Geo Factsheet
September 1997 Number 30
Volcanic Activity - Causes and Consequences
Fig1. Plate Boundaries and Volcanic activity
Subduction Zone Volcanism
This occurs when cold oceanic lithosphere is
subducted i.e. forced down into the mantle. At
N. American
Eurasian depths of approximately 125km this basaltic
plate
plate material, which is wet and laden with sediment,
China begins to melt and yields a magma. This magma
plate then begins to rise, as it is less dense than the
surrounding rock, and erupts at the surface to
Pacific plate form island arc volcanoes. The main examples of
this style of volcanism occur along the Pacific
Philippine plate Cocos plate Caribbean orogenic belt (the ring of fire), the Alpine-
plate Mediterranean-North African Himalayan
Nazca belt (which stretches down through Indonesia)
plate and the Caribbean orogenic belt. Such
volcanoes tend to produce acidic andisitic lavas
African containing about 70% silica which are highly
Indian plate S. American viscous and hence relatively immobile. Volcanic
Antarctic plate
plate events tend to be explosive, creating explosion
plate
vents, ash and cinder cones or steeply sloped
active volcanoes stratovolcanoes (also called composite
boundaries volcanoes) with alternating beds of ash and other
pyroclastic material.
Causes by tensional forces and the formation of crustal Other Volcanoes
Volcanic activity is closely related to plate domes due to the slow emplacement of magmatic Volcanoes can also occur within plates - over
tectonic processes and is chiefly located along material deep in the crust. The most notable hot spots which are associated with localised
the edge of major plate margins (see Figure 1). example of this form of volcanism is along the pockets of molten magma rising as plumes to
Three main areas of activity can be identified: East African Rift Valley, which extends for over penetrate the surface, a good example being the
4000km. The characteristics of these two types Hawaiian Islands. Such lavas usually contain
• Oceanic rifts are summarised in Table 1. higher proportions of sodium and potassium
reflecting a deeper source. Mid-Ocean plate
• Continental rifts
Table 1. Oceanic and Continental Volcanoes volcanoes are invariably basaltic, whereas
• Subduction zones. Continental hot spots may give rise to volcanoes
Oceanic Continental erupting rocks with a range of silica and alkali
Oceanic Rift Volcanism Rift Rift contents.
Ocean ridges occur due to the ocean lithosphere
being stretched and thinned by tectonic forces. Eruption Less violent Violent - release Activity
This thinning allows mantle material to rise which of gas bubbles Volcanoes are generally classified as active,
causes widespread melting and volcanism. This dormant or extinct. This classification is carried
volcanism mainly takes the form of fissure Chemistry Basic Acid out by examination of geological evidence of
eruptions along spreading Mid Oceanic Ridges 45% Si 70% Si recent activity. However, some caution must be
(MORs) such as the Mid Atlantic ridge. Such Rich in Ca Fe Small amounts exercised; it is not unknown for "dormant" or
volcanoes tend to produce basic or basaltic lavas Mg of Ca Fe Mg even "extinct" volcanoes to erupt - when Vesuvius
with silica contents around 45%. These lavas erupted in AD79 it had been widely considered
have a relatively low viscosity and are mobile, Cooling Slower Rapid to be extinct. Hot spot volcanoes often become
forming gently sloping lava domes, called shield extinct due to the lithosphere moving over the
volcanoes. Viscosity Low viscosity High viscosity plume; the Hawaiian chain of volcanoes is the
(100 x Oceanic) result of such a moving hot spot.
Continental Rift Volcanism
The mechanism here is very similar to that of Mobility High Low
oceanic rifts; the lithosphere is thinning, allowing
Landforms Wide base and Tall with steep
the mantle to rise. This occurs within vast rift
gently sloping slopes
valleys. Many theories exist to explain the
sides
formation of these structures and their associated
volcanism, including the break up of continents
1
Volcanic Activity: Causes and Consequences Geo Factsheet
Table 2: Volcanic Effects -origin, characteristics and potential for harm
Origin Characteristics Harmful Effects
Pyroclasts All explosive eruptions Hot broken fragments of rock ejected with Rocks may be very large and cause
great velocity damage on impact
Tephra All explosive eruptions Collective term for all airborne or ground- Tephra may be spread over distances of
flowing pyroclasts including solidified magma. 1500km or more causing major and minor
Tephra is classified according to size: damage
Bombs: > 64mm diameter
Lapilli 2-6mm diameter
Ash <2mm diameter
Eruption Column Explosive eruptions of silica-rich May include a white cloud column from Fallout may be destructive and
and gaseous magmas - gases emission of steam, dark masses of pyroclastic widespread
decompress rapidly to produce material and clouds of fine ash. "Mushroom
upthrusting gases and tephra cloud" often produced due to the perturbation
of atmospheric temperature and pressure;
moist air near the column is drawn up and
condenses to form the "mushroom"
Pyroclastic Flow Explosive eruptions Hot, and often gas-charged, high velocity flow May extend many kilometres from source
May also be caused by collapse of tephra. Often composed of a mixture of and travel at high velocity (average
of eruption column bombs, lapilli, ash and extremely hot gases. 300kmh-1) May therefore represent a lethal
The resultant deposit, high in pumice, is termed mix of bombs, lapilli, ash and hot gases
an ignimbrite
Atmospheric effects Eruption columns which may Ash and dust particles including acidic Clouding reduces sunlight reaching
extend hundreds of kilometres into aerosols. Light-scattering leads to unusual earth's surface, cooling the
the atmosphere allowing ash, for optical effects troposphere, but release of greenhouse
example, to be transported by high gases contributes to tropospheric
level winds warming
Landslides Dislocation of land and rocks by May form huge flows of rocks, mud and tephra Destruction of property and land
magmatic pressure
Lahars Rain or meltwater may loosen Volcanic mud-flows which may move downhill Extensive destruction to property and
tephra very rapidly, as determined by topography often loss of life eg Nevado del Ruiz,
Columbia 1985, Mount Pinatubo 1991
Lateral Blasts Rapid decompression of dissolved Sideways and sudden release of pulverised May travel at speed of sound. Lethal
gases due to exposure of a mass rock and hot gases within blast zone which, in the case of
of magma by a landslide Mount St Helens extended to 600km2
Lava Flows Any eruption Flow rate dependent on temperature - as Can cause ignition of fires and burial of
lava cools, its viscosity increases and speed land and objects, but in general the
reduces until it is less than walking speed. As relatively slow flow rate means it poses
it cools, a solidified surface is produced. little risk to life
Volume and range of flow variable - may
extend up to 100km from source
Poisonous Gases Any eruption Ash-laden gases including carbon Many are directly toxic and contribute to
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrochloric acid rain. 1700 people were asphyxiated
acid, hydrofluoric acid, sulphur dioxide by CO 2 in the 1986 eruption at Lake
Monoun, Cameroon. May also cause
long term starvation and disease
Flooding Submarine eruptions displacing Inundation of fresh or salt water. May be Dramatic changes in erosion and
large volumes of rock and hence gradual or rapid deposition pattern of rivers. Destruction
water. Blockage of rivers by of property and agricultural land
lahars or lava flows
The Beneficial Effects of Volcanism • Soils derived from basic lava are • Geothermal water which reaches the
Although volcanic activity is usually perceived particularly fertile; volcanic ash falls are often surface may be harnessed for energy. In
as solely harmful, there are a number of beneficial rich in potassium and phosphorus and act as Reykjavik, Iceland, homes are heated by
effects: natural fertilisers. This explains the this method and in Italy, New Zealand, the
prevalence of settlements near many volcanos US, Mexico and the former Soviet Union,
• The scenic landscapes produced increase the naturally occurring steam is used to produce
potential for tourism • Industrial materials and chemicals are
electricity.
derived from volcanic rock - sulphur, pumice,
boric acid and ammonia are examples.
2
Volcanic Activity: Causes and Consequences Geo Factsheet
Case Study: 1st Oct 96-11th Apr 97 Montserrat location map
Soufriere Hills , Montserrat Landslides, occasional pyroclastic flows, partial
Soufriere Hills Volcano sits on the Southern collapse of old crater walls.
end of Montserrat Island in the West Indies.
Before the most recent eruption in June/July 14th May 97 - early Jul 97
1997 the summit consisted of ESE-trending lava Continued dome growth, small explosions
domes, the flank deposits were made up of resulting in some ballistic projectiles. Peaked on
block-and-ash flow and surge units formed as 25 June with pyroclastic flows from eruption of 4
the domes periodically expanded. to 5 million cubic metres of dome covering an Montserrat
area of 4 km2. Flows down the northern flanks of
Chronology the volcano following Paradise River almost
Jan 92-June 94 - Early seismic activity. reaching the sea. Flows and surges damaged
between 100 to 150 houses. At least 9 confirmed
18th Jul 95 - 21st Aug 95 - Start of eruption of dead, over 50 people rescued by helicopter added
steam, gas and ash. to which over 800 evacuees have been living in
shelters for over a year. Flows on 26 June come
Late Sep 95 - Mar 96 - Dome growth. within 50m of Bramble Airport.
29th Mar 96 - early Sep 96 - Dome collapse Prediction
and pyroclastic flows. For several weeks before the main event, dome
growth was observed along with repetitive
17th-18th Sep 96 - Explosive activity - first earthquakes and dome deformation cycles as
magmatic eruption occurs. Rocks and pumice pressure increased. This meant that the large
hurled through the air destroying houses to event was expected and hazard maps and
the south. Ash plumes result in 60 000 tonnes warning systems already in place predicted the
of ash falling in southern Monserrat. eruption fairly well.
Case Study: Monitoring This has enabled a response code to be
Popocatepetl Managing the potential volcanic risks to the established based on three hazard alert levels
Popocatepetl, situated 72km Southeast of densely populated area surrounding ranging from green (low), through yellow, up
Mexico City in the Mexican central volcano Popocateptl is an extremely difficult task as no to red (high). These alert levels are used to
belt, is a 5,452 metre high stratovolcano in one knows to what extent the current spate of identify the appropriate actions of the civil
one of the most densely populated areas in the activity will develop. Scientists have learned authorities, scientific community and the
world. At present some 20 million people live many valuable lessons from recent eruptions endangered population.
within a 80km radius of the site, with over one such as Mount Pinatubo in the Phillipines.
hundred thousand living close enough to be When early warning signals were rapidly
directly effected by an eruption. identified by monitoring stations and coded
warnings were transmitted on all radio
Chronology frequencies. This is beleived to have
1993 - Seismic activity and fumarole gas significantly reduced the final casualty rate.
emission. Similarily a comprehensive surveillance system
has therefore been set up around Popocatepetl
1994 - Increased activity culminating in a series to observe changes in emission chemistry,
of explosions within the crater on 21st ground movements and real-time seismic
December. Ash falls on Puebla and several monitoring.
small towns Northeast of the volcano
Acknowledgements;
precipitating the evacuation of 75,000 people. Popocatepetl location map
This Geo Factsheet was researched and written
by Anna Jeffcoat and Bryan Robinson.
1995 - Ash emissions several times a day lasting
5-20 minutes throughout the year.
Geo Press, 10 St Paul's Square,
Birmingham, B3 1QU
1996 - March - Lava dome begins to grow on
the crater floor of the volcano.
Geopress Factsheets may be copied free of charge
by teaching staff or students, provided that their
1997 - Lava dome currently fills 20% of the Popocatepetl school is a registered subscriber.
craters volume, larger than the 1919-27 dome.
Small explosions throw incandescent blocks
No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced,
onto the upper slopes of the volcano.
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any other form or by any other means, without
the prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN 1351-5136
