of energy find their origin in sun and are:
• Wind energy • Tidal energy • Hydro energy
• Biomass energy • Ocean wave/thermal • Fossil fuels and other
energy organic chemicals
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THE SUN AS SOURCE OF ENERGY

• The diameter of sun is 1.39 × 109 m
• An average distance of 1.495 × 1011 m from the earth
• The diameter of earth is about 1.275 × 107 m

• The earth reflects about 30 percent of the sunlight that fall on it and
is known as earth’s albedo
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SUN, EARTH RADIATION SPECTRUM

• The wavelength distribution of radiation emitted by a black body is given by
Planck’s law:

• where, C1 (3.74 × 10–16 Wm2) and C2 (0.01439 mK) are often called Planck’s
first and second radiation constants respectively.
• λ is the wavelength in m and T is temperature in Kelvin.
• The surface temperature of the sun is considered at 5760 K.
• The surface temperature of the earth is considered at 288 K

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Solar Constant (Isc)

• Solar Constant, (Isc) is defined as the energy received from the sun per
unit time, on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation, at the earth’s mean distance from the sun.

• The World Radiation Center (WRC) has adopted a value of solar

constant as 1367 W/m2

• This has been accepted universally as a standard value of solar constant.

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EXTRATERRESTRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATIONS

• Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known as Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext.
= + . ⁄

where, n is the day of the year starting from January 1

• Te extraterrestrial radiation, being outside the
atmosphere, is not affected by changes in atmospheric
conditions.
• While passing through the atmosphere it is subjected to
mechanisms of atmospheric absorption and scattering
depending on atmospheric conditions, depleting its
intensity.
• A fraction of scattered radiation is reflected back to
space while remaining is directed downwards.
• Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing
through the earth’s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial
Radiation.
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Solar Irradiance
and Solar Insolation
• The terrestrial radiation expressed as
energy per unit time per unit area (i.e.
W/m2) is known as Solar Irradiation.

• The Solar Insolation (incident solar

radiation) is defined as solar radiation
energy received on a given surface
area in a given time (in J/m2 or
kWh/m2)
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Absorption in the Atmosphere

• Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different molecules.
• The absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus raising
their temperatures
• Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and
extreme ultraviolet radiations.
• Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range(λ < 0.38 μm)
• Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the infrared
radiation in the range (λ > 2.3 μm)
• Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy irrespective
of wavelength.
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Scattering
• Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules (or gaseous particles
of different sizes) involves redistribution of incident energy.
• A part of scattered radiation is lost (reflected back) to space while
remaining is directed downwards to the earth’s surface from
different directions as diffuse radiation.
• It is the scattered sunlight that makes the sky blue.
• Without atmosphere and its ability to scatter sunlight, the sky
would appear black, as it does on the moon.

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Scattering
• In cloudy atmosphere
i. a major part of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the
atmosphere by the clouds,
ii. another part is absorbed by the clouds and
iii. the rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffuse
radiation.
• The energy is reflected back to the space by
i. reflection from clouds, plus
ii. scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles, plus
iii. the reflection from the earth’s surface is called the albedo of earth-
atmosphere system and has a value of about 30 per cent of the
incoming solar radiation for the earth as a whole.
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Component of Solar Radiation

• Incoming solar radiation on the earth have following two components

i. direct or beam radiation, unchanged in direction and

ii. diffuse radiation, the direction of which is changed by scattering

and reflection.

• Total radiation at any location on the surface of earth is the sum of

beam radiation and diffuse radiation, what is known as global
radiation.
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Beam, Diffuse and

Global Radiation
• Beam radiation: Solar radiation
propagating in a straight line and received at
the earth surface without change of
direction, i.e., in line with sun is called
beam or direct radiation.
• Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered
by aerosols, dust and molecules is known as
diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique
direction.
• Global radiation: The sum of beam and
diffuse radiation is referred to as total or
global radiation.
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Air Mass
• The radiation thus available on earth’s surface is less than that is
received outside the earth’s atmosphere
• Hence, reduction in intensity depends on the atmospheric
conditions (amount of dust particles, water vapour, ozone content,
cloudiness, etc.) and the distance traveled by beam radiation
through atmosphere before it reaches a location on earth’s surface.

Air Mass

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Air Mass
• The path length of solar beam through the atmosphere is accounted
for in the Air Mass’, which is defined as the ratio of the path length
through the atmosphere, which the solar beam actually traverses up
to the ground to the vertical path length (which is minimum)
through the atmosphere.
• Thus, at sea level the air mass is unity when the sun is at the
‘zenith’ (highest position), i.e., when inclination angle α is 90°

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Air Mass
• AM0 refers to zero (no) atmosphere, AM1 refers to m = 1 (i.e., sun
overhead, θz = 0), AM2 refers to m = 2 (θz = 60°); and so on

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MEASUREMENT OF
SOLAR RADIATION
Pyranometer

• A pyranometer is designed to measure

global radiation, usually on a horizontal
surface but can also be used on an
inclined surface.

• When shaded from beam radiation by

using a shading ring, it measures diffuse
radiation only.
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MEASUREMENT
OF SOLAR
RADIATION
Pyrheliometer

• An instrument that measures

beam radiation by using a
long and narrow tube to
collect only beam radiation
from the sun at normal
incidence.

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MEASUREMENT
OF SOLAR
RADIATION
Sunshine recorder

• Tis instrument measures the

duration in hours, of bright
sunshine during the course of
the day

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SOLAR TIME (LOCAL APPARENT TIME)

• Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when the sun
is crossing observer’s meridian.
• At solar noon the sun is at the highest position in the sky.
• The sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes (as earth takes 24 hours to
complete one revolution).
• The standard time is converted to solar time by incorporating two corrections, as
follows:
( )= ±4 − +
• where Lst and Lloc are the standard longitudes used for measuring standard time of
the country and the longitude of observer’s location, respectively.
• The (+ve) sign is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in western
hemisphere (with reference to prime meridian) and (–ve) if that lies in the eastern
hemisphere.
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Equation of Time (E)

• E is the correction arising out of the
variation in the length of the solar day due
to variations in earth’s rotation and orbital
revolution, and is called equation of time.
• The solar day, which is the duration between
two consecutive solar noons, is not exactly
of 24 hours throughout the year.
= 9.87 sin 2 − 7.53 cos − 1.5 sin
where B = (360/365)(n-81)

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (ϕ)

• The latitude of a location on

earth’s surface is the angle made
by radial line, joining the given
location to the center of the earth,
with its projection on the equator
plane. The latitude is positive for
northern hemisphere and negative
for southern hemisphere.
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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Declination, (δ)
It is defined as the angular
displacement of the sun from
the plane of earth’s equator. It is
positive when measured above
equatorial plane in the northern
hemisphere.
360
= 23.45 × 284 +
365

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Declination, (δ)
It is defined as the angular
displacement of the sun from
the plane of earth’s equator. It is
positive when measured above
equatorial plane in the northern
hemisphere.
360
= 23.45 × 284 +
365

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Hour Angle, (ω)
• The hour angle at any moment
is the angle through which the
earth must turn to bring the
meridian of the observer
directly in line with sun’s rays.
• At any moment, it is the
angular displacement of the
= 12: 00 − × 15
sun towards east or west of
local meridian (due to rotation
of the earth on its axis).

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Inclination Angle (Altitude), (α)
• The angle between sun’s ray and its projection on
horizontal surface is known as inclination angle.

Zenith Angle, (θz)

• It is the angle between sun’s ray and
perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane.

Solar Azimuth Angle, (γs)

• It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the
line due south and the projection of sun’s ray on
the horizontal plane. It is taken as +ve when
measured from south towards west.

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Slope (Tilt Angle), (β)
• It is the angle between inclined plane
surface, under consideration and the
horizontal. It is taken to be +ve for the
surface sloping towards south.

Surface Azimuth Angle, (γ)

• It is the angle in horizontal plane, between
the line due south (OS) and the horizontal
projection of normal to the inclined plane
surface (OQ). It is taken as +ve when
measured from south towards west.

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Angle of Incidence, (θi)
• It is the angle between sun’s ray
incident on the plane surface
(collector) and the normal to that
surface.

= cos cos cos cos + sin sin cos

+ cos sin sin sin
+ sin sin cos − cos sin cos
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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Angle of Incidence, (θi)

= cos cos cos cos + sin sin cos + cos sin sin sin
+ sin sin cos − cos sin cos
• Special Cases
• For surface facing due south, γ = 0
= cos cos cos − + sin sin −
• For horizontal surface, β =0, θi = θz (Zenith angle)
= cos cos cos + sin sin
• For a vertical surface facing due south, γ = 0, β = 90°
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SOLAR DAY LENGTH

• At sunrise the sunrays are parallel to the horizontal surface. Hence
the angle of incidence, θi = θz = 90°, the corresponding hour angle,
ωs
= 0 = cos cos cos + sin sin
= − tan tan
• The positive value corresponds to sunrise while the negative to
sunset
• The hour angle between sunrise and sunset is given by:
2 =2 − tan tan
= − tan tan hours
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Example 1
• Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a plane
surface, tilted by 45° from horizontal plane and pointing 30° west
of south located at Mumbai at 1:30 PM (IST) on 15th November.
The longitude and latitude of Mumbai are 72° 49’ E and 18° 54’ N
respectively. The standard longitude for IST is 81° 44’ E (Khan,
2017. p.135).

• Ans=37.23°
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Example 2
• Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface
located at Madison, Wisconsin (ϕ=43° N,), at 10:30 (solar time) on
February 13 if the surface is tilted 45° from the horizontal and
pointed 15° west of south (Duffie and Backman, 2013. P.15)

• Ans=35°

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Example 3 & 4
• Calculate the number of day light hours (sunshine hours) in Srinagar
on January 1 and July 1. The latitude of Srinagar is 34°05’ N (Khan,
2017. p.136). Ans=9.77 and 14.24 hours

• For New Delhi (28° 35’ N, 77° 12’ E), calculate the zenith angle of
the sun at 2:30 P.M. on 20 February 2015. The standard IST latitude
for India is 81° 44’ E (Khan, 2017. p.136). Ans = 42.557°

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Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation on Horizontal Surface

• At any point of time, the solar radiation outside the atmosphere (Iext) incident on a
horizontal plane is:
= + .

Or = + . cos cos cos + sin sin

Radiation between sunrise to sunset

×
= + . cos sin cos
2
+ sin sin
360

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SOLAR RADIATION ON INCLINED PLANE SURFACE

• Total radiation incident on an inclined surface consists of three
components:
• (i) beam radiation, (ii) diffuse radiation and (iii) radiation reflected
from ground and surroundings.
• Both beam and diffuse components of radiation undergo reflection
from the ground and surroundings. Total radiation on a surface of
arbitrary orientation may be evaluated as:
= + + +
• where rb, rd and rr are known as tilt factors for beam, diffuse and
reflected components respectively.
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SOLAR RADIATION ON INCLINED PLANE SURFACE

• rb: It is defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation
Ibn
incident on an inclined surface (Ib’) to that on a θz
horizontal surface (Ib). Ib
= cos
= cos
where, Ibn is the beam radiation on a surface normal to
the direction of sunrays Ibn
cos
= =
cos
θi
• For a tilted surface facing south, γ = 0°
cos cos cos − + sin sin − Ib’ β
=
cos cos cos + sin sin
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SOLAR RADIATION ON INCLINED PLANE SURFACE

• rd: It is defined as the ratio of flux of diffuse radiation
falling on inclined surface to that on the horizontal surface.
The value of this tilt factor depends upon the distribution of
diffuse radiation over the sky and on the portion of the sky Ibn
dome seen by the tilted surface.
1 + cos
= θi
2
• rr: The reflected component comes mainly from the ground Ib’ β
and surrounding objects. Assume that the reflection of the
beam and diffuse radiation falling on the ground is diffuse
and isotropic and the reflectivity is ρ, the tilt factor for
reflected radiation may be written as:
1 − cos
=
2
where r is reflection coefficient of the ground (equal to 0.2 for ordinary grass or concrete and 0.6
for snow-covered ground respectively)
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SOLAR RADIATION ON INCLINED PLANE SURFACE

• For vertical surface, b = 90°, rd = 0.5 and rr = 0.5ρ (This indicates that
half of the diffuse and half of the total reflected radiation is received Ibn
by a vertical surface).
• For horizontal plane, rd = 1 and rr = 0, which indicates that maximum Ib
diffuse radiation is received by horizontal surface and that a
horizontal surface receives no ground reflected radiation.
• The ratio r’ of total solar energy incident on an inclined surface to
that on a horizontal surface is given as:
Ib’
= =
+
Replace = + + +
+ Ibn
= +

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Example 5 & 6
• Calculate Rb for a surface at latitude 40° N at a tilt 30◦ toward the
south for the hour 9 to 10 solar time on February 16 (Duffie and
Backman, 2013. p.28). Ans – 1.61.

• Calculate Rb for a latitude 40° N at a tilt of 50° toward the south for
the hour 9 to 10 solar time on February 16 (Duffie and Backman,
2013. p.28). Ans – 1.79.

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Example
• Determine the values of total incident radiation and ratio r’ with the following given data
• Latitude (ϕ) = 28°51’, Day of the year = October 6, 1995
• Surface azimuth angle (γ) = 0°, Inclination of the surface(β) =45°
• Reflectivity of ground (ρ) = 0.2 (Ref. Tiwari, 2013, p. 26)

Radiation on horizontal surface Observed Calculated

(W/m2) radiation radiation
Hour angle Calculated
Time on inclined on inclined
(deg) r’
Total Diffuse Beam surface surface
(W/m2) (W/m2)
09 AM 472.44 174.94 297.50 570.65 -45
10 AM 647.41 203.30 444.11 753.70 -30
11 AM 752.40 222.22 530.18 839.83 -15
12 Noon 769.70 231.00 538.70 832.90 0
01PM 752.40 236.40 516.00 872.90 +15
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Solar Thermal
Systems

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Introduction
• Solar energy can be utilized directly by two technologies
• Solar thermal

• Solar photovoltaic

• Solar Thermal Utilization

• Low temperature applications

• Medium temperature applications

• High Temperature applications

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Solar Thermal Energy

Solar energy is absorbed to raise temperature, and
then transferred as heat to water or air to perform
the desired operation.

Medium
Low temperature
temperature Power Generation
applications
applications

Solar water heaters Solar steam cooking

Solar cookers Industrial process heat Grid connected power
Solar dryers systems systems
Solar water purification Solar cooling systems

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Solar Collectors
• Solar power has low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m. to 0.1 kW/sq.
m.).
• Hence it is to be collected by covering large ground area by solar
thermal collectors.
• Solar thermal collector essentially forms the first unit in a solar
thermal system.
• It absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to heat transport
fluid efficiently.
• The heat transport fluid delivers this heat to thermal storage tank /
boiler / heat exchanger, etc., to be utilized in the subsequent stages of
the system
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Solar Collector
• For solar energy systems, if the insolation is absorbed and utilised
without significant mechanical pumping and blowing, the solar
system is said to be passive.

• If the solar heat is collected in a fluid, usually water or air, which is

then moved by pumps or fans for use, the solar system is said to be
active.

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Classification

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Non Concentrating Type

• A flat plate collector solar water heater (SWH) is placed at a location
in a position such that its length aligns with line of longitude and
suitably tilted towards south to have maximum collection

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Non Concentrating:
Solar Water Heater

• A flat plate collector is placed at

a location in a position such that
its length aligns with line of
longitude and suitably tilted
towards south to have maximum
collection of solar radiation (i.e.,
global)
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Calculation of Heat Balance in SWH

• The net heat flow to the plate is
−
= −
= − −
=

Where = is collector
efficiency and UL is overall heat transfer
(loss) coefficient

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Effect of Various Parameters on Performance

• Selective Surface

• Number of Covers

• Spacing

• Collector Tilt

• Dust on the Top of the Cover

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Material Selection for

Various Parts of Flat
Plate Collector

• Absorber Plate
• Insulation
• Cover plate/glass

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Flat Plate Air Heating Collector

(Solar Air Heater, Solar Air Collector)
• The value of heat transfer coefficient between the
absorber plate and the air is low.
• For this reason, the surfaces are sometimes
roughened or longitudinal fins are provided in the
airflow passage.
• Corrugated, V-shape, matrix, etc., are some of the
other variations of absorber plate.
• The principal applications of theses collectors are
drying for agricultural and industrial purposes,
and space heating
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Flat Plate Air Heating Collector

(Solar Air Heater, Solar Air Collector)
It has following advantages over liquid flat plate Major disadvantage of air collector are:
collector:
• Large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low
• It is compact, simple in construction and density.
requires little maintenance.
• As a result, the electrical power required to blow
• The need to transfer thermal energy from the air through the system can be significant if the
working fluid to another fluid is eliminated as pressure drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
air is used directly as working fluid.
• Heat transfer between absorber plate and air is
• Corrosion is completely eliminated. poor.
• Leakage of air from the duct is less severe. • There is less storage of thermal energy due to low
heat capacity.
• Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also
eliminated.
• The pressure inside the collector does not
become very high.

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Evacuated Tube Collector

• The performance of a flat plate collector can be
improved by suppressing or reducing the heat lost
from the collector by convection and conduction.
• This is done by having vacuum around the absorber.
• As a consequence, it becomes essential to use a
glass tube as the cover because only a tubular
surface is able to withstand the stresses introduced
by the pressure differences as a result of vacuum.
• The collector consists of a number of long tubular
modules stacked together.

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Classification

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Modified Flat Plate Collector

(Flat Plate Collector with Booster Mirrors)
• By providing plane reflectors at the edges of flat plate
collector to reflect additional radiation into the receiver
the concentration of solar radiation can be increased.
• These mirrors are also called booster mirrors.
• The concentration ratio of these concentrators has
maximum value of 4.
• Such a design (V-trough) is aligned in East-West
direction and requires periodic tilt adjustment.
• Different optimum depth-to-base width ratio and cone
angles are possible depending on the frequency of
seasonal tilt adjustment.
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Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

• Compound parabolic concentrator consists of two parabolic
mirror segments, attached to a receiver.
• The segments are oriented such that focus of one is located
at the bottom end point of the other in contact with receiver.
• It has a large acceptance angle and need to be adjusted
intermittently.
• Rays in the central region of the aperture reach the absorber
directly whereas those near the edges undergo one or more
reflections before reaching the absorber.
• The concentration ratio achieved from cylindrical and linear
concentrators is in 45000 and 212.

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Compound Parabolic
Concentrator (CPC)
• Two basic types of CPC collectors have been
designed: symmetric and asymmetric. CPCs
usually employ two main types of absorbers:
the fin type with a pipe and tubular absorbers.
The fin type can be flat, bifacial, or wedge,
for the symmetric type, and can be single
channel or multichannel.
• For higher-temperature applications a
tracking CPC can be used. When tracking is
used, this is very rough or intermittent, since
the concentration ratio is usually small and
radiation can be collected and concentrated
by one or more reflections on the parabolic
surfaces.
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Classification

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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
Energy delivery temperatures can be increased by decreasing the
area from which the heat losses occur.

Temperatures far above those attainable by flat-plate collectors

can be reached if a large amount of solar radiation is
concentrated on a relatively small collection area.

This is done by interposing an optical device between the

source of radiation and the energy-absorbing surface.

Concentrating collectors exhibit certain advantages over the

conventional flat-plate type).

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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
The main advantages using sun-tracking concentrating collectors are:

• The working fluid can achieve higher temperatures in a concentrator system than a
flat-plate system of the same solar energy-collecting surface. This means that a
higher thermodynamic efficiency can be achieved.

• It is possible with a concentrator system to achieve a thermodynamic match

between temperature level and task. The task may be to operate thermionic,
thermodynamic, or other higher-temperature devices.

• The thermal efficiency is greater because of the small heat loss area relative to the
receiver area.
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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
• The aperture of the system Aa is the projected area of the concentrator facing
the beam.
• The concentration ratio X to be the ratio of the area of aperture to the area of
the receiver:
=
• The temperature of the receiver cannot be Aa
increased indefinitely by simply increasing X,
since by Kirchhoff’s laws the receiver
temperature Tr cannot exceed the equivalent
temperature Ts of the Sun. Ar

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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
The main advantages using sun-tracking concentrating collectors are:

• Reflecting surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than
flat-plate collectors. For a concentrating collector, the cost per unit area of
the solar-collecting surface is therefore less than that of a flat- plate
collector.

• Owing to the relatively small area of receiver per unit of collected solar
energy, selective surface treatment and vacuum insulation to reduce heat
losses and improve the collector efficiency are economically viable.

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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
The main disadvantages using sun-tracking concentrating collectors are:

• Concentrator systems collect little diffuse radiation, depending on the

concentration ratio.

• Some form of tracking system is required to enable the collector to

follow the sun.

• Solar reflecting surfaces may lose their reflectance with time and may
require periodic cleaning and refurbishing.
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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
• Many designs have been considered for concentrating collectors. Concentrators
can be reflectors or refractors, can be cylindrical or parabolic, and can be
continuous or segmented.
• Receivers can be convex, flat, cylindrical, or concave and can be covered with
glazing or uncovered.
• Concentration ratios, i.e., the ratio of aperture to absorber areas, can vary over
several orders of magnitude, from as low as slightly above unity to high values on
the order of 10,000.
• Increased ratios mean increased temperatures at which energy can be delivered,
but consequently, these collectors have increased requirements for precision in
optical quality and positioning of the optical system.

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Sun-Tracking Concentrating Collector

(Focus type)
• Because of the apparent movement of the sun across the sky, conventional
concentrating collectors must follow the sun's daily motion. The sun's
motion can be readily tracked by two methods.
• The altazimuth method, which requires the tracking device to turn in both
altitude and azimuth, i.e., when performed properly, this method enables
the concentrator to follow the sun exactly.
• One-axis tracking, in which the collector tracks the sun in only one
direction, either from east to west or north to south. In this method,
continuous and accurate adjustment is required to compensate for the
changes in the sun's orientation.

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Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

• In concentrating collectors solar energy is optically concentrated before being
transferred into heat.

• Concentration can be obtained by reflection or refraction of solar radiation by

the use of mirrors or lenses.

• The reflected or refracted light is concentrated in a focal zone, thus increasing

the energy flux in the receiving target.

• Concentrating collectors can also be classified into non-imaging and imaging,

depending on whether the image of the sun is focused at the receiver.

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Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

• The concentrator belonging in the first category is the CPC,
whereas all the other types of concentrators belong to the imaging
type. The collectors falling into this category are:
• Parabolic trough collector.
• Linear Fresnel reflector.
• Parabolic dish.
• Central receiver.

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Concentrating Optics

Parabolic
Focus
Reflector

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Concentrators

Parabolic rotational solids Extruded parabolic profiles

Concentrate the irradiance Concentrate the irradiance
up to 2,000 times up to 200 times

Tarun 73
K. Aseri

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Fresnel Concentrators

74

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Concentrator Applications

Dish Stirling Systems

5 – 25 kWe
Off-grid / long-term pilot plants

Solar Tower Systems

5 – 100 MWe
On-grid / Commercial plants

Parabolic Trough
5 – 200 MWe
On-grid / commercial plants

Linear Fresnel
5 – 200 MWe
On-grid / pilot plants
75

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CSP Technologies

Line focused

Point focused

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CSP Plants without and with storage

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP48pAb8sec

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Operational Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India

Name: Godawari Green Energy
Location: Nokh, Jaisalmer Rajasthan
CSP technology: Parabolic trough
Nominal capacity: 50 MW
Year of plant operational start: 2013

Name: MEIL Solar Power Plant

Location: Nagalapuram, Anantpur, Andhra Pradesh
CSP technology: Parabolic trough
Nominal capacity: 50 MW
Year of plant operational start: 2013

Name: Dhursar
Location: Dhursar, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
CSP technology: Compact Linear Fresnel
Nominal capacity: 125 MW
Year of plant operational start: 2014

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Operational Concentrating Solar Power Plants in India

Name: ACME
Location: Bikaner, Rajasthan
CSP technology: Power Tower
Nominal capacity: 2.5 MW
Year of plant operational start: 2010

Name: India One

Location: Mt. Abu, Rajasthan
CSP technology: Scheffler Parabolic Dish
Nominal capacity: 1.0 MW
Year of plant operational start: 2017

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Salient features of CSP technologies

Characteristic Unit PTC LFR CTR
Focusing - line line point

Concentration ratio - 25-100 70-80 300-1000

Maximum cycle temperature oC 393 – 550 250 – 400 565 – 680

Annual capacity factor (without

% 18-23 17-22 20-24
storage)

Annual Solar-to-electricity conversion % 10–16 8–12 20–35

Foot print km2/MW 0.025 - 0.04 0.02-0.045 0.045 -0.084

Air/supercritical CO2
Steam Rankine/Organic Steam Rankine/Organic Brayton,
Possible power cycle -
Rankine, Rankine Rankine/Organic
Rankine cycle

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Few Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP48pAb8sec

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTNU1JMhzxA

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDng0LU2zpI

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A7wUrakeQfY

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Concentrator
Technology

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Solar Pond
• A solar pond is an ingenious collector,
which uses water as its top cover.

• Consequently a large ‘pond’, of surface

area perhaps 104 m2 and containing 104
m3 of water, can be constructed with
simple earthworks at low cost.

• Moreover, it incorporates its own heat

storage, which extends its range of uses.

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Solar Pond
• A solar pond comprises several layers of salty water, with the saltiest
layer on the bottom at about 1.5 m deep.

• Sunshine is absorbed at the bottom of the pond, so the lowest layer of

water is heated the most.

• In an ordinary homogeneous pond, this warm water would then be

lighter than its surroundings and would rise, thus carrying its heat to the
air above by free convection
• But in the solar pond, the bottom layer was initially made so much saltier than the one above that,
even though its density decreases as it warms, it still remains denser than the layer above.

• Thus, convection is suppressed, and the bottom layer remains at the bottom getting hotter and hotter.

• Indeed, there are other liquid solutions that increase density with increase in temperature, so
producing very stable solar ponds.
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Solar Pond
• Of course, the bottom layer does not heat up indefinitely but
settles to a temperature determined by the heat lost by conduction
through the stationary water above.
• Calculation shows that the resistance to this heat loss is
comparable to that in a conventional plate collector.

• Lowest layer equilibrium temperatures of 90°C or more have been achieved, with boiling
being observed in some exceptionally efficient solar ponds.
• Note that to set up such a solar pond in practice takes up to several months, because if the
upper layers are added too quickly, the resulting turbulence stirs up the lower layers and
destroys the desired stratification.

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Solar Pond
• In a large solar pond, the thermal capacitance and resistance can be
made large enough to retain the heat in the bottom layer from summer to
winter.

• The pond can therefore be used for heating buildings in the winter. The
pond has also many potential applications in industry, as a steady source
of heat at a moderately high temperature.
• It is also possible to produce electricity from a solar pond by using a special ‘low
temperature’ heat engine coupled to an electric generator.
• Such systems are conceptually very similar to OTEC systems. A solar pond at Beit
Ha’Harava in Israel produced a steady and reliable 5 MW(e) at a levelized cost of around
30 USc/kWh)..

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SOLAR COOKERS
• A variety of solar cookers
have been developed, which
can be clubbed in four types of
basic designs: (i) box type
solar cooker, (ii) dish type
solar cooker, (iii) community
solar cooker, and (iv) advance
solar cooker.

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SOLAR FURNACE

• Solar furnaces are ideal tools to study the chemical, optical, electrical and thermodynamic
properties of the materials at high temperatures.
• It is basically an optical system in which solar radiations are concentrated over a small area.
• Temperatures obtained are in the range of
• about 3,500 °C.
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SOLAR FURNACE
Some of the advantages of a solar furnace are:
• (a) heating without contamination, (b) easy control of temperature,
• (c) working is simple, (d) high heat flux is obtainable, (e) continuous
observation possible and (f) absence of electromagnetic field.
• In spite of many advantages of solar furnaces, these have not become
popular in industries due to following reasons:
a) Its use is limited to sunny days and that too for 4–5 hours only.
b) Its cost is high.
c) Very high temperatures are obtained only over a very small area

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Other Solar Energy based Systems

Solar Dryer
Solar Greenhouse

Solar Distillation Solar refrigeration

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Photovoltaic
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical
energy.
• Basic conversion device used is known as a solar photovoltaic cell or a solar
cell.
• Although other light sources may also produce photovoltaic electricity, here
only sunlight based PV cells are considered
• These devices produce electricity directly from electromagnetic radiation,
especially light, without any moving parts.
• The photovoltaic effect was discovered by Becquerel in 1839 but not
developed as a power source until 1954 by Chapin, Fuller and Pearson using
doped semiconductor silicon.
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Photovoltaic: Installed and Generation

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Band Structure of Silicon

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Photovoltaic: Advantages
Major advantages of solar PV systems over conventional power systems are:
• It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through
thermal-mechanical link. It has no moving parts.

• Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free.

• These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments, respond
instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected life span of 20 years or
more.

• It can be located at the place of use and hence no or minimum distribution

network is required, as it is universally available.
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Photovoltaic: Disadvantages
It also suffers from some disadvantages such as:

• The efficiency of solar cells is low. As solar radiation density is also low, large
area of solar cell modules are required to generate sufficient useful power.

• As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage is

required, to ensure the availability of power in absence of sun. This makes the
whole system more expensive.

• Rapid and frequent power generation make grid unstable

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Photovoltaic: Applications
• Space satellites, remote radio communication booster stations and
marine warning lights.

• Street lighting, water pumping and medical refrigeration in remote

areas.

• Solar powered vehicles and battery charging are some of the recent
interesting application of solar PV power.

• Power generation: Rooftop and grid connected

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SOLAR CELL: SEMICONDUCTOR

• ‘‘Semiconductors’’ are solid materials, either non-metallic elements or compounds, which allow
electrons to pass through them so that they conduct electricity in much the same way as a metal.
• Semiconductors possess the following characteristics:
a) The resistivity is usually high.
b) The temperature coefficient of resistance is always negative.
c) The contact between semiconductor and a metal forms a layer which has a higher resistance in
one direction than the other.
d) When some suitable metallic impurity (e.g., Arsenic, Gallium etc.) is added to a
semiconductor, its conducting properties change appreciably.
e) They exhibit a rise in conductivity in the increasing temperature, with the decreasing
temperatures their conductivity falls off, and at low temperatures semiconductors become
dielectrics.
f) They are usually metallic in appearance but (unlike metals) are generally hard and brittle.

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SOLAR CELL: SEMICONDUCTOR

• Semiconducting compounds

1) Alloys : Mg3Sb2, ZnSb, Mg2Sn, CdSb, AlSb, InSb, GeSb.

2) Oxide : ZnO, Fe3O4, Fe2O3, Cu2O, CuO, BaO, CaO, NiO,

Al2O3, TiO2, UO2, Cr2O3, WO2, MoO3.

3) Sulphides: Cu2S, Ag2S, PbS, ZnS, CdS, HgS, MoS2.

4) Halides: AgI, CuI.

5) Selenides and Tellurides.

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Differences between Semiconductors and Conductors

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Differences between Semiconductors and Insulators

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Atomic Structure of Semiconductor

• All atoms are made of electrons, protons and neutrons. Most solid
materials are classed, from the stand-point of electrical conductivity, as
conductors, semiconductors or insulators.
• To be conductor, the substance must contain some mobile electrons—one
that can move freely between the atoms.
• These free electrons come only from the valence (outer) orbit of the atom.
• Physical force associated with the valence electrons bind adjacent atoms
together.
• The inner electrons below the valence level do not normally enter into the
conduction process.
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Atomic Structure
• Conductivity depends on the number of electrons in
the valence orbit.
• These elements can all be used in semiconductor
manufacture. The degree of conductivity is determined
as follows:
1. Atoms with fewer than four valence electrons are
good conductors.
2. Atoms with more than four valence electrons are
poor conductors.
3. Atoms with four valence electrons are
semiconductors
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A pure semiconductor is called “intrinsic
semiconductor“. Here no free electrons are
available since all the co-valent bonds are
complete.
• A pure semiconductor, therefore, behaves as an
insulator.
• It exhibits a peculiar behaviour even at room
temperature or with rise in temperature.
• The resistance of a semiconductor decreases
with increase in temperature.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor
• When an electric field is applied to an
intrinsic semiconductor at a temperature
greater than 0°K, conduction electrons
move to the anode and the holes (when an
electron is liberated into the conduction
band a positively charged hole is created in
valence band) move to cathode.

Hence semiconductor current consists of

movement of electrons in opposite direction.
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Extrinsic Semiconductor
• In a pure semiconductor, which behaves like an insulator under ordinary conditions, if small
amount of certain metallic impurity is added, it attains current conducting properties.
• The impure semiconductor is then called “impurity semiconductor“ or “extrinsic
semiconductor“.
• The process of adding impurity (extremely in small amounts about 1 part in 108) to a
semiconductor to make it extrinsic (impurity) semiconductor is called Doping.
• Generally following doping agents are used:
1. Pentavalent atom having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus) called
donor atoms.
2. Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium aluminium, boron) called
acceptor atoms.
• With the addition of suitable impurities to semiconductor, two type of semiconductors are:
1. N-type semiconductor.
2. P-type semiconductor.
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N-type semiconductor
• The presence of even a minute quantity of impurity can produce N-type semiconductor.
• If the impurity atom has one valence electron more than the semiconductor atom which it
has substituted, this extra electron will be loosely bound to the atom.
• For example, an atom of Germanium possesses four valence electrons; when it is
replaced in the crystal lattice of the substance by an impurity atom of antimony (Sb)
which has five valence electrons, the fifth valence electron (free electron) produces
extrinsic N-type conductivity even at room temperature.
• Such an impurity into a semiconductor is called “donor impurity” (or donor).
• The conducting properties of germanium will depend upon the amount of antimony (i.e.,
impurity) added. This means that controlled conductivity can be obtained by proper
addition of impurity.
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N-type semiconductor
• It may be noted that by giving away its one electron, the
donor atom becomes a positively charged ion. But it cannot
take part in conduction because it is firmly fixed or tied into
the crystal lattice.
• In addition to the electrons and holes intrinsically available
in germanium, the addition of antimony greatly increases
the number of conduction electrons.
• Hence, concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
increased and exceeds the concentration of holes in the
valence band. Consequently, Fermi level shifts upwards
towards the bottom of the conduction band.
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N-type semiconductor
• It is worth noting that even though N-type
semiconductor has excess of electrons, still it is
electrically neutral.
• It is so because by addition of donor impurity, number
of electrons available for conduction purposes
becomes more than the number of holes available
intrinsically.
• But the total charge of the semiconductor does not
change because the donor impurity brings in as much
negative charge (by way of electrons) as positive
charge (by way of protons).
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P-type semiconductor
• P-type extrinsic semiconductor can be produced if the
impurity atom has one valence electrons less than the
semiconductor atom that it has replaced in the crystal lattice.
• This impurity atom cannot fill all the interatomic bonds, and
the free bond can accept an electron from the neighboring
bond; leaving behind a vacancy of hole. Such an impurity is
called an “acceptor impurity” (or acceptor).
• It may be noted again that even though P-type
semiconductor has excess of holes for conduction purposes,
as a whole it is electrically neutral for the same reasons as
discussed earlier.

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Photovoltaic Effect
• When a solar cell (p-n junction) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs
are generated and the electric current I is obtained.

• I is the difference between the solar light generated current IL and

the diode current Ij
=I −

= − exp −1

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Conversion Efficiency and Power Output of a Solar Cell

• A solar cell uses a p-n junction its physical configuration.
• The current and voltage relationship is given by
= exp −1
• Open circuit voltage Voc for the ideal cell is given by
= ln +1

• IL >> I0, the 1 in the equation can be neglected. The VOC becomes
= ln

• In practice the ‘open circuit voltage of the cell’ decreases with

increasing temperature.
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Solar Cell: Influenced Factors

The voltage, current and power delivered by the solar cell are influenced by the following
factors:
• Conditions of sunlight, intensity, wavelength and angle of incidence etc.;
• Conditions of the junction, temperature, termination, etc.
• External resistance(R)

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Photovoltaic Effect
• When external resistance R is high (mega-ohms range or
infinity) the condition is called ‘Open-circuit‘. The open-
circuit voltage Voc of a solar cell is about 0.5 V.D.C. It is the
maximum voltage across a PV (photovoltaic) cell. Open-
circuit current is zero.
• If R is reduced gradually and the readings of the terminal
voltage V and load current I are taken, we get V-I,
characteristics of the PV cell.
• As R is reduced from high value to low value, the terminal
voltage of the cell falls and current increases. A steep
characteristic OK is obtained.
• At knee point ‘K‘, the characteristic undergoes a smooth
change and becomes flat for the portion Ks.
• When the external resistance is completely shorted, the short-
circuit current Isc is obtained. The terminal voltage for the
short-circuit conditions is zero and maximum current
delivered by the cell is Isc
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Photovoltaic Effect
• The maximum power (Pmax) that can be derived from the device is
given by:
=
where, Vmp and Imp are the voltage and current at maximum power
point
• Maximum efficiency (ηmax) of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of
maximum electric power output to incident solar radiation.
=

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Fill Factor
• Fill factor (FF). The fill factor for a solar
cell is defined as the ratio of two area.
FF=
• Maximum power can be defined in terms
of IL and Voc and is given by
= × ×
• Solar cell designers strive to increase the
FF values, to minimize internal losses.
• FF for a good silicon cell is about 0.8.

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Causes of low efficiency of a solar cell

The efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is 15% only. The major losses which lead to
the low efficiency of the cell are:
1. As the temperature of the cell rises due to solar radiation, leakage across the
cell increases. Consequently, power output, relative to solar energy input,
decreases. For silicon, the output decreases by 0.5% per °C.
2. The excess energy of active photons given to the electrons beyond the required
amount to cross the band gap cannot be recovered as useful electric power. It
appears as heat, about 33 per cent, and is lost.
3. The electric current (generated) flows out of the top surface by a mesh of metal
contacts provided to reduce series resistance losses. These contacts cover a
definite area which reduces the active surface and proves an obstacle to
incident solar radiation.
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Power output of solar panel, array and

module
• n = Number of solar cells in a module,

• m = Number of modules in an array or a panel, and

• Pc = Power per solar cell, watts

• Then, Power per module, Pmod = n × Pc watts

• and, Power per array or panel Pp = m × n × Pc watts

• Voltage across panel, Vp = Pp/Ip

• Current delivered by the panel, Ip = Sqrt (Pp/R)

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Solar Photovoltaic Cells

• The “photovoltaic or solar cell“ is a semiconductor device.

• The ‘photovoltaic effect‘ was first observed in 1839 by Becquerel who

found that, when light was directed on to one side of an electrochemical
cell, a voltage was created.

• The development of selenium and cuprous oxide photovoltaic cells led

to many applications, including photographic exposure meters.

• In the late 1950s, silicon solar cells were made with a conversion
efficiency high enough for power generators
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Classification of Solar Cells

• Cell size
• The size of the silicon solar cells can be divided into four groups; (i) Round
single crystalline having 100 mm diameter; (ii) Square single crystalline
having area of 100 cm2, (iii) 1000 mm × 1000 mm square multi-crystalline,
and (iv) 125 mm × 125 mm square multi-crystalline.
• Thickness of active material
• The size of the silicon solar cells can be divided into four groups; (i) Round
single crystalline having 100 mm diameter; (ii) Square single crystalline
having area of 100 cm2, (iii) 1000 mm × 1000 mm square multi-crystalline,
and (iv) 125 mm × 125 mm square multi-crystalline.
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Classification of Solar Cells

• Type of junction structure
• (i) p-n homojunction cell, (ii) p-n hetro-junction cell, (iii) p-n
multijunction cell, and (iv) Metal semiconductor Schottky junction.

• Type of active material

• Such cells are classified as: (i) Single crystal silicon cell, (ii) Multi-
crystalline silicon cell, (iii) Amorphous silicon cell, (iv) Gallium arsenide
cell, (v) Copper indium diselenide cell, (vi) Cadmium telluride cell, and
(vii) Organic P-V cell.
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Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

• Stand-alone power systems
• In such a system, the photovoltaic array is the principal or only source of energy.
• Energy is stored, often in batteries, for periods when there is insufficient solar
radiation.
• There may also be a back-up power supply such as an engine-generator set.
• Grid connected power systems
• In this type of system, load is connected to both a photovoltaic power system and an
electricity grid.
• In periods when there is sufficient solar radiation, the array powers the load,
otherwise grid is used. In some cases, any surplus electricity produced by the array
(i.e. when the load output exceeds the load) is fed back into the grid.
• This type includes large MW-sized systems.

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Stand-alone power systems

• Photovoltaic array. It consists of the required number of modules interconnected in series and parallel to
give the desired system voltage and current.

• Storage battery. The battery supplies energy to the load during periods of little or no solar irradiance and
stores energy from the array during periods of high irradiance. This enables the systems to meet
momentary peak power demands and to maintain stable voltage to the load.

• Power conditioner. Because the voltage output of the photovoltaic array varies with insolation and
temperature, systems with battery storage require voltage or shunt regulator to prevent excessive
overcharging of the battery.

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Advantages and limitations of photovoltaic systems

Advantages Disadvantages
• Systems are durable. • Weather dependent.

• Lower operational cost. • Low efficiency

• Low maintenance. • Frequent cleaning requirement

• More flexibility available.

• Systems are eco-friendly.
• Highly reliable.
• Long effective life.
• Absence of moving parts.
• Can function unattended for long periods.
• High power to weight ratio.

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Applications of photovoltaic (PV) systems

1. Solar street lighting 6. Community radio and
system. television sets.
2. Home lighting systems. 7. Cathodic protection of oil
3. Water pumping systems pipelines.
(for micro irrigation and 8. Railway signaling
drinking water supply) equipment.
4. Solar vehicles. 9. Weather monitoring.
5. Radio beacons for ship 10. Battery charging
navigation at ports.

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Thank You

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

N
θz

α E
W

γs

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