Earth Observation data for Geological Hazards

Shovan Lal Chattoraj, GSD

Introduction:

Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic increase and the damage caused
by them in the recent past have become a cause of national and international concern.
Over the past decade, the number of natural and manmade disasters has climbed
inexorably. Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental
factors that injure people and damage property. A natural hazard is a naturally occurring
event that might have a negative effect on people or the environment. Natural hazard
events can be grouped into two broad categories. Geophysical hazards encompass
geological and meteorological phenomena such as earthquakes, coastal erosion,
volcanic eruption, cyclonic storms, and drought. Biological hazards can refer to a diverse
array of disease and infestation. Other natural hazards such as floods and wildfires can
result from a combination of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors. Many
geophysical hazards are interrelated; for example, submarine earthquakes can cause
tsunamis, and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion. It is possible that some
natural hazards are inter-temporally correlated as well.

90% of disasters around the world are caused by weather-, climate- or water-related
hazards. Natural hazards cannot be prevented but early warning can reduce the scale of
the disaster. If people know in advance that tornados or tropical cyclones are forming
nearby, for example, they can seek shelter.

Disaster Management Cycle:

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures
which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a
disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.

The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk management are:
Before a disaster (pre-disaster): Activities taken to reduce human and property losses
caused by a potential hazard. For example carrying out awareness campaigns,
strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of the disaster management plans

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at household and community level etc. Such risk reduction measures taken under this
stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.

During a disaster (disaster occurrence): Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and
provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this stage
are called emergency response activities.

After a disaster (post-disaster) Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose

to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a
disaster strikes. These are called as response and recovery activities.

The disaster management cycle

Classification of Disaster:

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EM-DAT, the international database for disasters has proposed the all-inclusive disaster
classification scheme.

In subsequent paragraphs, different types of disasters have been explored.

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Geological Disasters:

Earthquake:

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards. An earthquake occurs
due to sudden transient motion of the ground as a result of release of elastic energy in a
matter of few seconds. The impact of the event is most traumatic because it affects large
areas, occurs all of a sudden and is unpredictable. They can cause large scale loss of life
and property and disrupts essential services such as water supply, sewerage systems,
communication and power, transport, etc. They not only destroy villages, towns and cities
but the aftermath leads to destabilize the economy and social structure of the nation.

An earthquake is the movement or trembling of the ground produced by the sudden

displacement of rock in the Earth's crust. Earthquakes result from crustal strain,
volcanism, landslides, and collapse of caverns. Stress accumulates in response to
tectonic forces until it exceeds the strength of the rock. The rock then breaks along a
preexisting or new fracture called a fault. The rupture extends outward in all directions
along the fault plane from its point of origin (focus). The rupture travels in an irregular
manner until the stress is relatively equalized. If the rupture Page 2 of 52 disturbs the
surface, it produces a visible fault on the surface. Earthquakes are recorded by
seismograph consisted of a seismometer, a shaking detector and a data recorder. The
moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the related and mostly
obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly
imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of
shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. In India Medvedev-Sponheuer-
Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, which is a macroseismic intensity scale,
is used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in an
area of the earthquake occurrence. Due to earthquake seismic waves are generated and
measurements of their speed of travel are recorded by seismographs located around the
planet.

INDIA: Tectonic Features

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India lies at the northwestern end of the Indo-Australian Plate, which encompasses India,
Australia, a major portion of the Indian Ocean and other smaller countries. This plate is
colliding against the huge Eurasian Plate and going under the Eurasian Plate; this
process of one tectonic plate getting under another is called subduction. A sea, Tethys,
separated these plates before they collided. Part of the lithosphere, the Earth's Crust, is
covered by oceans and the rest of the continents. The former can undergo subduction at
great depths when it converges against another plate, but the latter is buoyant and so
tends to remain close to the surface. When continents converge, large amounts of
shortening and thickening takes place, like in the Himalayas and the Tibetan. Three chief
tectonic sub-regions of India are the mighty Himalayas along the north, the plains of the
Ganges and other rivers, and the peninsula. The Himalayas consist primarily of sediments
accumulated over long geological time in the Tethys. The Indo-Gangetic basin with deep
alluvium is a great depression caused by the load of the Himalayas on the continent. The
peninsular part of the country consists of ancient rocks deformed in the past Himalayan-
like collisions. Erosion has exposed the roots of the old mountains and removed most of
the topography. The rocks are very hard, but are softened by weathering near the surface.
Before the Himalayan collision, several tens of millions of years ago, lava flowed across
the central part of peninsular India, leaving layers of basalt rock. Coastal areas like
Kachchh show marine deposits testifying to submergence under the sea millions of years
ago.

Seismic Zones of India:

The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of
damaging Earthquakes taking place in different locations are different. Thus, a seismic
zone map is required to identify these regions. Based on the levels of intensities sustained
during damaging past earthquakes, the 1970 version of the zone map subdivided India
into five zones - I, II, III, IV and V. The maximum Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity of
seismic shaking expected in these zones was V or less, VI, VII, VIII, and IX and higher,
respectively. Parts of Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh
area in the west were classified as zone V. The seismic zone maps are revised from time
to time as more understanding is gained on the geology, the seismotectonics and the

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seismic activity in the country. The Indian Standards provided the first seismic zone map
in 1962, which was later revised in 1967 and again in 1970. The map has been revised
again in 2002, and it now has only four seismic zones - II, III, IV and V. The areas falling
in seismic zone I in the 1970 version of the map merge with those of seismic Page 10 of
52 zone II. Also, the seismic zone map in the peninsular region has been modified.
Chennai city, now comes in seismic zone III as against in zone II in the 1970 version of
the map. This 2002 seismic zone map is not the final word on the seismic hazard of the
country, and hence there can be no sense of complacency in this regard.

Earthquake Prediction:

With the present state of knowledge of science, it is not possible to predict earthquakes.
It is so because the physics involved in earthquake genesis is very complex. The
mechanism of earthquake generating processes is still not adequately understood us

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because of involvement of multi-component parameters in earthquake genesis.
Earthquake forecasting and prediction is an active topic of geological research.
Geoscientists are able to identify particular areas of risk and, if there is sufficient
information, to make probabilistic forecasts about the likelihood of earthquakes happening
in a specified area over a specified period. These forecasts are based on data gathered
through global seismic monitoring networks, high-density local monitoring in knowing risk
areas, and geological field work, as well as from historical records. Forecasts are
improved as our theoretical understanding of earthquakes grows, and geological models
are tested against observation. Long-term forecasts (years to decades) are currently
much more reliable than short to medium-term forecasts (days to months). It is not
currently possible to make deterministic predictions of when and where earthquakes will
happen. For this to be possible, it would be necessary to identify a ‘iagnostic precursor’ –
a characteristic pattern of seismic activity or some other physical, chemical or biological
change, which would indicate a high probability of an earthquake happening in a small
window of space and time. So far, the search for diagnostic precursors has been
unsuccessful. Most Geoscientists do not believe that there is a realistic prospect of
accurate prediction in the foreseeable future, and the principal focus of research is on
improving the forecasting of earthquakes.

Important organizations in India

 Ministry of Home Affairs http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/  CESS, (Centre for Earth
Science Studies) http://www.cessind.org/
 GSI, (Geological Society of India) http://www.geosocindia.org/  GSI, (Geological
Survey of India) http://www.gsi.gov.in/
 IMD, (India Meteorological Department) http://www.imd.gov.in/
 NDMA, (National Disaster Management Authority) (India)
http://ndma.gov.in/ndma/index.htm
 NGRI, (National Geophysical Research Institute) http://www.ngri.org.in/
 NICEE,(National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering)
http://www.nicee.org/ www.seedsindia.org
 WIHG, (Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology) http://www.wihg.res.in/

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  Map of earthquakes in India
http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/majorearthquake.htm
 Indian standards on earthquake engineering
http://www.bis.org.in/other/quake.htm
 Seismic codes in India http://www.nicee.org/IITK-GSDMA_Codes.php
 Indian and global information http://www.nicee.org/links.php?id=1

Earthquake Early Warning:

Earthquake early warning (EEW) can provide a few seconds to tens of seconds warning
prior to ground shaking during an earthquake. Several countries, such as Japan, Taiwan,
Mexico have adopted this methodology based on the fact that such warning can (1)
rapidly detect the initiation of an earthquake, (2) determine the size (magnitude) and
location of the event, (3) predict the peak ground motion expected in the region around
the event, and (4) issued a warning to people in locations that may expect significant
ground motion. Prediction of an earthquake is still a subject of speculations yet several
schools of thoughts are available. In the effort to predict earthquakes, people have tried
to associate an impending earthquake with such varied phenomena as seismicity
patterns, electromagnetic fields, weather conditions and unusual clouds, radon or
hydrogen gas content of soil or ground water, water level in wells, animal behavior, and
the phases of the moon.

Disaster Management Plans:

Central ministries, departments and state governments are required to prepare DM plans
to improve earthquake preparedness, mitigation and emergency response in accordance
with these guidelines. A typical DM plan will, inter alia, include aspects of earthquake
management, like identification of all tasks to be undertaken before, during and after an
earthquake; outline the response mechanism with clearly defined roles and
responsibilities of various stakeholders; and identify the available resources to ensure
their effective utilization in the event of an earthquake. The plans will spell out the
strategies for addressing the various tasks relating to earthquake preparedness and
awareness creation, capacity development, monitoring and enforcement of earthquake-

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resistant codes and building byelaws. They will also include emergency response,
earthquake-resistant design and construction of new structures, and selective seismic
strengthening and retrofitting of priority and lifeline structures in earthquake-prone areas.
The India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) database of resource inventories in the
districts will be strengthened by the states through regular updating. States will also
integrate this database with their Disaster Management plans

Guidelines for Earthquake Management:

Central ministries and departments and the state governments will prepare DM plans,
which will have specific components of earthquake management, based on these
Guidelines. These plans will cover all aspects of the entire DM cycle, be reviewed and
updated at periodic intervals and implemented through appropriate, well coordinated and
time bound actions as laid down in these Guidelines. As most development activities,
especially in high seismic risk areas, can enhance earthquake risk unless special efforts
are made to address these concerns, all these agencies will make special efforts to
ensure the incorporation of earthquake-resistant features in the design and construction
of all new buildings and structures.

References:

http://www.nicee.org/EQTips.php

http://www.saarc-sadkn.org/about_earthquake.aspx

http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Education-and-Careers/Resources/Field-Work
Resources/GowerField-Guide/The-structure-of-Gower-five-guided
tours/~/~/link.aspx?_id=01717E64-6124- 4AFE-B50E-B131712902E8&_z=z 4National
Disaster Management Authority, Govt. of India, (2007): National Disaster Management
Guidelines, Management of Earthquakes.

National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India,

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mag_vs_int.php

http://quake.abag.ca.gov/shaking/mmi/

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Landslides:

Landslides are simply defined as down slope movement of rock, debris and/or earth under
the influence of gravity. This sudden movement of material causes extensive damage to
life, economy and environment. It is the most common and universally accepted collective
term for most slope movements of the massive nature. The term has sometimes been
considered unsuitable as the active part of the word denotes sliding, whereas it connotes
even movements without sliding like fall, topple, flow etc.

Vulnerability to landslide hazards is a function of location, type of human activity, use,

and frequency of landslide events. The effects of landslides on people and structures can
be lessened by total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by restricting, prohibiting, or
imposing conditions on hazard-zone activity. Local governments can reduce landslide
effects through land-use policies and regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure
to hazards by educating themselves on the past hazard history of a site and by making
inquiries to planning and engineering departments of local governments. They can also
obtain the professional services of an engineering geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or
a civil engineer, who can properly evaluate the hazard potential of a site, built or unbuilt.

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding construction on steep slopes and
existing landslides, or by stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water is
prevented from rising in the landslide mass by
(1) covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane,
(2) directing surface water away from the landslide,
(3) draining ground water away from the landslide, and
(4) minimizing surface irrigation.
Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/or the weight of a soil/rock
berm are placed at the toe of the landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the
slope.

Global Landslide Hazard Distribution:

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NGI has come up with is a 2.5 minute grid of global landslide and snow avalanche hazards
based upon work of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI). The hazards mapping
of NGI incorporates a range of data including slope, soil, soil moisture conditions,
precipitation, seismicity, and temperature. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
elevation data at 30 seconds resolution are also incorporated. Hazards values 4 and
below are considered negligible and only values 5 through 9 are utilized in further
analyses. To ensure compatibility with other data sets, 1 is added to each of the values
to provide a hazard ranking ranging 6 through 10 in increasing hazard. This data set is
the result of collaboration among the Columbia University Center for Hazards and Risk
Research (CHRR), Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), and Columbia University
Center for International Earth Science and Information Network (CIESIN).

Global Distribution of Landslides

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 Distribution of Landslides in and around Indian subcontinent

Source: (http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/ndh-landslide-hazard-distribution)

Indian Scenario:

Protection of life and properties from landslide disaster is indispensable in creating a safe
environment for the society. The national imperative towards safety due to landslide
initiation is increasing in view of the higher rate of human settlement in the mountain slope
across the country. Landslides are significant amongst those hazards that can easily be
disastrous to human life and property. It is estimated that economic loss due to landslides
may reach between 1-2% of the gross national product in many developing countries.
Evaluating and mitigating the landslide hazard and risk is a major challenge for the
technocrats and decision makers in the developing world as 80% of the reported fatalities
due to landslide is within the developing countries.

In India, about 0.42 million sq. km or 12.6% of land area, excluding snow covered area,
is prone to landslide hazard. Out of this, 0.18 million sq. km falls in North East Himalaya,
including Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalaya; 0.14 million sq. km falls in North West
Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir); 0.09 million sq. km
in Western Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and

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Maharashtra) and 0.01 million sq. km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku area in Andhra Pradesh.
The landslide-prone Himalayan terrain also belongs to the maximum earthquake-prone
zones (Zone-IV and V; BIS 2002) where earthquakes of Modified Mercalli intensity VIII to
IX can occur, and thus, are also prone to earthquake-triggered landslides. The most
recent example is the aftermath of 18 September 2011 Sikkim Earthquake in the Sikkim-
Darjeeling Himalayas. In India, the risk to landslides is high due to ever increasing hill
population and growth of hydropower and related infrastructures. Apart from the above,
the 21st Century- India is also at the cross-roads of a steep curve of infrastructure
development that is continuously focused in connecting remote and morphometrically
difficult places by constructing new roads, bridges, railway lines, tunnels, etc. in both the
peninsular and the fragile extra-peninsular regions. Despite our great demand of such
development, the growing constructional activities in these sectors do bring some
unavoidable ecological imbalances in our environment (e.g., landslides and debris flows),
which if not mitigated properly, can cause/trigger various geo-environmental hazards and
result in obvious loss of lives and property.

Since it is practically impossible to prevent landslides, therefore, task before the scientist,
planner and administrator lies with the identification of hazard-prone areas and their
zonation in different scales for preparedness and mitigation. The primary contribution of
earth-scientists dwells in the area of evaluating the hazards, whereas, the engineers,
planners, public officials and social scientists are more concerned with evaluation and
mitigation of risk. To combat and effectively minimise the impact of landslide related
disaster, need for a rational and objective understanding of the cause and processes of
earth system science is very much necessary.

References:
http://ndma.gov.in/en/#
http://nidm.gov.in/default.asp#
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/

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Dilley, M., R.S. Chen, U. Deichmann, A.L. Lerner-Lam, M. Arnold, J. Agwe, P. Buys, O.
Kjekstad, B. Lyon, and G. Yetman. 2005. Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk
Analysis. Disaster Risk Management Series No. 5. Washington, D.C.
The World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/PT8XJZW3K0.
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/ndh-landslide-hazard-distribution
http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,671641&_dad=portal&_schema=
PORTAL

Avalanche

Snow cover on a slope tends to slide down the slope because of gravity. Conditions
affecting stability include the gravitational force component of the snow and resisting
forces, such as the frictional resistance of the slope or the anchoring effect of shrubs. In
general, avalanches are caused when this balance is lost and when the forces exceed
the resistance. Avalanches are rarely observed closely since they normally occur during
a short time period of one or two minutes. Major Causes - Major causes of avalanches
can be classified into fixed (prime factors) and variable factors (exciting factors), such as
weather conditions and the weight of the snow cover, Avalanches occur when these
factors are combined. The types and scale of avalanches can differ depending on the
combination of these various factors and their scale.

Avalanches Prone Areas in India

The Himalayas are well known for the occurrence of snow avalanches particularly
Western Himalayas i.e. the snowy regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and Uttarakhand.

 Jammu and Kashmir - Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys, Kargil and Ladakh
and some of the major roads

 Himachal Pradesh - Chamba, Kullu- Spiti and Kinnaur vulnerable areas

 Uttarakhand - Parts of Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts are vulnerable areas.

There are three types of snow avalanche zones;

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 Red Zone - The most dangerous zone where snow avalanches are most frequent and
have an impact pressure of more than 3 tonnes per square metre.

 Blue Zone - Where the avalanche force is less than 3 tonnes per square metre and
where living and other activities may be permitted with connection of safe design but such
areas may have to be vacated on warning.

 Yellow Zone - Where snow avalanche occur only occasionally

Global Profile:

Scientists estimate that there are more than 1 million avalanches each year ranging from
snow falling off a roof to entire mountainsides of snow traveling for miles. Each year
avalanches kill 150 people worldwide and some 25 people in the United States

Indian Profile

In India Snow avalanches have long posed a hazard and risk to indigenous population of
the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya mountains. In states like J&K, Himachal Pradesh and
Page 35 of 46 Uttarakhand, avalanches are one of the major natural hazards which take
its toll in terms of human and properties such as communication line, highway, etc.

Avalanche Control Strategies:

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The need for study of snow bound areas has increased manifold with the increasing
necessity of developing communication routes, development of winter tourism,
construction of hydroelectric projects and transmission lines in snow bound areas. Snow
avalanches have long posed a threat to the indigenous populations of the Himalayan and
Trans-Himalayan mountains. Land use intensification due to population growth, new
transportation routes, defence related activities and tourism are raising this level of risk.
Obviously, the most desirable and effective protection against avalanches is to situate
buildings, roads, and other valuable developmental projects in areas free from
avalanches. However, as the population grows and more hazardous sites are considered
for development, advanced planning and strictly enforced zoning and construction
practices appear to be the best solutions. In some cases, even these are not adequate to
completely eliminate the risk of avalanches, and acceptable risks must be defined,
especially in the case of roads, power lines and railroads. These risks can, however, be
reduced considerably if appropriate structural controls are employed. Since avalanche
prone areas can be identified, the safest and probably best mitigation procedure is to
avoid construction of buildings or any type of structure involving winter use in these areas.
Agricultural and recreational activities that take place during the non-avalanche months
are relatively safe. Other uses that could be considered are those that do not involve
permanent unprotected structures in the avalanche path or those that could be moved or
closed down during high avalanche-risk periods.

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http://pistehors.com/backcountry/wiki/Avalanches/Learning-Lessons-From-
http://projectdisaster.com/?m=20080127
http://www.powdermag.com/features/onlineexclusive/waddington_avalanche/
http://www.secretsofsurvival.com/survival/avalanche.aspx
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/avalanche/
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/avalanche/
http://www.theunion.com/article/20070402/NEWS/104020095
http://www.doralpub.com/doral/srchandres.html
http://nsidc.org/snow/avalanche/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/avalanche.shtml
http://www.worldmapper.org/posters/worldmapper_map252_ver5.pdf

Acknowledgement: This note is based on NIDM, Govt. of India guidelines on different

types of disasters. Additionally, it has been greatly enriched by EM-DAT web-based
information. It further takes cues from different publications and websites as mentioned
above.

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