GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

MODULE IV

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
A. SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD
When a shock or impact is made at a point on or in the earth, the resulting seismic (shock or
sound) waves travel through the surrounding soil at speeds related to their elastic
characteristics.
The velocity is given by: v = C √(Eg/ γ )
where, v = velocity of the shock wave, E = modulus of elasticity of the soil, g = acceleration
due to gravity, γ = density of the soil, and C = a dimensionless constant involving Poissons’s
ratio.
The magnitude of the velocity is determined and is utilised to identify the material. A shock
may be created with a sledge hammer hitting a strike plate placed on the ground or by
detonating a small explosive charge at or below the ground surface. The radiating shock waves
are picked up by detectors, called ‘geophones’, placed in a line at increasing distances, d1, d2,
..., from the origin of the shock (The geophone is actually a transducer, an electromechanical
device that detects vibrations and converts them into measurable electric signals). The time
required for the elastic wave to reach each geophone is automatically recorded by a
‘seismograph’. Some of the waves, known as direct or primary waves, travel directly from the
source along the ground surface or through the upper stratum and are picked up first by the
geophone. If the sub soil consists of two or more distinct layers, some of the primary waves
travel down-wards to the lower layer and get refracted as the surface. If the underlying layer is
denser, the refracted waves travel much faster. As the distance from the source and the
geophone increases, the refracted waves reach the geophone earlier than the direct waves.
Figure shows the diagrammatic representation of the travel of the primary and the refracted
waves. The distance of the point at which the primary and refracted waves reach the geophone
simultaneously is called the ‘critical distance’ which is a function of the depth and the velocity
ratio of the strata.
The results are plotted as a distance of travel versus time graph, known as the ‘timetravel
graph’. A simple interpretation is possible if each stratum is of uniform thickness and each
successively deeper stratum has a higher velocity of transmission.

The reciprocal of the slope of the travel-time graph gives the velocity of the wave. The travel-
time graph in the range beyond the critical distance is flatter than that in the range within that
distance. The velocity in this range also can be computed in a similar manner. The break in the
curve represents the point of simultaneous arrival of primary and refracted waves, or the critical
distance.
In terms of the critical distance, dc , and the velocities V1 and V2 in the upper soft layer of
thickness H1 and the lower hard layer respectively, the thickness of the upper layer may be
written as follows:

The method can be extended to any situation with greater number of strata, provided each is
successively harder than the one above. Typical wave velocities are given in Table below.

There are certain significant limitations to the use of the seismic refraction method for
determining the subsurface conditions. These are:
1. The method cannot be used where a hard-layer overlies a soft layer, because there will be no
measurable refraction from a deeper soft layer. Test data from such an area would tend to give
a single-slope line on the travel-time graph, indicating a deep layer of uniform material.
2. The method cannot be used in an area covered by concrete or asphalt pavement, since these
materials represent a condition of hard surface over a softer stratum.
3. A frozen surface layer also may give results similar to the situation of a hard layer over a
soft layer.
4. Discontinuities such as rock faults or earth cuts, dipping or irregular underground rock
surface and the existence of thin layers of varying materials may also cause misinterpretation
of test data.
B. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
Resistivity is a property possessed by all materials. The electrical resistivity method is based
on the fact that in soil and rock materials the resistivity values differ sufficiently to permit that
property to be used for purposes of identification.
Resistivity is usually defined as the resistance between opposite faces of a unit cube of the
material. Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon the water content, compaction and
composition; for example, the resistivity is high for loose dry gravel or solid rock and is low
for saturated silt.
To determine the resistivity at a site, electrical currents are induced into the ground through the
use of electrodes. Soil resistivity can then be measured by determining the change in electrical
potential between known horizontal distances within the electric field created by the current
electrodes.
The Wenner configuration with four equally spaced electrodes is simple and is popularly used.
The four electrodes are placed in a straight line at equal distances as shown below.

A direct voltage, causing a current of 50 to 100 milliamperes typically, is applied between the
outer electrodes and the potential drop is measured between the two inner electrodes by a null-
point circuit that requires no flow of current at the instant of measurement.
In a semi-infinite homogeneous isotropic materials the electrical resistivity, ρ, is given by:
where, D = distance between electrodes (m),
E = potential drop between the inner electrodes (Volts),
I = current flowing between the outer electrodes (Amperes), and
ρ = mean resistivity (ohm/m).
The calculated value is the apparent resistivity, which is a weighted average of all material
within the zone created by the electrical field of the electrodes. The depth of material included
in the measurement (depth of penetration) is approximately the same as the spacing between
the electrodes.
It is necessary to make a preliminary trial on known formations, in order to be in a position to
interpret the resistivity data for knowing the nature and distribution of soil formations. Average
values of resistivity ρ for various rocks, minerals and soils are given in Table below.

Two different field procedures are used to obtain information on subsurface conditions. One
method, known as “electrical profiling”, is well-suited for establishing boundaries between
different underground materials and has practical application in prospecting for sand and gravel
deposits or ore deposits. The second method, called “electrical sounding’, can provide
information on the variation of subsurface conditions with depth and has application in site
investigation for major civil engineering construction. It can also provide information on depth
of water-table.
In electrical profiling, an electrode spacing is selected, and this same spacing is used in running
different profile lines across an area, as in Fig. (a). In electrical sounding, a centre location for
the electrodes is selected and a series of resistivity readings is obtained by systematically
increasing the electrode spacing, as shown in Fig. (b). Thus, information on layering of
materials is obtained as the depth of information recovered is directly related to electrode
sparing. This method is capable of indicating subsurface conditions where a hard-layer
underlies a soft layer and also the situation of a soft layer underlying a hard layer.

The data may be plotted as electrode spacing versus apparent resistivity either in arithmetic or
in logarithmic co-ordinates. A change in the curve indicates change in strata.